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history of Islam as a culture and polity. For the hist ory of the Islamic faith, see Spread of Islam. For Islamic civilization, see Mus lim world. For military conquests, see Islamic conquests. For chronology, see Ti meline of Islamic history. This article is part of a series on: Islam Allah-eser-green.png Beliefs Oneness of God Prophets Revealed books Angels Predestination Day of Resurrection Practices Profession of faith Prayer Fasting Alms Pilgrimage Texts and laws Quran Sunnah Hadith Fiqh Sharia Kalam History and leaders Timeline Muhammad Ahl al-Bayt Sahabah Rashidun Imamate Caliphate Spread of Islam Denominations Sunni Shia Sufism Ibadi Ahmadiyya Nondenominational Quranism NOI Five-Percent Nation Liberal movements within Islam Culture and society Academics Animals Art Calendar Children Dawah Demographics Festivals Mosques Philosophy Politics Science Women Related topics Other religions Islamism Criticism Islamophobia Glossary Portal icon Islam portal v t e The history of Islam concerns the Islamic religion and its adherents, known as M uslims. "Muslim" is an Arabic word meaning "one who submits to God". Muslims and their religion have greatly impacted the political, economic, and military hist ory of the Old World, especially the Middle East, where lie its roots. Though it is believed by non-Muslims to have originated in Mecca and Medina, Muslims beli eve that the religion of Islam has been present since the time of the prophet Ad am. The Islamic world expanded to include people of the Islamic civilisation, in clusive of non-Muslims living in that civilisation. A century after the death of last Islamic prophet Muhammad, the Islamic empire e xtended from Spain in the west to Indus in the east. The subsequent empires such as those of the Abbasids, Fatimids, Almoravids, Seljukids, Ajuuraan, Adal and W arsangali in Somalia, Mughals in India and Safavids in Persia and Ottomans were among the influential and distinguished powers in the world. The Islamic civiliz ation gave rise to many centers of culture and science and produced notable scie ntists, astronomers, mathematicians, doctors, nurses and philosophers during the Golden Age of Islam. Technology flourished; there was investment in economic in frastructure, such as irrigation systems and canals; and the importance of readi ng the Qur'an produced a comparatively high level of literacy in the general pop

ulace. In the later Middle Ages, destructive Mongol invasions from the East, and the lo ss of population in the Black Death, greatly weakened the traditional centre of the Islamic world, stretching from Persia to Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire was a ble to conquer most Arabic-speaking areas, creating an Islamic world power again , although one that was unable to master the challenges of the Early Modern peri od. Later, in modern history (18th and 19th centuries), many Islamic regions fell un der the influence of European Great powers. After the First World War, Ottoman t erritories (a Central Powers member) were partitioned into several nations under the terms of the Treaty of Svres. Although affected by ideologies such as socialism and secularism during much of the 20th century, the Islamic identity and the dominance of Islam on political i ssues intensified during the early 21st century. Global interests in Islamic reg ions, international conflicts and globalization changed the type of Islamic infl uence on the contemporary world.[1] In the contemporary period, a set of ideolog ies holding interpretations of Islamic texts that advocate the unification of re ligion and state has spread, but the ideology has been criticized. Contents 1 Major periods 2 Islamic Origins 3 City-states and Imperial period 4 Universal period and decentralization 4.1 Islamic Golden Age 4.2 Regional powers 4.3 Fatimid Empire 4.4 Berbers and Iberian Umayyads 4.5 The Crusades 4.6 Mongol invasions 4.7 The Mamluks 4.8 Africa 4.9 Horn of Africa 4.10 Asia and the Far East 4.11 Southeast Asia 5 Fragmentation period 5.1 Three Early Modern empires 5.2 Mughal Empire 5.3 Safavid Empire 5.4 Salafi 5.5 Ottoman Empire 5.6 Modern history 5.7 National period 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References and further reading 9 External links Major periods[edit] Main article: Historiography of early Islam The Islamic state and Muslim's system of government evolved through various stag es.[2] The precise dates of various periods in history are more or less arbitrar y. The City-state period lasted from 620s to 630s. The Imperial period lasted fr om 630s to 750s. The Universal period lasted from 750s to around 900s. These cor respond to the early period of post-classical history. The "Decentralization" pe riod lasted from around 900s to the early 1500s. This correspond to the high per iod and late period of post-classical history. The "Fragmentation" period lasted from around 1500s to the late 1910s. The contemporary period, referred to as th e National period, lasted from 1910s into the twenty-first century. Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details.

Further information: Timeline of Muslim history See also: Disputed issues in early Islamic history Islamic Origins[edit] Main articles: Quraysh (tribe), Banu Hashim, Muhammad, and Qu'ran In pre-Islamic Arabia Arab people lived on the Arabian Plate. In the south of He djaz (principal religious and commercial centre of post-classical Arabia), the A rabic tribe of Quraysh (Adnani Arabs), to which Muhammad belonged, had been in e xistence. Near Mecca, the tribe was increasing in power. The Quraysh were the gu ardians of the Kaaba within the town of Mecca and was the dominant tribe of Mecc a upon the appearance of Islam. The Kaaba, at the time, was used as an important pagan shrine. It brought revenues to Mecca because of the multitude of pilgrims that it attracted. Muhammad was born into the Banu Hashim tribe of the Quraysh clan,[3] a branch of the Banu Kinanah tribe, descended from Khuzaimah and derive d its inheritance from the Khuza'imah (House of Khuza'a). Muhammad Kaaban Nakka? Osman, Istanbul (1595) (Ed., note artists began representing the veil-covered face of Muhammad from the 16th century onwards) According to the traditional Islamic view, the Qur'an (Koran) began with revelat ions to Muhammad (when he was 40 years old) in 610. The history of the Qur'an be gan when its verses were revealed to the Sahabah during Muhammad's life. The ris e of Islam began around the time Muslims took flight in the Hijra, moving to Med ina. With Islam, blood feuds among the Arabs lessened. Compensation was paid in money rather than blood and only the culprit was executed. In 628, the Makkah tribe of Quraish and the Muslim community in Medina signed a truce called the Treaty of Hudaybiyya beginning a ten-year period of peace. War returned when the Quraish and their allies, the tribe of 'Bakr', attacked the tr ibe of 'Khuza'ah', who were Muslim allies. In 630, Muslims conquered Mecca. Muha mmad died in June 632. The Battle of Yamama was fought in December of the same y ear, between the forces of the first caliph Abu Bakr and Musailima. See also: Early scholars of Islam City-states and Imperial period[edit] Main articles: Succession to Muhammad and Caliphate After Muhammad died, a series of Caliphs governed the Islamic State: Abu Bakr (6 32-634), Umar ibn al-Khattab (Umar ?, 634-644), Uthman ibn Affan, (644-656), and Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661). These leaders are known as the "Rashidun" or "righ tly guided" Caliphs in Sunni Islam. They oversaw the initial phase of the Muslim conquests, advancing through Persia, Egypt, the Middle East and North Africa. Umar improved the administration and built cities like Basra and canal and irrig ation networks. To be close to the poor, Umar lived in a simple mud hut without doors and walked the streets every evening. After consulting with the poor, Umar established the first welfare state Bayt al-mal.[4][5][6] The Bayt al-mal or th e welfare state was for the Muslim and non-Muslim poor, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for hundreds of years under the R ashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued through the Umayyad period an d well into the Abbasid era. Umar also introduced Child Benefit and Pensions for the children and the elderly.[7][8][9][10] The expansion of the state, was part ially terminated between 638 639 during the years of great famine and plague in Ar abia and Levant respectively. During Umars reign, within 10 years Levant, Egypt, Cyrenaica, Tripolitania, Fezzan, Eastern Anatolia, almost the whole of Sassanid Persian Empire including Bactria, Persia, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Caucasus and Mak ran were incorporated into Islamic State. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. The Qur'an was standardized during this time. Local populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious min orities and taxed heavily to finance the Byzantine Sassanid Wars, often aided Musl

ims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exce ptionally speedy conquests.[11][12] As new areas joining the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade, while trading with other areas in the Islamic S tate, so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed. [13] The Muslims paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina, was drafted by the Islamic prophet Muhammad the Jews and the Christia ns continued to use their own laws in the Islamic State and had their own judges .[14][15][16] Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the P ersian tax collection systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax low er than the one imposed under the Byzantines and the Persians. In 639, Muawiyah I was appointed as the governor of Syria after the previous gov ernor Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah died in a plague along with 25,000 other people. [17][18] To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah I set up a navy; manned by Monophysitise Christians, Copt s and Jacobite Syrian Christians sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.[19][20][21][22][23] When Umar was assassinated in 644, Uthman Ibn Affan became the next caliph. As i t is well known that Arabic language is written without vowels, and when Qur'an reached the non-Arabic speakers, people began having different dielects and phon ics which was changing the exact meaning of verses in the Qur'an. This was broug ht to the notice of Uthman Ibn Affan. Begun in the time of Uthman ibn Affan, the compilation of the Qur'an was finished sometime between 650 and 656, Uthman sen t copies to the different centers of the expanding Islamic empire. From then on, thousands of Muslim scribes began copying the Qur'an.[24] The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The F arewell Sermon.[25][26][27][28][29][30][31] Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the old tribal differences betwe en the Arabs started to resurface. Following the Roman Persian Wars and the Byzant ine Sassanid Wars deep rooted differences between Iraq, formally under the Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria formally under the Byzantine Empire also existed. Eac h wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. [32] Previously, the second caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his s pies kept an eye on the governors. If he felt that a governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required administrative standa rds, he had him removed from his position.[33] Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared t hat they may get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they may get aw ay from the worship of God and become attracted to wealth and start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.[34][35][36][37] "Wealth and children are [bu t] adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and better for [one's] hope." Qur'an 18:46 [38] "O you who have believed, let not your wealth and your children divert you from remembrance of Allah . And whoever does that - then those are the losers." Qur'an 63:9 [39] Sta ying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no st ress on the population and also that the populations remained autonomous and kep t their own judges and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew int o cities themselves, like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt.[40] Some c ities also had agreements with the Muslims, such as during the Siege of Jerusale m in 637 CE. As Uthman ibn al-Affan became very old, Marwan I a relative of Muawiyah I slippe d into the vacuum and became his secretary and slowly assumed more control and r elaxed some of these restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from po sitions of responsibility. In 656, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sad iq showed some Egyptians, the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later the Egyptians ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan.[41] Ali then assumed the position of calip h and moved the capital to Kufa in Iraq. Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a rel ative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the culprits arrested. Marwan I

manipulated every one and created conflict. This later resulted in the first ci vil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Six mont hs later in 661, in the interest of peace, Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for hi s wisdom and as a peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis an d the Second Imam for the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made a peace treat y with Muawiyah I. In the Hasan-Muawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the people and keep them safe and secure and after his death he does not establish a dynasty.[42][43] This brough t to an end the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn A li was also the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph. Following this, Mu'awiya h broke the conditions of the agreement and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.[44] After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over successio n broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". After making every one else fight,[45] the Umayyad dynasty later fell into the hands of Marwan I w ho was also an Umayyad. The Umayyads conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsul a, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[46] After the peace treaty with Ali's son, Hassan ibn Ali, and the suppression of th e revolt of the Kharijites,[47] Muawiyah I proclaimed himself Caliph in 661 and began consolidating power.[48] In 663, a new Kharijite revolt resulted in the de ath of their chief.[48] In 664, Muawiyah and Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan reached an agr eement: the Caliph recognised Ziyad as a brother and appointed him governor at B asra. Ziyad took the name ibn Abi Sufyan. Muawiyah arranged for his son Yazid I to be appointed caliph on his death, which came in 680. Husain ibn Ali, by then Muhammad's only living grandson, refused to swear allegiance to Yazid. He was ki lled in the Battle of Karbala the same year, an event still mourned by Muslims o n the Day of Ashura. Unrest continued in the Second Fitna, but Muslim rule was e xtended under Muawiyah to Rhodes, Crete, Kabul, Bukhara, and Samarkand, and expa nded in North Africa. In 664, Arab armies conquered Kabul,[49] and in 665 pushed into the Maghreb.[50] Succession and Umayyad accession Consult particular article for details The Umayyad dynasty (or Ommiads), whose name derives from Umayya ibn Abd Shams, the great-grandfather of the first Umayyad caliph, ruled from 661 to 750. Althou gh the Umayyad family came from the city of Mecca, Damascus was the capital. Aft er the death of Abdu'l-Rahman ibn Abu Bakr in 666,[51][52] Muawiyah I consolidat ed his power. Muawiyah I moved his capital to Damascus from Medina, which led to profound changes in the empire. In the same way, at a later date, the transfer of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad marked the accession of a new family t o power. As the state grew, the state expenses increased. Additionally the Bayt al-mal an d the Welfare State expenses to assist the Muslim and the non-Muslim poor, needy , elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled, increased, the Umayyads asked the new converts (mawali) to continue paying the poll tax. The Umayyad rule, with it s wealth and luxury also seemed at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muh ammad.[53][54][55] All this increased discontent.[56][57] The descendants of Muh ammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the gen eral Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750, which moved the capita l to Baghdad.[58] A branch of the Ummayad family fled across North Africa to AlAndalus, where they established the Caliphate of Crdoba, which lasted until 1031 before falling due to the Fitna of al-ndalus. The Bayt al-mal, the Welfare State then continued under the Abbasids. At its largest extent, the Umayyad dynasty covered more than 5,000,000 square mi les (13,000,000 km2) making it one of the largest empires the world had yet seen ,[59] and the fifth largest contiguous empire ever. After the Umayyads were over thrown by the Abbasid Caliphate, they fled across North Africa to Al-Andalus, wh ere they established the Caliphate of Crdoba, which lasted until 1031 with the Fi tna of al-ndalus.

The Mosque of Uqba (Great Mosque of Kairouan), founded by the Umayyad general Uq ba Ibn Nafi in 670 AD, is the oldest and most prestigious mosque in the Muslim W est; its present form dates from the 9th century, Kairouan, Tunisia. Muawiyah beautified Damascus, and developed a court to rival that of Constantino ple. He expanded the frontiers of the empire, reaching the edge of Constantinopl e at one point, though the Byzantines drove him back and he was unable to hold a ny territory in Anatolia. Sunni Muslims credit him with saving the fledgling Mus lim nation from post-civil war anarchy. However, Shia Muslims accuse him of inst igating the war, weakening the Muslim nation by dividing the Ummah, fabricating self-aggrandizing heresies[60] slandering the Prophet's family[61] and even sell ing his Muslim critics into slavery in the Byzantine empire.[62] One of Muawiyah 's most controversial and enduring legacies was his decision to designate his so n Yazid as his successor. According to Shi'a doctrine, this was a clear violatio n of the treaty he made with Hasan ibn Ali. In 682 AD Yazid restored Uqba ibn Nafi as the governor of North Africa. Uqba won battles against the Berbers and Byzantines.[63] From there Uqba marched thousan ds of miles westward towards Tangier, where he reached the Atlantic coast, and t hen marched eastwards through the Atlas Mountains.[64] With about 300 cavalrymen , he proceeded towards Biskra where he was ambushed by a Berber force under Kais ala. Uqba and all his men died fighting. The Berbers attacked and drove Muslims from north Africa for a period.[65] Weakened by the civil wars the Umayyad lost supremacy at sea, and had to abandon the islands of Rhodes and Crete. Under the rule of Yazid I, some Muslims in Kufa began to think that if Hussein ibn Ali the descendent of Muhammad was their ruler, he would have been more just. He was in vited to Kufa but was later betrayed and killed. Later this concept was taken on e step further and they started thinking, what if history took a different cours e and Ali was the first caliph and these ideas were later adopted by some Shia a nd institutionalised by the Safavids. Dome of the Rock The Mosque of Omar, on Ash-Haram Al-Sharif (the Temple Mount), built by Abd al-M alik; completed at the end of the Second Fitna. The period under Muawiya II was marked by civil wars (Second Fitna). This would ease in the reign of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, a well-educated and capable ruler. Despite the many political problems that impeded his rule, all important record s were translated into Arabic. In his reign, a currency for the Muslim world was minted. This led to war with the Byzantine Empire under Justinian II (Battle of Sebastopolis) in 692 in Asia Minor. The Byzantines were decisively defeated by the Caliph after the defection of a large contingent of Slavs. The Islamic curre ncy was then made the exclusive currency in the Muslim world. He reformed agricu lture and commerce. Abd al-Malik consolidated Muslim rule and extended it, made Arabic the state language, and organized a regular postal service. Al-Walid I began the next stage of Islamic conquests. Under him the early Islami c empire reached its farthest extent. He reconquered parts of Egypt from the Byz antine Empire and moved on into Carthage and across to the west of North Africa. Muslim armies under Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and began t o conquer Spain using North African Berber armies. The Visigoths of Spain were d efeated when the Umayyad conquered Lisbon. Spain was the farthest extent of Isla mic control of Europe (they were stopped at the Battle of Tours). In the east, I slamic armies under Muhammad bin Qasim made it as far as the Indus Valley. Under Al-Walid, the caliphate empire stretched from Spain to India. Al-Hajjaj bin You sef played a crucial role in the organization and selection of military commande rs. Al-Walid paid great attention to the expansion of an organized military, bui lding the strongest navy in the Umayyad era., This tactic was crucial for the ex pansion to Spain. His reign is considered to be the apex of Islamic power. Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik was hailed as caliph the day al-Walid died. He appoint ed Yazid ibn al-Muhallab governor of Mesopotamia. Sulayman ordered the arrest an d execution of the family of al-Hajjaj, one of two prominent leaders (the other

was Qutaibah bin Muslim) who had supported the succession of al-Walid's son Yazi d, rather than Sulayman. Al-Hajjaj had predeceased al-Walid, so he posed no thre at. Qutaibah renounced allegiance to Sulayman, though his troops rejected his ap peal to revolt. They killed him and sent his head to Sulayman. Sulayman did not move to Damascus on becoming Caliph, remaining in Ramla. Sulayman sent Maslamah ibn Abd al-Malik to attack the Byzantine capital (siege of Constantinople). The intervention of Bulgaria on the Byzantine side proved decisive. The Muslims sust ained heavy losses. Sulayman died suddenly in 717. Yazid II came to power on the death of Umar II. Yazid fought the Kharijites, wit h whom Umar had been negotiating, and killed the Kharijite leader Shawdhab. In Y azid's reign, civil wars began in different parts of the empire.[66] Yazid expan ded the Caliphate's territory into the Caucasus, before dying in 724. Inheriting the caliphate from his brother, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik ruled an empire with ma ny problems. He was effective in addressing these problems, and in allowing the Umayyad empire to continue as an entity. His long rule was an effective one, and renewed reforms introduced by Umar II. Under Hisham's rule, regular raids again st the Byzantines continued. In North Africa, Kharijite teachings combined with local restlessness to produce a significant Berber revolt. He was also faced wit h a revolt by Zayd bin Ali. Hisham suppressed both revolts. The Abbasids continu ed to gain power in Khurasan and Iraq. However, they were not strong enough to m ake a move yet. Some were caught and punished or executed by eastern governors. The Battle of Akroinon, a decisive Byzantine victory, was during the final campa ign of the Umayyad dynasty.[67] Hisham died in 743. Al-Walid II saw political intrigue during his reign. Yazid III spoke out against his cousin Walid's "immorality" which included discrimination on behalf of the Banu Qays Arabs against Yemenis and non-Arab Muslims, and Yazid received further support from the Qadariya and Murji'iya (believers in human free will).[68] Wal id was shortly thereafter deposed in a coup.[69] Yazid disbursed funds from the treasury and acceded to the Caliph. He explained that he had rebelled on behalf of the Book of Allah and the Sunna. Yazid reigned for only six months, while var ious groups refused allegiance and dissident movements arose, after which he die d. Ibrahim ibn al-Walid, named heir apparent by his brother Yazid III, ruled for a short time in 744, before he abdicated. Marwan II ruled from 744 until he was killed in 750. He was the last Umayyad ruler to rule from Damascus. Marwan name d his two sons Ubaydallah and Abdallah heirs. He appointed governors and asserte d his authority by force. Anti-Umayyad feeling was very prevalent, especially in Iran and Iraq. The Abbasids had gained much support. Marwan's reign as caliph w as almost entirely devoted to trying to keep the Umayyad empire together. His de ath signalled the end of Umayyad rule in the East, and was followed by the massa cre of Umayyads by the Abbasids. Almost the entire Umayyad dynasty was killed, e xcept for the talented prince Abd ar-Rahman who escaped to Spain and founded a d ynasty there. Universal period and decentralization[edit] Islamic Golden Age[edit] Main articles: Abbasid and Islamic Golden Age The Abbasid dynasty rose to power in 750, consolidating the gains of the earlier Caliphates. Initially, they conquered Mediterranean islands including the Balea rics and Sicily.[70] The ruling party had come to power on the wave of dissatisf action with the Umayyads, cultivated by the Abbasid revolutionary Abu Muslim.[71 ][72] Under the Abbasids Islamic civilization flourished. Most notable was the d evelopment of Arabic prose and poetry, termed by The Cambridge History of Islam as its "golden age".[73] Commerce and industry (considered a Muslim Agricultural Revolution) and the arts and sciences (considered a Muslim Scientific Revolutio n) also prospered under Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur (ruled 754 775), Harun al-Rash id (ruled 786 809), al-Ma'mun (ruled 809 813) and their immediate successors.[74 ] Islamic States Universal Golden period

Eastern hemisphere's States and Empires (820) Abbasid Caliphate Aghlabids Idrisid dynasty Multan Sultans of Sindh Iberian Umayyads Decentralized territory Umayyads (Crdoba) Idrisids (Berbers) Rustamid (Ib?diyya of Tahirid) Aghlabids (Emirate of Ifriqiya) Tulunids/Irshkids Qarmatians (Carmathians) Buyjids (Tahirids) Alijds (Ziyarids) Hamdanid (Marwanid/Uqaylid) Samanids (Greater Khorasan) Saffrids (Baloch) Sajids (Shirvanshah) Regions are approximate, consult particular article for details. The capital was moved from Damascus to Baghdad, due to the importance placed by the Abbasids upon eastern affairs in Persia and Transoxania.[74] At this time th e caliphate showed signs of fracture amid the rise of regional dynasties. Althou gh the Umayyad family had been killed by the revolting Abbasids, one family memb er, Abd ar-Rahman I, escaped to Spain and established an independent caliphate t here in 756. In the Maghreb, Harun al-Rashid appointed the Arab Aghlabids as vir tually autonomous rulers, although they continued to recognise central authority . Aghlabid rule was short-lived, and they were deposed by the Shiite Fatimid dyn asty in 909. By around 960, the Fatimids had conquered Abbasid Egypt, building a capital there in 973 called "al-Qahirah" (meaning "the planet of victory", know n today as Cairo). In Persia the Turkic Ghaznavids snatched power from the Abbas ids.[75][76] Abbasid influence had been consumed by the Great Seljuq Empire (a M uslim Turkish clan which had migrated into mainland Persia) by 1055.[74] Expansion continued, sometimes by force, sometimes by peaceful proselytising.[70 ] The first stage in the conquest of India began just before the year 1000. By s 1209) years later, the area up to the Ganges river had fallen ome 200 (from 1193 . In sub-Saharan West Africa, Islam was established just after the year 1000. Mu slim rulers were in Kanem starting from sometime between 1081 to 1097, with repo rts of a Muslim prince at the head of Gao as early as 1009. The Islamic kingdoms associated with Mali reached prominence in the 13th century.[77] The Abbasids developed initiatives aimed at greater Islamic unity. Different sec ts of the Islamic faith and mosques, separated by doctrine, history, and practic e, were pushed to cooperate. The Abbasids also distinguished themselves from the Umayyads by attacking the Umayyads' moral character and administration. Accordi ng to Ira Lapidus, "The Abbasid revolt was supported largely by Arabs, mainly th e aggrieved settlers of Marw with the addition of the Yemeni faction and their M awali".[78] The Abbasids also appealed to non-Arab Muslims, known as mawali, who remained outside the kinship-based society of the Arabs and were perceived as a lower class within the Umayyad empire. Islamic ecumenism, promoted by the Abbas ids, refers to the idea of unity of the Ummah in the literal meaning: that there was a single faith. Islamic philosophy developed as the Shariah was codified, a nd the four Madhabs were established. This era also saw the rise of classical Su fism. Religious achievements included completion of the canonical collections of Hadith of Sahih Bukhari and others.[79] Islam recognized to a certain extent th e validity of the Abrahamic religions, the Qur'an identifying Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and "Sabi'un" or "baptists" (usually taken as a reference to the M

andeans and related Mesopotamian groups) as "people of the book". Toward the beg inning of the high Middle Ages, the doctrines of the Sunni and Shia, two major d enominations of Islam, solidified and the divisions of the world theologically w ould form. These trends would continue into the Fatimid and Ayyubid periods. Politically, the Abbasid Caliphate evolved into an Islamic monarchy (unitary sys tem of government.) The regional Sultanate and Emirate governors' existence, val idity, or legality were acknowledged for unity of the state.[80] In the early Is lamic philosophy of the Iberian Umayyads, Averroes presented an argument in The Decisive Treatise, providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology; thus, Averroism has been considered a precursor to modern secularism.[81][82] Golden Baghdad Abbasids[edit] Early Middle Ages Consult particular article for details According to Arab sources in the year 750, Al-Saffah, the founder of the Abbasid Caliphate, launched a massive rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate from the province of Khurasan near Talas. After eliminating the entire Umayyad family and achieving victory at the Battle of the Zab, Al-Saffah and his forces marched in to Damascus and founded a new dynasty. His forces confronted many regional power s and consolidated the realm of the Abbasid Caliphate.[83] In Al-Mansur's time, Persian scholarship emerged. Many non-Arabs converted to Is lam. The Umayyads actively discouraged conversion in order to continue the colle ction of the jizya, or the tax on non-Muslims. Islam nearly doubled within its t erritory from 8% of residents in 750 to 15% by the end of Al-Mansur's reign. AlMahdi, whose name means "Rightly-guided" or "Redeemer", was proclaimed caliph wh en his father was on his deathbed. Baghdad blossomed during Al-Mahdi's reign, be coming the world's largest city. It attracted immigrants from Arabia, Iraq, Syri a, Persia and as far away as India and Spain. Baghdad was home to Christians, Je ws, Hindus, and Zoroastrians, in addition to the growing Muslim population. Like his father, Al-Hadi[84] was open to his people and allowed citizens to address him in the palace at Baghdad. He was considered an "enlightened ruler", and cont inued the policies of his Abbasid predecessors. His short rule was plagued by mi litary conflicts and internal intrigue. An Arabic manuscript written under the second half of the Abbasid Era. The military conflicts subsided as Harun al-Rashid ruled.[85] His reign was mark ed by scientific, cultural and religious prosperity. He established the library Bayt al-Hikma ("House of Wisdom"), and the arts and music flourished during his reign. The Barmakid family played a decisive advisorial role in establishing the Caliphate, but declined during Rashid's rule.[86] According to signed pledges during a pilgrimage to Mecca, Al-Amin received the C aliphate from his father Harun Al-Rashid. Al-Amin faced internal rebellions. Gen eral Tahir ibn Husayn rebelled and besieged Baghdad. Tahir led reinforcements to regain positions lost by another officer. When Tahir pushed into the city, Al-A min sought to negotiate safe passage. Tahir agreed on the condition Al-Amin turn over his sceptre, seal and other signs that he was caliph. Al-Amin tried to lea ve on a boat and rejected warnings that he wait. Tahir's forces attacked the boa t and Al-Amin was thrown into the water. He swam to shore where he was captured and executed. His head was placed on the Al Anbar Gate.[87] Regional powers[edit] The Abbasids soon became caught in a three-way rivalry among Coptic Arabs, IndoPersians, and immigrant Turks.[88] In addition, the cost of running a large empi re became too great.[89] The Turks, Egyptians, and Arabs adhered to the Sunnite sect; the Persians, a great portion of the Turkic groups, and several of the pri nces in India were Shia. The political unity of Islam began to disintegrate. Und er the influence of the Abbasid caliphs, independent dynasties appeared in the M uslim world and the caliphs recognized such dynasties as legitimately Muslim. Th e first was the Tahirid dynasty in Khorasan, which was founded during the caliph

Al-Ma'mun's reign. Similar dynasties included the Saffarids, Samanids, Ghaznavi ds and Seljuqs. During this time, advancements were made in the areas of astrono my, poetry, philosophy, science, and mathematics.[90] High Baghdad Abbasids[edit] Early Middle Ages Consult particular article for details Upon Al-Amin's death, Al-Ma'mun became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid em pire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.[91] Al-Ma'mun had b een named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the c aliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his lo yalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became pow erful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal powe r. The rising power of the Tahirid dynasty became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own po licies alienated them and other opponents. Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi pr oclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also cla imed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the Mihna, the Abbasid inquisition which he intr oduced in 833 four months before he died.[92] The Ulama emerged as a force in Is lamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The Ulema and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In par allel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences betwe en Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced. During the Al-Ma'mun regime, border wars increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in Sardis. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with to lerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.[93] His scientists origi nated alchemy. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the cal iph ordered the breaching of the Great Pyramid of Giza to search for knowledge a nd treasure. Workers tunneled in near where tradition located the original entra nce. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was s ucceeded by his half-brother, Al-Mu'tasim, rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn AlMa'mun. As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems f acing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim over came the rebels and secured a significant victory. Byzantine emperor Theophilus launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who m et and defeated Theophilus' forces at the Battle of Anzen. On his return he beca me aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and ghilman slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the Maml uk system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly d eclined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's l ife there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels. During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid dynasty continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independ ence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim foll owed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mat hematician Al-Kindi was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al -Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geom etry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.[94] Al-Wathiq succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria , Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execut ion of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He a lso secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of sc

holars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to h ave composed over one hundred songs.[95] Minaret at the Great Mosque of Samarra. When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, Al-Mutawakkil succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the l ast great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Muta wakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the Great Mosque of Samarra[96] as p art of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met fa mous Byzantine theologian Constantine the Philosopher, who was sent to strengthe n diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by Emperor Michael I II. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his act ions against minorities. The Sh??i faced repression embodied in the destruction of the shrine of Hussayn ibn ?Al?, an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notab ly capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Tur kish soldier. Al-Muntasir succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the T urkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al -Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for t he murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown cause s. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing Al-Musta' in. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depen ded on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to Al -Mu'tazz but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turk s, becoming the youngest Abbasaid Caliph to assume power. High Abbasids Jurisprudence Four constructions of Islamite law Abu Hanifa (Iraq teacher) Malik bin Anas (Medina Imam) Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i (Egyptian Iman) Ahmad ibn Hanbal (Baghdad teacher) Early Abbasids Literature and Science Hunayn ibn Ishaq, physician, Greek translator; Ibn Fadlan, explorer; Al Battani, astronomer; Tabari, historian and theologian; Al-Razi, philosopher, medic, chemist; Al-Farabi, chemist and philosopher; Abu Nasr Mansur, mathematician; Alhazen, mathematician; Al-Biruni, mathematician, astronomer, physicist; Omar Khayym, poet, mathematician, and astronomer; Mansur Al-Hallaj, Sufism mystic, writer and teacher Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At Samarra, the Turks were having problems with t he "Westerns" (Berbers and Moors), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his b rothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutall y deposed shortly thereafter. Al-Muhtadi became the next Caliph. He was firm and

virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. Al-Mu'tamid followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the Zanj Rebellion, Al-Mu'tamid summoned al-Muwaffak to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in a ll but name. The Hamdanid dynasty was founded by Hamdan ibn Hamdun when he was a ppointed governor of Mardin in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, al-Mu'tadid, and never regained power. The Tu lunids became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time. Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Me sopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the U mayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, s ome of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kh arijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's dea th, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, Al-Muktafi, succeeded to the throne. Al-Muktafi became a favorite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishin g his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Cali phate overcame threats such as the Carmathians. Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vaz ir next chose Al-Muqtadir. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thir teen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul t hrew off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognise the Caliphate, including those who virtual ly claimed independence. At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress Zoe Karbonopsina presse d for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim pr isoner[97] while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was agai n placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother al-Qahir. He was even worse. R efusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison. His son Ar-Radi took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised fo r his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, Ibn Raik (amir al-umara; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his na me was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the Hanba lis, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition '. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to del iver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philoso phers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of St ate; to distribute alms, or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids. In the late mid-930s, the Ikhshidids of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" re flecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first govern or (Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gav e him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Sog hdian for "prince". Also in the 930s, Al? ibn B?yah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and A?mad founded the B?yid confederation. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziy ?r?ds of ?abarist?n, Al? was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Y?q?t in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gai ned control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular autho rity of the caliph in Baghdad. The B?yids made large territorial gains. Fars and Jibal were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the B?yids took Ker m?n (967), Oman (967), the Jaz?ra (979), ?abarist?n (980), and Gorgan (981). Aft er this the B?yids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation grad ually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto indepe ndent.[98] Middle Baghdad Abbasids[edit] Early High Middle Ages

Consult particular article for details Mediterrean Region and the States of the Crusades Regional States, ca. 1180. Almohad Dominion Kingdom of Sicily Fatimid Caliphate Abbasid Caliphate Sm. Turkic states Crusader states Komnenian Byzantines Kingdom of Hungary At the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Caliphate had become of lit tle importance. The amir al-umara Bajkam contented himself with dispatching his secretary to Baghdad to assemble local dignitaries to elect a successor. The cho ice fell on Al-Muttaqi. Bajkam was killed on a hunting party by marauding Kurds. In the ensuing anarchy in Baghdad, Ibn Raik persuaded the Caliph to flee to Mos ul where he was welcomed by the Hamdanids. They assassinated Ibn Raik. Hamdanid Nasir al-Dawla advanced on Baghdad, where mercenaries and well-organised Turks r epelled them. Turkish general Tuzun became amir al-umara. The Turks were staunch Sunnis. A fresh conspiracy placed the Caliph in danger. Hamdanid troops helped ad-Daula escape to Mosul and then to Nasibin. Tuzun and the Hamdanid were stalem ated. Al-Muttaqi was at Ar Raqqah, moving to Tuzun where he was deposed. Tuzun i nstalled the blinded Caliph's cousin as successor, with the title of Al-Mustakfi . With the new Caliph, Tuzun attacked the Buwayhid dynasty and the Hamdanids. So on after, Tuzun died, and was succeeded by one of his generals, Abu Ja'far. The Buwayhids then attacked Baghdad, and Abu Ja'far fled into hiding with the Caliph . Buwayhid Sultan Muiz ud-Daula assumed command forcing the Caliph into abject s ubmission to the Amir. Eventually, Al-Mustakfi was blinded and deposed. The city fell into chaos, and the Caliph's palace was looted.[99] Significant Middle Abbasid Muslims Ibn Rushd (Averoes), philosopher; al-Farabi, Persian (Soghdian) philosopher; Al-Mutanebbi, Arabic poet; Abu Ali Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna), physician, philosopher, and sci entist Once the Buwayhids controlled Baghdad, Al-Muti became caliph. The office was sho rn of real power and Shi'a observances were established. The Buwayhids held on B aghdad for over a century. Throughout the Buwayhid reign the Caliphate was at it s lowest ebb, but was recognized religiously, except in Iberia. Buwayhid Sultan Mu'izz al-Dawla was prevented from raising a Shi'a Caliph to the throne by fear for his own safety, and fear of rebellion, in the capital and beyond.[100] The next Caliph, Al-Ta'i, reigned over factional strife in Syria among the Fatim ids, Turks, and Carmathians. The Hideaway dynasyty also fractured. The Abbasid b orders were the defended only by small border states. Baha' al-Dawla, the Buyid amir of Iraq, deposed al-Ta'i in 991 and proclaimed al-Qadir the new caliph.[101 ] During al-Qadir's Caliphate, Mahmud of Ghazni looked after the empire. The great Mahmud of Ghazni, of Eastern fame, was friendly towards the Caliphs, and his vi ctories in the Indian Empire were accordingly announced from the pulpits of Bagh dad in grateful and glowing terms. Al-Qadir fostered the Sunni struggle against Shi?ism and outlawed heresies such as the Baghdad Manifesto and the doctrine tha t the Qu'ran was created. He outlawed the Mu?tazila, bringing an end to the deve lopment of rationalist Muslim philosophy. During this and the next period, Islam ic literature, especially Persian literature, flourished under the patronage of the Buwayhids.[102] By 1000 the global Muslim population had climbed to about 4 per cent of the world total compared to the Christian population of 10 per cent.

During Al-Qa'im's reign, the Buwayhid ruler often fled the capital and the Selju q dynasty gained power. Toghrl overran Syria and Armenia. He then made his way in to the Capital, where he was well-received both by chiefs and people. In Bahrain , the Qarmatian state collapsed in Al-Hasa. Arabia recovered from the Fatimids a nd again acknowledged the spiritual jurisdiction of the Abbasids. Al-Muqtadi was honored by the Seljuq Sultan Malik-Shah I, during whose reign the Caliphate was recognized throughout the extending range of Seljuq conquest. The Sultan was cr itical of the Caliph's interference in affairs of state, but died before deposin g the last of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids.[103] Late Baghdad Abbasids[edit] Late High Middle Ages Consult particular article for details Al-Aqsa Mosque Plan of Al-Aqsa Mosque, year 985

Dome of Al Aqsa Mousque The Late Baghdad Abbasids reigned from the beginning of the Crusades to the Seve nth Crusade. The first Caliph was Al-Mustazhir. He was politically irrelevant, d espite civil strife at home and the First Crusade in Syria. Raymond IV of Toulou se attempted to attack Baghdad, losing at the Battle of Manzikert. The global Mu slim population climbed to about 5 per cent as against the Christian population of 11 per cent by 1100. Jerusalem was captured by crusaders who massacred its in habitants. Preachers travelled throughout the caliphate proclaiming the tragedy and rousing men to recover the Al-Aqsa Mosque from the Franks (European Crusader s). Crowds of exiles rallied for war against the infidel. Neither the Sultan nor the Caliph sent an army west.[104] Al-Mustarshid achieved more independence while the sultan Mahmud II of Great Sel juq was engaged in war in the East. The Banu Mazyad (Mazyadid State) general, Du bays ibn Sadaqa[105] (emir of Al-Hilla), plundered Bosra and attacked Baghdad to gether with a young brother of the sultan, Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. Dubays was cru shed by a Seljuq army under Zengi, founder of the Zengid dynasty. Mahmud's death was followed by a civil war between his son Dawud, his nephew Mas'ud and the at abeg Toghrul II. Zengi was recalled to the East, stimulated by the Caliph and Du bays, where he was beaten. The Caliph then laid siege to Mosul for three months without success, resisted by Mas'ud and Zengi. It was nonetheless a milestone in the caliphate's military revival.[106] After the siege of Damascus (1134),[107] Zengi undertook operations in Syria. Al -Mustarshid attacked sultan Mas'ud of western Seljuq and was taken prisoner. He was later found murdered.[108] His son, Al-Rashid failed to gain independence fr om Seljuq Turks. Zengi, because of the murder of Dubays, set up a rival Sultanat e. Mas'ud attacked; the Caliph and Zengi, hopeless of success, escaped to Mosul. The Sultan regained power, a council was held, the Caliph was deposed, and his uncle, son of Al-Muqtafi, appointed as the new Caliph. Ar-Rashid fled to Isfahan and was killed by Hashshashins.[109] Continued disunion and contests between Seljuq Turks allowe4d al-Muqtafi to main tain control in Baghdad and to extend it throughout Iraq. In 1139, al-Muqtafi gr anted protection to the Nestorian patriarch Abdisho III. While the Crusade raged , the Caliph successfully defended Baghdad against Muhammad II of Seljuq in the Siege of Baghdad (1157). The Sultan and the Caliph dispatched men in response to Zengi's appeal, but neither the Seljuqs, nor the Caliph, nor their Amirs, dared resist the Crusaders. The next caliph, Al-Mustanjid, saw Saladin extinguish the Fatimid dynasty after 260 years, and thus the Abbasids again prevailed. Al-Mustadi reigned when Saladi n become the sultan of Egypt and declared allegiance to the Abbasids. An-Nasir, "The Victor for the Religion of God", attempted to restore the Calipha

te to its ancient dominant role. He consistently held Iraq from Tikrit to the Gu lf without interruption. His forty-seven year reign was chiefly marked by ambiti ous and corrupt dealings with the Tartar chiefs, and by his hazardous invocation of the Mongols, which ended his dynasty. His son, Az-Zahir, was Caliph for a sh ort period before his death and An-Nasir's grandson, Al-Mustansir, was made cali ph. Al-Mustansir founded the Mustansiriya Madrasah. In 1236 gedei Khan commanded to r aise up Khorassan and populated Herat. The Mongol military governors mostly made their camp in Mughan plain, Azerbaijan. The rulers of Mosul and Cilician Armeni a surrendered. Chormaqan divided the Transcaucasia region into three districts b ased on military hierarchy.[110] In Georgia, the population were temporarily div ided into eight tumens.[111] By 1237 the Mongol Empire had subjugated most of Pe rsia, excluding Abbasid Iraq and Ismaili strongholds, and all of Afghanistan and Kashmir.[112] Al-Musta'sim was the last Abbasid Caliph in Baghdad and is noted for his opposit ion to the rise of Shajar al-Durr to the Egyptian throne during the Seventh Crus ade. To the east, Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan swept through the Transoxiana and Khorasan. Baghdad was sacked and the caliph deposed soon afterwards. The Mam luk sultans and Syria later appointed a powerless Abbasid Caliph in Cairo. Cairo Abbasid Caliphs[edit] Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo Late Middle Ages Consult particular article for details The Abbasid "shadow" caliph of Cairo reigned under the tutelage of the Mamluk su ltans and nominal rulers used to legitimize the actual rule of the Mamluk sultan s. All the Cairene Abbasid caliphs who preceded or succeeded Al-Musta'in were sp iritual heads lacking any temporal power. Al-Musta'in was the only Cairo-based A bbasid caliph to even briefly hold political power. Al-Mutawakkil III was the la st "shadow" caliph. In 1517, Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanat e, and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire.[113][114] Fatimid Empire[edit] Main article: Fatimids The Al-Hakim Mosque Cairo, Egypt; south of Bab Al-Futuh "Islamic Cairo" building was named after Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, built by Fatimid vizier Gawhar Al-Siqilli, and extended by Badr al-Jamali. The Fatimids originated in Ifriqiya (modern-day Tunisia and eastern Algeria). Th e dynasty was founded in 909 by ?Abdull?h al-Mahd? Billah, who legitimised his c laim through descent from Muhammad by way of his daughter F?tima as-Zahra and he r husband ?Al? ibn-Ab?-T?lib, the first Sh??a Im?m, hence the name al-F?timiyy?n "Fatimid".[115] The Fatamids and the Zaydis at the time, used the Hanafi jurisp rudence, as did most Sunnis.[116][117][118] Abdull?h al-Mahdi's control soon extended over all of central Maghreb, an area c onsisting of the modern countries of Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, which he ruled from Mahdia, his capital in Tunisia.[119] The Fatimids entered Egypt in the late 10th century, conquering the Ikhshidid dy nasty and founding a capital at al-Q?hira(Cairo) in 969.[120] The name was a ref erence to the planet Mars, "The Subduer", which was prominent in the sky at the moment that city construction started. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure f or the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economi c capital of Egypt was in cities such as Fustat until 1169. After Egypt, the Fat imids continued to conquer surrounding areas until they ruled from Tunisia to Sy ria and even crossed the Mediterranean into Sicily and southern Italy. Under the Fatimids, Egypt became the center of an empire that included at its pe ak North Africa, Sicily, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, the Red Sea coast of Africa, Yemen and the Hejaz.[121] Egypt flourished, and the Fatimids developed an exten sive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade a

nd diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song Dynasty, which det ermined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages. Unlike other governments in the area, Fatimid advancement in state offices was b ased more on merit than heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, including Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tole rance covered non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews; they took high levels in government based on ability.[122] There were, however, exceptions to this genera l attitude of tolerance, notably Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah. The Fatimid palace was in two parts. It was in the Khan el-Khalili area at Bin E l-Quasryn street.[123] Fatimid caliphs[edit] Early and High Middle Ages Consult particular article for details Also see: Cairo Abbasid Caliphs (above) During the beginning of the Middle Baghdad Abbasids, the Fatimid Caliphs claimed spiritual supremacy not only in Egypt, but also contested the religious leaders hip of Syria. At the beginning of the Abbasid realm in Baghdad, the Alids faced severe persecution by the ruling party as they were a direct threat to the Calip hate. Owing to the Abbasid inquisitions, the forefathers opted for concealment o f the Dawa's existence. Subsequently, they traveled towards the Iranian Plateau and distanced themselves from the epicenter of the political world. Al Mahdi's f ather, Al Husain al Mastoor returned to control the Dawa's affairs. He sent two Dai's to Yemen and Western Africa. Al Husain died soon after the birth of his so n, Al Mahdi. A system of government helped update Al Mahdi on the development wh ich took place in North Africa.[124] Al Mahdi established the first Imam of the Fatimid dynasty. He claimed genealogi c origins dating as far back as Fatimah through Husayn and Ismail. Al Mahdi esta blished his headquarters at Salamiyah and moved towards north-western Africa, un der Aghlabid rule. His success of laying claim to being the precursor to the Mah di was instrumental among the Berber tribes of North Africa, specifically the Ku tamah tribe. Al Mahdi established himself at the former Aghlabid residence at Ra qqadah, a suburb of Al-Qayrawan in Tunisia. At the time of his death he had exte nded his reign to Morocco of the Idrisids, as well as Egypt itself. In 920, Al M ahdi took up residence at the newly established capital of the empire, Al-Mahdiy yah. After his death, Al Mahdi was succeeded by his son, Abu Al-Qasim Muhammad A l-Qaim, who continued his expansionist policy.[125] Berbers and Iberian Umayyads[edit] The interiors of the Alhambra in Granada, Spain decorated with arabesque designs . Main articles: Umayyad conquest of Hispania, Al-Andalus, and Taifa The Arabs, under the command of the Berber General Tarik ibn Ziyad, first began their conquest of southern Spain or al-Andalus in 711. A raiding party led by Ta rik was sent to intervene in a civil war in the Visigothic kingdom in Hispania. Crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (named after the General), it won a decisive vi ctory in the summer of 711 when the Visigothic king Roderic was defeated and kil led on July 19 at the Battle of Guadalete. Tariq's commander, Musa bin Nusair cr ossed with substantial reinforcements, and by 718 the Muslims dominated most of the peninsula. Some later Arabic and Christian sources present an earlier raid b y a certain ??rif in 710 and also, the Ad Sebastianum recension of the Chronicle of Alfonso III, refers to an Arab attack incited by Erwig during the reign of W amba (672 80). The two large armies may have been in the south for a year before t he decisive battle was fought.[126] The rulers of Al-Andalus were granted the rank of Emir by the Umayyad Caliph AlWalid I in Damascus. After the Abbasids came to power, some Umayyads fled to Mus lim Spain to establish themselves there. By the end of the 10th century, the rul er Abd al-Rahman III took over the title of Emir of Crdoba(912-961).[127] Soon af ter, the Umayyads went on developing a strengthened state with its capital as Crd

oba. Al-Hakam II succeeded to the Caliphate after the death of his father Abd ar -Rahman III in 961. He secured peace with the Christian kingdoms of northern Ibe ria,[128] and made use of the stability to develop agriculture through the const ruction of irrigation works.[129] Economical development was also encouraged thr ough the widening of streets and the building of markets. The rule of the Caliph ate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the peninsula.[130] The Umayyad Caliphate collapsed in 1031 due to political divisions and civil unr est during the rule of Hicham II who was ousted because of his indolence.[131] A l-Andalus then broke up into a number of states called taifa kingdoms (Arabic, M uluk al-?aw?'if; English, Petty kingdoms). The decomposition of the Caliphate in to those petty kingdoms weakened the Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula vis--vis th e Christian kingdoms of the north. Some of the taifas, such as that of Seville, were forced to enter into alliances with Christian princes and pay tributes in m oney to Castille.[132] See also: Reconquista and Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsu la Emirs of Crdoba[edit] Main article: Emirs of Crdoba Consult particular article for details Abd al-Rahman I and Bedr (a former Greek slave) escaped with their lives after t he popular revolt known as the Abbasid Revolution. Rahman I continued south thro ugh Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt. Rahman I was one of several survi ving Umayyad family members to make a perilous trek to Ifriqiya at this time. Ra hman I and Bedr reached modern day Morocco near Ceuta. Next step would be to cro ss to sea to al-Andalus, where Rahman I could not have been sure whether he woul d be welcome. Following the Berber Revolt (740s), the province was in a state of confusion, with the Ummah torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs and racial O tensions between the Arabs and Berbers. Bedr lined up three Syrian commanders beid Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin and contacted al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Rahman I would try to make himself e mir. After discussion with Yemenite commanders, Rahman I was told to go to al-An dalus. Shortly thereafter, he set off with Bedr and a small group of followers f or Europe. Abd al-Rahman landed at Almucar in al-Andalus, to the east of Mlaga. During his brief time in Mlaga, he quickly amassed local support. News of the pri nce's arrival spread throughout the peninsula. In order to help speed his ascens ion to power, he took advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before an ything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman an d his followers were able to control Zaragoza. Rahman I fought to rule al-Andalu s in a battle at the Guadalquivir river, just outside of Crdoba on the plains of Musarah (Battle of Musarah). Rahman I was victorious, chasing his enemies from t he field with parts of their army. Rahman I marched into the capital, Crdoba, fig hting off a counterattack, but negotiations ended the confrontation. After Rahma n I consolidated power, he proclaimed himself the al-Andalus emir. Rahman I did not claim the Muslim caliph, though.[133] The last step was to have al-Fihri's g eneral, al-Sumayl, garroted in Crdoba's jail. Al-Andalus was a safe haven for the house of Umayya that managed to evade the Abbasids.[134] In Baghdad, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur had planned to depose the emir. Rahman I and his army confronted the Abbasids, killing most of the Abbasid army. The ma in Abbasid leaders were decapitated, their heads preserved in salt, with identif ying tags pinned to their ears. The heads were bundled in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph who was on pilgrimage at Mecca. Rahman I quelled rep eated rebellions in al-Andalus. He began the building of the great mosque [cordo va], and formed ship-yards along the coast; he is moreover said to have been the first to transplant the palm and the pomegranate into the congenial climate of Spain: and he encouraged science and literature in his states. This good king di ed on the 29th of September, 788, after a reign of thirty-four years and one mon th.[135][136]

The exterior of the Mezquita. Rahman I's successor was his son Hisham I. Born in Crdoba, he built many mosques and completed the Mezquita. He called for a jihad that resulted in a campaign ag ainst the Kingdom of Asturias and the County of Toulouse; in this second campaig n he was defeated at Orange by William of Gellone, first cousin to Charlemagne. His successor Al-Hakam I came to power and was challenged by his uncles, other s ons of Rahman I. One, Abdallah, went to the court of Charlemagne in Aix-la-Chape lle to negotiate for aid. In the mean time Crdoba was attacked, but was defended. Hakam I spent much of his reign suppressing rebellions in Toledo, Saragossa and Mrida.[137] Abd ar-Rahman II succeeded his father and engaged in nearly continuous warfare a gainst Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted. Rahman II repu lsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cadiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Crdoba. Thereafter he constructed a f leet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids. He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald 's nominations.[138] Muhammad I's reign was marked by the movements of the Muladi (ethnic Iberian Mus lims) and Mozarabs (Muslim-Iberia Christians). Muhammad I was succeeded by his s on Mundhir I. During the reign of his father, Mundhir I commanded military opera tions against the neighbouring Christian kingdoms and the Muladi rebellions. At his father's death, he inherited the throne. During his two-year reign, Mundhir I fought against Umar ibn Hafsun. He died in 888 at Bobastro, succeeded by his b rother Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi. Umawi showed no reluctance to dispose of those he viewed as a threat. His govern ment was marked by continuous wars between Arabs, Berbers and Muladi. His power as emir was confined to the area of Crdoba, while the rest had been seized by reb el families. The son he had designated as successor was killed by one of Umawi's brothers. The latter was in turn executed by Umawi's father, who named as succe ssor Abd ar-Rahman III, son of the killed son of Umawi.[139][140][141] Caliphs at Crdoba[edit] Main article: Caliphate of Crdoba Consult particular article for details Rahman III to help in his fight against the invasion by the Fatimids claimed the Caliphate in opposition to the generally recognized Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad.[ 142] Almoravid Ifriqiyah and Iberia[edit] Main article: Almoravid dynasty Consult particular article for details Ifriqiyah, Iberian Almohad caliphs[edit] Main article: Almohad dynasty Consult particular article for details The Crusades[edit] Main article: The Crusades Saladin and Guy of Lusignan after the Battle of Hattin List of Crusades Early period First Crusade 1095 1099 Second Crusade 1147 1149 Third Crusade 1187 1192 Low Period Fourth Crusade 1202 1204 Fifth Crusade 1217 1221

 Sixth Crusade 1228 1229 Late period Seventh Crusade 1248 1254 Eighth Crusade 1270 Ninth Crusade 1271 1272 Beginning in the 8th century, the Iberian Christian kingdoms had begun the Recon quista aimed at retaking Al-Andalus from the Moors. In 1095, Pope Urban II, insp ired by the conquests in Spain by Christian forces and implored by the eastern R oman emperor to help defend Christianity in the East, called for the First Crusa de from Western Europe which captured Odessa, Antioch, County of Tripoli and Jer usalem.[143] In the early period of the Crusades, the Christian Kingdom of Jerusalem emerged and for a time controlled Jerusalem. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and other smaller Crusader kingdoms over the next 90 years formed part of the complicated politics of the Levant, but did not in threaten the Islamic Caliphate nor other powers i n the region. After Shirkuh ended Fatimid rule in 1169, uniting it with Syria, t he Crusader kingdoms were faced with a threat, and his nephew Saladin reconquere d most of the area in 1187, leaving the Crusaders holding a few ports.[144] In the Third Crusade armies from Europe failed to recapture Jerusalem, though Cr usader states lingered for several decades, and other crusades followed. The Chr istian Reconquista continued in Al-Andalus, and was eventually completed with th e fall of Granada in 1492. During the low period of the Crusades, the Fourth Cru sade was diverted from the Levant and instead took Constantinople, leaving the E astern Roman Empire (now the Byzantine Empire) further weakened in their long st ruggle against the Turkish peoples to the east. However, the crusaders did manag e to damage Islamic caliphates; according to William of Malmesbury, preventing t hem from further expansion into Christendom[145] and being targets of the Mamluk s and the Mongols. See also: High Middle Ages, Frankokratia, and Crusader states Ayyubid dynasty[edit] Main article: Ayyubid dynasty The Ayyubid dynasty was founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. In 1174, Salad in proclaimed himself Sultan and conquered the Near East region. The Ayyubids ru led much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries, controlling Egyp t, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. After Saladin, his sons contested control ove r the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself in 1200. In the 1230s, Syria's Ayyubid rulers attempted to win independence from E gypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. In 1250, the dyna sty in the Egyptian region was overthrown by slave regiments. A number of attemp ts to recover it failed, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo. In 1260, the Mongols s acked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soo n after.[146] Sultans of Egypt[edit] Consult particular article for details Sultans and Amirs of Damascus[edit] Consult particular article for details Emirs of Aleppo[edit] Consult particular article for details Mongol invasions[edit] See also: Ilkhanate and Golden Horde The Mongol ruler, Ghazan, studying the Quran. After the Crusades the Mongols invaded in the 13th century, marking the end of t he Islamic Golden Age. Some historians assert that the eastern Islamic world nev

er fully recovered. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, The Mongols put an end to the Abbasid era. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia began in 1219 at a huge cost in civilian life and economic devastation. The Mongols spread throughout C entral Asia and Persia: the Persian city of Isfahan had fallen to them by 1237.[ 147] With the election of Khan Mongke in 1251, Mongol targeted the Abbasid capital, B aghdad. Mongke's brother, Hulegu, was made leader of the Mongol Army assigned to the task of subduing Baghdad. The fall of Bagdhad in 1258 destroyed what had be en the largest city in Islam. The last Abbasid caliph, al-Musta'sim, was capture d and killed; and Baghdad was ransacked and destroyed. The cities of Damascus an d Aleppo fell in 1260. Plans for the conquest of Egypt were delayed due to the d eath of Mongke at around the same time. The Abbasid army lost to the superior Mo ngol army, but the invaders were finally stopped by Egyptian Mamluks north of Je rusalem in 1260 at the pivotal Battle of Ain Jalut.[148] Ultimately, the Ilkhanate, Golden Horde, and the Chagatai Khanate - three of the four principal Mongol khanates - embraced Islam.[149][150][151] In power in Syr ia, Mesopotamia, Persia and further east, over the rest of the 13th century grad ually all converted to Islam. Most Ilkhanid rulers were replaced by the new Mong ol power founded by Timur (himself a Muslim), who conquered Persia in the 1360s, and moved against the Delhi Sultanate in India and the Ottoman Turks in Anatoli a. His invasions were equally destructive, sacking Bagdhad, Damascus, Delhi and many other cities, with enormous loss of life. Timur had attacked areas still re covering from the Black Death, which may have killed one third of the population of the Middle East. The plague began in China, and reached Alexandria in Egypt in 1347, spreading over the following years to most Islamic areas. The combinati on of the plague and the wars left the Middle Eastern Islamic world in a serious ly weakened position. The Timurid dynasty would found many branches of Islam, in cluding the Mughals of India.[152][153] The Mamluks[edit] In 1250, the Ayyubid Egyptian dynasty was overthrown by slave regiments, and the Mamluk Sultanate was born. In the 1260s, the Mongols sacked and control the Isl amic Near East territories. The Mamluks, who were Turkic, forced out the Mongols (see Battle of Ain Jalut) after the final destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty. T hus they united Syria and Egypt for the longest interval between the Abbasid and Ottoman empires (1250 1517).[154] The Mamluks experienced a continual state of po litical conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition between the "Muslim territory" (Dar al-Islam) and "non-Muslim territory" (Dar al-Harb). [155] As part of their chosen role as defenders of Islamic orthodoxy, the Mamluks spon sored many religious buildings, including mosques, madrasas and khanqahs. Though some construction took place in the provinces, the vast bulk of these projects expanded the capital. Many Mamluk buildings in Cairo survive, particularly in Ol d Cairo.[156] Bahri Sultans[edit] Main article: Bahri dynasty Consult particular article for details A former Mamluk slave who was born a prince, Aybak (known as Lion of Ain Jaloot) replaced the Mamluks in 1250. Aybak, by then a general, married Shajar al-Durr, the widow of Ayyubid caliph al-Salih Ayyub. Military prestige was at the center of Mamluk society, and it played a key role in the confrontations with the Mong ol forces. After Aybak's assassination and the accession of Qutuz in 1259, the M amluks challenged and routed the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in late 1260 . The Mongols were again defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Hims a few mon ths later, and then driven out of Syria altogether.[76] With this, the Mamluks w ere able to concentrate their forces and to conquer the last of the crusader ter ritories in the Levant. Burji Sultans[edit] Main article: Burji dynasty

Eastern Mediterranean 1450 Consult particular article for details See also: Islamic Egypt governors, Mamluks Era The global Muslim population had reached about 8 per cent of the world total as against the Christian population of 14 per cent by 1400. Africa[edit] Main article: Islam in Africa The Umayyad conquest of North Africa continued the century of rapid Muslim milit ary expansion following the death of Muhammad in 632. By 640 the Arabs controlle d Mesopotamia, had invaded Armenia, and were concluding their conquest of Byzant ine Syria. Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad caliphate. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Arab hands. Horn of Africa[edit] Main articles: Islam in Ethiopia and Islam in Somalia The history of Islam in the Horn of Africa is almost as old as the faith itself. Through extensive trade and social interactions with their converted Muslim tra ding partners on the other side of the Red Sea, in the Arabian peninsula, mercha nts and sailors in the Horn region gradually came under the influence of the new religion.[157] Early Islamic disciples fled to the port city of Zeila in modern-day northern So malia to seek protection from the Quraysh at the court of the Aksumite Emperor i n present-day Somalia. Some of the Muslims that were granted protection are said to have then settled in several parts of the Horn region to promote the religio n. The victory of the Muslims over the Quraysh in the 7th century had a signific ant impact on local merchants and sailors, as their trading partners in Arabia h ad by then all adopted Islam, and the major trading routes in the Mediterranean and the Red Sea came under the sway of the Muslim Caliphs. Instability in the Ar abian peninsula saw further migrations of early Muslim families to the Somali se aboard. These clans came to serve as catalysts, forwarding the faith to large pa rts of the Horn region.[157] Maghreb[edit] The Great Mosque of Kairouan also known as the Mosque of Uqba was established in 670 by the Arab general and conqueror Uqba ibn Nafi, it is the oldest mosque in the Maghreb, situated in the city of Kairouan, Tunisia. Kairouan in Tunisia was the first city founded by Muslims in the Maghreb. Arab g eneral Uqba ibn Nafi erected the city (in 670) and, in the same time, the Great Mosque of Kairouan[158] considered as the oldest and most prestigious sanctuary in the western Islamic world.[159] This part of Islamic territory has had independent governments during most of Is lamic history. The Idrisid were the first Arab rulers in the western Maghreb (Mo rocco), ruling from 788 to 985. The dynasty is named after its first sultan Idri s I.[160] The Almoravid dynasty was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara flourished over a wid e area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian Peninsula during the 11th century . Under this dynasty the Moorish empire was extended over present-day Morocco, W estern Sahara, Mauritania, Gibraltar, Tlemcen (in Algeria) and a part of what is now Senegal and Mali in the south, and Spain and Portugal in the north.[161] The Almohad Dynasty or "the Unitarians", were a Berber Muslim religious power wh ich founded the fifth Moorish dynasty in the 12th century, and conquered all Nor thern Africa as far as Egypt, together with Al-Andalus.[162] Great Lakes[edit] Islam came to the Great Lakes region of South Eastern Africa along existing trad e routes.[163] They learned from them the manners of the Muslims and this led to their conversion by the Muslim Arabs. Local Islamic governments centered in Tanzania (then Zanzibar). The people of Za yd were Muslims that immigrated to the Great Lakes region. In the pre-colonial p

eriod, the structure of Islamic authority here was held up through the Ulema (wa nawyuonis, in Swahili language). These leaders had some degree of authority over most of the Muslims in South East Africa before territorial boundaries were est ablished. The chief Qadi there was recognized for having the final religious aut hority.[164] West Africa[edit] Much later, Usman dan Fodio after the Fulani War, found himself in command of th e largest state in Africa, the Fulani Empire. Dan Fodio worked to establish an e fficient government grounded in Islamic laws. Already aged at the beginning of t he war, he retired in 1815 passing the title of Sultan of Sokoto to his son Muha mmed Bello. Asia and the Far East[edit] Main article: Islam in Asia South Asia[edit] The Taj Mahal Main article: Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent On the Indian subcontinent, Islam first appeared in the southwestern tip of the peninsula, in today's Kerala state. Arabs traded with Malabar even before the bi rth of Muhammad. Native legends say that a group of Sahaba, under Malik Ibn Deen ar, arrived on the Malabar Coast and preached Islam. According to that legend, t he first mosque of India was built by Second Chera King Cheraman Perumal, who ac cepted Islam and received the name Tajudheen. He traveled to Arabia to meet Muha mmad and died on the trip back, somewhere in today's Oman. Historical records su ggest that the Cheraman Perumal Mosque was built in around 629.[165] Islamic rule came to India in the 8th century, when Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh. Muslim conquests expanded under Mahmud and the Ghaznavids until the late 12th century, when the Ghurids overran the Ghaznavids and extended the conquest s in Northern India. Qutb-ud-din Aybak conquered Delhi in 1206 and began the rei gn of the Delhi Sultanates.[166] In the 14th century, Alauddin Khilji extended Muslim rule south to Gujarat, Raja sthan and Deccan. Various other Muslim dynasties also formed and ruled across In dia from the 13th to the 18th century such as the Qutb Shahi and the Bahmani, bu t none rivalled the power and extensive reach of the Mughal Empire at its peak.[ 167] See also: Islam in India China[edit] Further information: History of Islam in China In China, four Sahabas (Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas, Wahb Abu Kabcha, Jafar ibn Abu Tal ib and Jahsh) preached in 616/17 and onwards after following the Chittagong Kamrup M anipur route after sailing from Abyssinia in 615/16. After conquering Persia in 636, Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas went with Sa'id ibn Zaid, Qais ibn Sa'd and Hassan ibn Thabit to China in 637 taking the complete Quran. Sa'ad ibn abi Waqqas headed f or China for the third time in 650-51 after Caliph Uthman asked him to lead an e mbassy to China, which the Chinese emperor received.[168] Southeast Asia[edit] See also: The spread of Islam in Indonesia (1200 to 1600) Islam first reached Maritime Southeast Asia through traders from Mecca in the 7t h century CE,[76] particularly via the western part of what is now Indonesia. Ar ab traders from Yeman already had a presence in Asia through trading and sea tra velling by sea, serving as intermediary traders to and from Europe and Africa. T hey traded not only Arabian goods but also from Africa, India, and so on includi ng ivory, fragrances, spices, and gold.[169] According to T.W. Arnold in The Preaching of Islam, by the 2nd century of the Is lamic Calendar, Arab traders had been trading with the inhabitants of Ceylon. Th e same argument has been told by Dr. B.H. Burger and Dr.Mr. Prajudi in Sedjarah Ekonomis Sosiologis Indonesia (History of Socio Economic of Indonesia)[170] Acco rding to the atlas by geographer Al Biruni (973 - 1048), the Indian or Indonesia Ocean used to be called the Persian Ocean. After the Western Imperialist ruled,

it is replaced Persian Ocean to be Indian Ocean.[171] Soon, many Sufi missionaries translated classical Sufi literature from Arabic an d Persian into Malay; a tangible product of this is the Jawi script. Coupled wit h the composing of original Islamic literature in Malay, this led the way to the transformation of Malay into an Islamic language.[172] By 1292, when Marco Polo visited Sumatra, most of the inhabitants had converted to Islam. The Sultanate of Malacca was founded on the Malay Peninsula by Parameswara, a Srivijayan Princ e. Through trade and commerce, Islam then spread to Borneo and Java. By the late 15 th century, Islam had been introduced to the Philippines via the southern island of Mindanao.[173] The foremost socio-cultural Muslim entities that resulted for m this are the present-day Sultanate of Sulu and Sultanate of Maguindanao; Islam ised kingdoms in the northern Luzon island, such as the Kingdom of Maynila and t he Kingdom of Tondo, were later conquered and Christianised with the majority of the archipelago by Spanish colonisers beginning in the 16th century. As Islam spread, societal changes developed from the individual conversions, and five centuries later it emerged as a dominant cultural and political power in t he region. Three main Muslim political powers emerged. The Aceh Sultanate was th e most important, controlling much of the area between Southeast Asia and India from its centre in northern Sumatra. The Sultanate also attracted Sufi poets. Th e second Muslim power was the Sultanate of Malacca on the Malay Peninsula. The S ultanate of Demak on Java was the third power, where the emerging Muslim forces defeated the local Majapahit kingdom in the early 16th century.[174] Although th e sultanate managed to expand its territory somewhat, its rule remained brief.[7 6] Portuguese forces captured Malacca in 1511 under naval general Afonso de Albuque rque. With Malacca subdued, the Aceh Sultanate and Bruneian Empire established t hemselves as centres of Islam in Southeast Asia. The Sultanate's territory, alth ough vastly diminished, remains intact to this day as the modern state of Brunei Darussalam.[76] Fragmentation period[edit] Three Early Modern empires[edit] Main article: Early modern history In the 15th and 16th centuries three major Muslim empires formed: the Ottoman Em pire in the Middle East, the Balkans and Northern Africa; the Safavid Empire in Greater Iran; and the Mughal Empire in South Asia. These imperial powers were ma de possible by the discovery and exploitation of gunpowder and more efficient ad ministration.[175] By the end of the 19th century, all three had declined, and b y the early 20th century, with the Ottomans' defeat in World War I, the last Mus lim empire collapsed. Dar al-'Ahd (House of truce) began to develop in the Ottoman Empire's relationsh ip with its tributary states. In the contemporary National period, the term refe rred to non-Muslim governments that had armistice or peace agreements with Musli m governments. Today, the actual status of the non-Muslim country in question ma y vary from acknowledged equality to tributary states.[176] Mughal Empire[edit] Humayun's Tomb in Delhi, India. Main article: Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was a product of various Central Asian invasions into the Indi an subcontinent. It was founded by the Timurid prince Babur in 1526 with the des truction of the Delhi sultanate, placing its capital in Agra. Babur's death some years later and the indecisive rule of his son, Humayun, brought instability to Mughal rule. The resistance of the Afghani Sher Shah, who administered a string of defeats to Humayun, weakened the empire. A year before his death, however, H umayun managed to recover much of the lost territories, leaving a substantial le gacy for his son, the 13 year old Akbar (later known as Akbar the Great), in 155 6. Under Akbar, consolidation of the Mughal Empire occurred through both expansi

on and administrative reforms. After Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan came to powe r. Subsequently, Aurangazeb ruled vast areas including Afghanisthan, Pakistan, I ndia and Bangladesh.[76][177] The empire ruled most of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan for several centuries. Its decline in the early 18th century allowed India to b e divided into smaller kingdoms and states. The Mughal dynasty was dissolved by the British Empire after the Indian rebellion of 1857.[76][177] It left a lastin g legacy on Indian culture and architecture. Famous buildings built by the Mugha ls, include: the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, the Shalimar Gardens and the Agra Fort. During the empire's reign, Muslim commun ities flourished all over India, in Gujarat, Bengal and Hyderabad. Various Sufi orders from Afghanistan and Persia were active throughout the region. More than a quarter of the population converted to Islam.[177] Safavid Empire[edit] Main article: Safavids The Safavid dynasty rose to power in Tabriz in 1501 and later conquered the rest of Iran. The Safavids were originally Sufi and Iran was Sunni.[178] After their defeat at the hands of the Sunni Ottomans at the Battle of Chaldiran, to unite the Persians behind him Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely Sunni population to Twelver Shia so that he could get them to fight the Sunni Ottoman s.[179] This resulted in the Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam. Zaydis, the large st group amongst the Shia before the Safavid Dynasty were also forced to convert to the Twelver Shia. The Zaydis at that time used the Hanafi Fiqh, as did most Sunnis and there were good relations between them. Abu Hanifah and Zayd ibn Ali were also very good friends. The Zaydis were also forced to convert.[116][117][1 18] Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is Ali Qoli Jabbador, and is kept at The St. Petersburg Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by Tsar Nicholas II. Note the two Georgian figures with th eir names at the top left. The Safavids dynasty from Azarbaijan ruled from 1501 to 1736, and which establis hed Twelver Shi'a Islam as the region's official religion and united its provinc es under a single sovereignty, thereby reigniting the Persian identity. Although claiming to be the descendants of Ali ibn Abu Talib, the Safavids were Sunni (the name "Safavid" comes from a Sufi order called Safavi). Their origins go back to Firuz Shah Zarrinkolah, a local dignitary from the north. During thei r rule, the Safavids recognized Twelver Shi'a Islam as the State religion, thus giving the region a separate identity from its Sunni neighbours. In 1524, Tahmasp I acceded to the throne, initiating a revival of the arts. Carp etmaking became a major industry. The tradition of Persian miniature painting in manuscripts reached its peak, until Tahmasp turned to strict religious observan ce in middle age, prohibiting the consumption of alcohol and hashish and removin g casinos, taverns and brothels. Tahmasp's nephew Ibrahim Mirza continued to pat ronize a last flowering of the arts until he was murdered, after which many arti sts were recruited by the Mughal dynasty. Tahmasp's grandson, Shah Abbas I, restored the shrine of the eighth Twelver Shi' a Imam, Ali al-Ridha at Mashhad, and restored the dynastic shrine at Ardabil. Bo th shrines received jewelry, fine manuscripts and Chinese porcelains. Abbas move d the capital to Isfahan, revived old ports, and established thriving trade with Europeans. Amongst Abbas's most visible cultural achievements was the construct ion of Naqsh-e Jahan Square ("Design of the World"). The plaza, located near a F riday mosque, covered 20 acres (81,000 m2).[180] The Safavid Dynasty was toppled in 1722 by the Hotaki dynasty, which ended their forceful conversion of Sunni areas to Shiaism. Salafi[edit] In the 18th century a reform and revival movement was initiated led by Ibn Abd a l-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation

is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheis m and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines l ed to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of Mu hammad's Companions.[181] Ottoman Empire[edit] Main article: Ottoman Empire The Battle of Vienna in 1683 broke the advance of the Ottoman Turks into Europe The Seljuq Turks declined in the second half of the 13th century, after the Mong ol invasion.[182] This resulted in the establishment of multiple Turkish princip alities, known as beyliks. Osman I, the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, assumed leadership of one of these principalities (S?t) in 1281, succeeding his father Ert u?rul. Declaring an independent Ottoman emirate in 1299, Osman I afterwards led it in a series of battles with the Byzantine Empire.[183] By 1331, the Ottomans had captured Nicaea, the former Byzantine capital, under the leadership of Osman 's son and successor, Orhan I.[184] Victory at the Battle of Kosovo against the Serbs in 1389 then facilitated their expansion into Europe. The Ottomans were es tablished in the Balkans and Anatolia by the time Bayezid I ascended to power in the same year, now at the helm of a growing empire.[185] Growth halted when Mongol warlord Timur (also known as "Tamerlane") captured Bay ezid I in the Battle of Ankara in 1402, beginning the Ottoman Interregnum. This episode was characterized by the division of the Ottoman territory amongst Bayez id I's sons, who submitted to Timurid authority. When a number of Ottoman territ ories regained independent status, ruin for the Empire loomed. However, the empi re recovered, as the youngest son of Bayezid I, Mehmed I, waged offensive campai gns against his ruling brothers, thereby reuniting Asia Minor and declaring hims elf sultan in 1413.[76] Around this time the Ottoman naval fleet developed, such that they were able to challenge Venice, a naval power. They also attempted to reconquer the Balkans. B 1446; 1451 1481), the O y the time of Mehmed I's grandson, Mehmed II (ruled 1444 ttomans could lay siege to Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium. A factor in this siege was the use of muskets and large cannons introduced by the Ottomans. The Byzantine fortress succumbed in 1453, after 54 days of siege. Mehmed II ren amed it Istanbul. Without its capital the Byzantine Empire disintegrated.[76] Th e future successes of the Ottomans and later empires would depend upon the explo itation of gunpowder.[175] The Suleiman Mosque (Sleymaniye Camii) in Istanbul was built on the order of sult an Suleiman the Magnificent by the Ottoman architect Mimar Sinan in 1557 In the early 16th century, the Shi'ite Safavid dynasty assumed control in Persia under the leadership of Shah Ismail I, defeating the ruling Turcoman federation Aq Qoyunlu (also called the "White Sheep Turkomans") in 1501. The Ottoman sulta n Selim I sought to repel Safavid expansion, challenging and defeating them at t he Battle of Chaldiran in 1514. Selim I also deposed the ruling Mamluks in Egypt , absorbing their territories in 1517. Suleiman I (also known as Suleiman the Ma gnificent), Selim I's successor, took advantage of the diversion of Safavid focu s to the Uzbeks on the eastern frontier and recaptured Baghdad, which had fallen under Safavid control. Despite this, Safavid power remained substantial, rivall ing the Ottomans. Suleiman I advanced deep into Hungary following the Battle of Mohcs in 1526 reaching as far as the gates of Vienna thereafter, and signed a Fra nco-Ottoman alliance with Francis I of France against Charles V of the Roman Emp ire 10 years later. Suleiman I's rule (1520 1566) was the apex of the Ottoman Em pire. The rapid European industrialization thereafter sent it into a relative de cline.[76][186] It was recognized as a superpower, even at the time of its decli ne and eventual demise after World War I. Modern history[edit] Main article: Modern history

The modern age brought technological and organizational changes to Europe while the Islamic region continued the patterns of earlier centuries. The Great Powers globalized economically and colonized much of the region. Ottoman Empire partition[edit] Main article: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire By the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman empire had declined. The decision to back Germany in World War I meant they shared the Central Powers' defeat in tha t war. The defeat led to the overthrow of the Ottomans by Turkish nationalists l ed by the victorious general of the Battle of Gallipoli: Mustafa Kemal, who beca me known to his people as Atatrk, "Father of the Turks." Atatrk was credited with renegotiating the treaty of Svres (1920) which ended Turkey's involvement in the war and establishing the modern Republic of Turkey, which was recognized by the Allies in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Atatrk went on to implement an ambitious program of modernization that emphasized economic development and secularizatio n. He transformed Turkish culture to reflect European laws, adopted Hindu-Arabic numerals, the Latin script, separated the religious establishment from the stat e, and emancipated woman even giving them the right to vote in parallel with women 's suffrage in the west.[187] Following World War I, the vast majority of former Ottoman territory outside of Asia Minor was handed over to the victorious European powers as protectorates. D uring the war the Allies had promised the subject peoples independence in exchan ge for their assistance fighting the Turkish powers. To their dismay, they found that this system of "protectorates" was a smoke-screen for their continued subj ugation by the British and the French. The struggles for independence from their Turkish overlords and the cooperation of partisan forces with the British were romanticized in the stories of British secret intelligence agent T. E. Lawrence la ter known as "Lawrence of Arabia."[188] Ottoman successor states include today's Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Egypt, Greece, Iraq, Lebanon, Romani a, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Balkan states, North Africa and the north shore of the Black Sea.[189] Many Muslim countries sought to adopt European political organization and nation alism began to emerge in the Muslim world. Countries like Egypt, Syria and Turke y organized their governments sought to develop national pride amongst their cit izens. Other places, like Iraq, were not as successful due to a lack of unity an d an inability to resolve age-old prejudices between Muslim sects and against no n-Muslims. Some Muslim countries, such as Turkey and Egypt, sought to separate Islam from t he secular government. In other cases, such as Saudi Arabia, the government brou ght out religious expression in the re-emergence of the puritanical form of Sunn i Islam known to its detractors as Wahabism, which found its way into the Saudi royal family. See also: Ottoman Caliphate and Turkish War of Independence Indian partition[edit] Main article: Partition of India The partition of India refers to the creation in August 1947 of the now sovereig n states of India and Pakistan. The two nations were formed out of the former Br itish Raj, including treaty states, when Britain granted independence to the are a (see Undivided India). In particular, the term refers to the partition of Beng al and Punjab, the two main provinces of what would be Pakistan.[190] In 1947, after the partition of India, Pakistan became the largest Islamic count ry in the world (by population) and the tenth largest post-World War II state in the modern world. In 1971, after a bloody war of independence, the Bengal part of Pakistan became an independent state called Bangladesh. Pakistan in the conte mporary era is the second largest Islamic country in the world, following Indone sia. Pakistan is a declared nuclear power, being the only Muslim nation to have that status. Post-1945 era[edit] Between 1953 and 1964, King Saud reorganized the government of the monarchy his father, Ibn Saud, had created. Saudi Arabia's ministries included Communication (1953), Agriculture and Water (1953), Petroleum (1960), Pilgrimage and Islamic E

ndowments (1960), Labour and Social Affairs (1962) and Information (1963). He al so put Talal, one of his many younger brothers (29 years his junior) in charge o f the Ministry of Transport. In 1958-59, Talal proposed the formation of a National Council. As he proposed i t, it would have been a consultative body, not a legislature. Still, he thought of it as a first step toward broader popular participation in the government. Ta lal presented this proposal to the king when the Crown Prince was out of the cou ntry. Saud forwarded the proposal to the ulama asking them whether a National Co uncil was a legitimate institution in Islam. The idea then disappeared until it was revived more than three decades later. A Consultative Council came into exis tence in 1992. The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries came into existence in 1960. F or the first decade or more of its existence, it was unable to increase revenue for the member nations. Tension between Faisal and Saud continued to mount until a showdown in 1964. Saud threatened to mobilize the Royal Guard against Faisal and Faisal threatened to mobilize the National Guard against Saud. Saud then abd icated and left for Cairo, then Greece, where he would die in 1969. Faisal then became King. The Six-Day War of June 5 10, 1967, was fought between Israel and the neighbouring states of Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It closed the Suez canal, and may have cont ributed to the revolution in Libya that put Muammar Gaddafi in power. It led in May 1970 to the closure of the "tapline" from Saudi Arabia through Syria to Leba non. These developments had the effect of increasing the importance of petroleum in Libya, which is a short (and canal-free) shipping distance from Europe. In 1 970, Occidental Petroleum broke with other oil companies and accepted Qaddafi's demands for price increases. In October 1973, another war between Israel and its Muslim neighbors, known as t he Yom Kippur War, broke out just as oil company began meeting with OPEC leaders . OPEC had been emboldened by the success of Libya's demands and the war strengt hened their unity. The Arab defeats in 1967 and 1973 triggered the 1973 oil cris is. In response to the emergency resupply effort by the West that enabled Israel to defeat Egyptian and Syrian forces, the Arab world imposed the 1973 oil embar go against the United States and Western Europe. Faisal agreed that Saudi Arabia would use some of its oil wealth to finance the "front-line states", those that bordered Israel, in their struggle. The centrality of petroleum, the Arab-Israe li Conflict and political and economic instability and uncertainty remain consta nt features of the politics of the region. Persian revolutions[edit] The Iranian Constitutional Revolution took place between 1905 and 1911. The revo lution marked the beginning of the end of Iran's feudalistic society and led to the establishment of a parliament in Persia and the restriction of the power of the Shah (king). Iran approved its first constitution at this time. The modernis t and conservative blocks then began to fight with each other. World War I inter vened and all of the combatants invaded Iran. This weakened the government and t hreatened the country's independence. The constitutional monarchy created by the decree of Mozzafar al-Din Shah that was established in Persia as a result of th e Revolution, was damaged in 1925 with the dissolution of the Qajar dynasty and the ascension of Reza Shah Pahlavi to the throne.[191] In 1979 the Iranian Revolution transformed Iran from a constitutional monarchy, under Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, to a populist theocratic Islamic republic unde r the rule of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Shi`i Muslim cleric and marja. Foll owing the Revolution, and a new constitution was approved and a referendum estab lished the government, electing Ruhollah Khomeini as Supreme Leader. During the following two years, liberals, leftists, and Islamic groups fought each other, a nd the Islamics captured power. Gulf states such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait (des pite being hostile to Iraq) encouraged Saddam Hussein to invade Iran,[192] which resulted in the Iran-Iraq war, as they feared that an Islamic revolution would take place within their own borders. Certain Iranian exiles also helped convince Saddam that if he invaded, the fledgling Islamic republic would quickly collaps e.

National period[edit] Main article: Contemporary history Contemporary National period Islam in the modern world Sunni countries Shia countries Ibadi countries Arab-Israeli conflict[edit] Main article: Arab Israeli conflict The Arab-Israeli conflict spans about a century of political tensions and open h ostilities. It involves the establishment of the modern State of Israel as a Jew ish nation state, the consequent displacement of the Palestinian people, as well as the adverse relationship between the Arab states and the State of Israel (se e related Israeli-Palestinian conflict). Despite at first involving only the Ara b states bordering Israel, animosity has also developed between Israel and other predominantly Muslim states. Many countries, individuals and non-governmental o rganizations elsewhere in the world feel involved in this conflict for reasons s uch as cultural and religious ties with Islam, Arab culture, Christianity, Judai sm, Jewish culture, or for ideological, human rights, or strategic reasons. Whil e some consider the Arab-Israeli conflict a part of (or a precursor to) a wider clash of civilizations between the Western World and the Muslim world,[193][194] others oppose this view.[195] Animosity emanating from this conflict has caused numerous attacks on supporters (or perceived supporters) of each side by suppor ters of the other side in many countries around the world. Salafi and the Safavid[edit] Some have argued that the development of the two opposite fringes, the Safavid c onversion of Iran to Shia Islam the Twelver Shia version and its reinforcement b y the Iranian Revolution and the Salafi in Saudi Arabia, coupled with the Iran Sau di Arabia relations resulted in these governments using sectarian conflict to en hance their political interests.[196][197] Many have argued that these governmen ts, them selves do not conforms to Islamic economic jurisprudence, and continue to deal in usury and in Government bonds.[198][199][200][201] While their rulers like Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani and some ayatollah's in Iran on the List of Irani an people by net worth and the House of Saud, accumulated huge personal wealth t hat some have argued is at odds with the Islamic message preached by Muhammad an d the Quran. Wealth that some think should belong in Bayt al-mal or the welfare state. The Bayt al-mal or the welfare state was for the Muslim and Non-Muslim po or, needy, elderly, orphans, widows, and the disabled. The Bayt al-mal ran for h undreds of years under the Rashidun Caliphate in the 7th century and continued t hrough the Umayyad period and well into the Abbasid era. Anatolian region[edit] Main articles: Islam in Turkey and Secularism in Turkey Since the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, there has been a stro ng tradition of secularism in Turkey established and institutionalized by Atatrk' s Reforms. Although the First Grand National Assembly of Turkey had rallied supp ort from the population for the Independence War against the occupying forces on behalf of Islamic principles, Islam was omitted from the public sphere after th e Independence War. The principle of secularism was thus inserted in the Turkish Constitution as late as 1937. This legal action was assisted by stringent state policies against domestic Islamist groups and establishments to neutralize the strong appeal of Islam in Turkish society. Even though an overwhelming majority of the population, at least nominally, adheres to Islam in Turkey, the state, wh ich was established with the Kemalist ideology has no official religion nor prom otes any and it monitors the area between the religions using the Presidency of Religious Affairs. The Republic Protests were a series of mass rallies by Turkis h secular citizens that took place in Turkey in 2007. The target of the first pr otest was the possible presidential candidacy of the Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdo?an, afraid that if elected President of Turkey Erdo?an would alter the Tur

kish secularist state. See also[edit] Early scholars of Islam History of the Balkans Islam by country - a list List of the Muslim Empires List of dynasties of Muslim Rulers Pre-Islamic Arabia Notes[edit] ^ Milestones of Islamic History ^ Khadd?r? 2002, pp. 19 20 ^ Mecca: a literary history of the Muslim Holy Land By Francis E. Peters ^ Umar bin Al Khattab - The Second Caliph of Islam By Abdul Basit Ahmad Page 43 [1] ^ Men Around the Messenger By Kh?lid Mu?ammad Kh?lid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 20 [2] ^ The Living Thoughts of the Prophet Muhammad By Maulana Muhammad Ali Page [3] ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 254 [4] ^ The challenge of Islamic renaissance By Syed Abdul Quddus ^ Administrative Development: An Islamic Perspective By Muhammad Al-Buraey Page 252 [5] ^ Ottoman History: Misperceptions and Truths By Said ztrk Page 539 ^ Esposito (2010, p. 38) ^ Hofmann (2007), p.86 ^ Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, St uart Christopher Munro-Hay Page 40 ^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim o f Yathrib: analysis and translation of the documents comprised in the so-called 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studie s (1978), 41: 1-42, Cambridge University Press. ^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B. Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Isla mic Quarterly 8 (1964) p.4. ^ Constitution of Medina ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 61 [6] ^ Rahman (1999, p. 40) ^ European Naval and Maritime History, 300-1500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan Page 24 [7] ^ History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael Kroll Page 123 ^ A History of Byzantium By Timothy E. Gregory page 183 ^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [8] ^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page 11 ^ Schimmel, Annemarie; Barbar Rivolta (Summer, 1992). "Islamic Calligraphy". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series 50 (1): 3. ^ The Spread of Islam: The Contributing Factors By Abu al-Fazl Izzati, A. Ezzati Page 301 ^ Islam For Dummies By Malcolm Clark Page ^ Spiritual Clarity By Jackie Wellman Page 51 ^ The Koran For Dummies By Sohaib Sultan Page ^ Qur'an: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2 ^ Qur'an: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13] ^ Qur'an: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1] ^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32 ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-?Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A . Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [9] ^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A.

Hanna, George H. Gardner Page 271 [10] ^ Men Around the Messenger By Khalid Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page 117 [11] ^ The Cambridge History of Islam:, Volume 2 edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lamb ton, Bernard Lewis Page 605 [12] ^ The Early Caliphate By Maulana Muhammad Ali ^ [13] ^ [14] ^ Rahman (1999, p. 37) ^ Rahman (1999, p. 53) ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 232 [15] ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867 ^ Holt (1977a, pp. 67 72) ^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 352 ^ Donald Puchala, Theory and History in International Relations, page 137. Routledge , 2003. ^ W. Montgomery Watt. Kh?rijite thought in the Umayyad Period. Der Islam. Volume 36, Issue 3, Pages 215 231, ISSN (Online) 1613-0928, ISSN (Print) 0021-1818, doi: 10.1515/islm.1961.36.3.215, //1961 ^ a b The Encyclopdia Britannica by Hugh Chisholm. Page 28 ^ Roberts, J: "History of the World.". Penguin, 1994. ^ Dermenghem, E. (1958). Muhammad and the Islamic tradition. New York: Harper Br others. Page 183. ^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung . Page 340. ^ Encyclopaedic ethnography of Middle-East and Central Asia: A-I, Volume 1 edite d by R. Khanam. Page 543 ^ Islam and Politics John L. Esposito - 1998 Page 16 ^ Islamic Imperial Law: Harun-Al-Rashid's Codification Project By Benjamin Jokis ch - 2007 - Page 404 ^ The Byzantine And Early Islamic Near East Hugh N. Kennedy - 2006 - Page 197 ^ A Chronology of Islamic History By H U Rahman Page 106, 129 ^ Voyages in World History By Josef W. Meri - Page 248 ^ Lapidus (2002, p. 56); Lewis (1993, pp. 71 83) ^ Blankinship, Khalid Yahya (1994). The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of His ham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads. State University of New York Press. p. 37. ISBN 0-7914-1827-8 ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 8. ^ answering-ansar.org. ch 7. ^ Kokab wa Rifi Fazal-e-Ali Karam Allah Wajhu, Page 484, By Syed Mohammed Subh-e -Kashaf AlTirmidhi, Urdu translation by Syed Sharif Hussein Sherwani Sabzawari, Published by Aloom AlMuhammed, number B12 Shadbagh, Lahore, 1 January 1963. Page 484. ^ History of the Arab by Philip K Hitti ^ History of Islam by prof.Masudul Hasan ^ The Empire of the Arabs by sir John Glubb ^ In the Al Andalus (the Iberian Peninsula), North Africa and in the east popula tions revolted. In A.H. 102 (720-721) in Ifriqiyah, the harsh governor Yazid ibn Muslim was overthrown and Muhammad ibn Yazid, the former governor, restored to power. The caliph accepted this and confirmed Muhammad ibn Yazid as governor of Ifriqiyah. ^ *Eggenberger, David (1985). An Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 BC. to the Present. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-24 913-1 p. 3. ^ von Ess, "Kadar", Encyclopedia of Islam 2nd Ed. ^ Theophilus. Quoted Robert Hoyland, Seeing Islam as Others Saw It (Darwin Press , 1998), 660 ^ a b J. Jomier. Islam: Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. accessdate=2007-05-02 ^ Lewis 1993, p. 84

^ Holt 1977a, p. 105 ^ Holt 1977b, pp. 661 663 ^ a b c "Abbasid Dynasty", The New Encyclopdia Britannica (2005) ^ "Islam", The New Encyclopdia Britannica (2005) ^ a b c d e f g h i j Applied History Research Group. "The Islamic World to 1600 ". University of Calagary. Retrieved 2007-04-18. ^ "Islam". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online ^ Lapidus 2002, p. 54 ^ Nasr 2003, p. 121 ^ Khadd?r? 2002, pp. 21 22 ^ Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd, Everything you wanted to know a bout Islam but was afraid to Ask, Philosophia Islamica. ^ Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, A rab Studies Quarterly (ASQ). ^ for more, see As-Saffah's_Caliphate ^ An universal history: from the earliest accounts to the present time, Volume 2 By George Sale, George Psalmanazar, Archibald Bower, George Shelvocke, John Cam pbell, John Swinton. Page 319 ^ Chamber's Encyclopaedia: A Dictionary of Universal Knowledge, Volume 5. W. & R . Chambers, 1890. Page 567. ^ Johannes P. Schad (ed.). Encyclopedia of World Religions. ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History volume xxxi, "The War Between Brothers," transl. Michael Fishbein, SUNY, Albany, 1992 ^ Nasr 2003, pp. 121 122 ^ Lapidus 1988, p. 129 ^ The Encyclopaedia Britannica. A. and C. Black, 1878. Pg 578+ ^ Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brou ght under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Tur kestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma' mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ib n Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Mu hammad ibn Humayd. ^ The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellec tual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun intr oduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the calipha l institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergon e by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was ab out the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated h e believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profe ssion. ^ Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest". ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern front iers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991 ^ Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L . Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. ISBN 0-88706-875-8, ISBN 978-0-88706-875-1 ^ Its minarets were spiraling cones 55 metres (180 ft) high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass. ^ A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives. ^ Examples of the former include the loss of Mosul in 990, and the loss of ?abar ist?n and Gurg?n in 997. An example of the latter is the Kak?yid dynasty of Isfa h?n, whose fortunes rose with the decline of the B?yids of northern Iran. ^ Bowen, Harold (1928). The Life and Times of ?Al Ibn ?s: The Good Vizier. Cambridg e University Press. p. 385. ^ R. N. Frye (1975). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume Four: From the Arab I nvasion to the Saljuqs. ISBN 0-521-20093-8

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s, Thinkers, and Artists . National Geographic Books, 2008. ^ The Penny Cyclopdia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, Volum es 15-16. C. Knight, 1839. Pg 385 ^ Near the end of his life, it is said, though, that Abd al-Rahman became increa singly paranoid and sequestered himself in his palaces. ^ P. M. Holt, Peter Malcolm Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis. The Cambridg e History of Islam. Cambridge University Press, Apr 21, 1977. Pg 411 ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge Univer sity Press. ^ Fierro, Maribel (2005). Abd-al-Rahman III of Crdoba. Oxford: Oneworld Publicati ons. ISBN 1-85168-384-4. ^ Ibn Idhari (1860) [Composed c. 1312]. Al-Bayan al-Mughrib [Historias de Al-And alus] (in Spanish). Volume 1. trans. Francisco Fernndez y Gonzlez. Granada: Franci sco Ventura y Sabatel. OCLC 557028856. ^ Lane-Poole, Stanley (1894). The Mohammedan Dynasties: Chronological and Geneal ogical Tables with Historical Introductions. Westminster: Archibald Constable an d Company. OCLC 1199708. ^ Abd_ar-Rahman_III Assumption_of_the_Caliphate ^ Henry Hallam. View of the State of Europe During the Middle Ages, Volume 1. W. J. Widdleton, 1870. Pg 49. ^ The Literary Era: A Monthly Repository of Literary and Miscellaneous Informati on, Volume 5. Porter & Coates, 1898. Pg 133. ^ Sylvia Schein. Gateway to the Heavenly City: Crusader Jerusalem and the Cathol ic West (1099-1187). Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., Jan 1, 2005. Pg 19. ^ Peter Lock. The Routledge Companion to the Crusades. Routledge, Apr 15, 2013. Pg 180 ^ The Islamic World to 1600: The Mongol Invasions (The Il-Khanate) http://www.uc algary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/mongols/ilkhanate.html ^ Tschanz, David W. (July/August 2007). "History's Hinge: 'Ain Jalut". Saudi Ara mco World. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, Grolier Incorporated, p. 680 ^ The spread of Islam: the contributing factors By Ab? al-Faz?l ?Izzat?, A. Ezza ti, pg. 274 ^ Islam in Russia: the four seasons By Ravil? Bukharaev, pg. 145 ^ Elliot, Sir H. M.; edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by It s Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 186 7 77. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muham madan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867 1877 This online copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List) ^ Richards, John F. (1996). The Mughal Empire. Cambridge University Press. ^ Hourani 2003, p. 85 ^ The Encyclopaedia of Islam. New Edition. Brill, Leiden. ^ For more, see Mamluk architecture. ^ a b A Country Study: Somalia from The Library of Congress ^ Kairouan Capital of Political Power and Learning in the Ifriqiya (Muslim Herit age.com) ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth, Historic cities of the Islamic world. Brill. 2007. p . 264 ^ Y. Benhima, "The Idrisids (789- 974)". qantara-med.org, 2008. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Almoravides". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press ^ History of the Almonades, Reinhart Dozy, Second edition, 1881. ^ Nicolini, B., & Watson, P.-J. (2004). Makran, Oman, and Zanzibar: Three-termin al cultural corridor in the western Indian Ocean, 1799-1856. Leiden: Brill. Page 35 ^ Nimtz, Jr., August H. (1980). Islam and Politics in East Aftrica. the Sufi Ord er in Tanzania. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ^ "World s second oldest mosque is in India". Bahrain tribune. Archived from the o

riginal on 2006-07-06. Retrieved 2006-08-09. ^ Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711-1526 A D. Shiva L al Agarwala & Company. ^ Holden, Edward Singleton (1895). The Mogul emperors of Hindustan, A.D. 1398- A .D. 1707. New York : C. Scribner's Sons. ^ Khamouch, Mohammed. "Jewel of Chinese Muslim s Heritage". FTSC. ^ Gustave Le Bon. 1956. Hadarat al Arab. Translation of La Civilisation-des Arab es. 3rd Print. Cairo. P.95. ^ Suryanegara, Ahmad Mansyur.2009. API Sejarah. 1st Printed. Bandung. Indonesia. P. 2 - 3 ^ Sir Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guilaume, (Editor), 1965. The Legacy of Islam. Ox ford University Press, New York, P.87. ^ Nasr 2003, p. 143 ^ Spencer C. Tucker, The encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-Ame rican wars: a political, social, and military history, Volume 1, ABC-CLIO, 2009, page 419 ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 226 230 ^ a b Armstrong 2000, p. 116 ^ For more, see Forms of vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire ^ a b c Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 211 219 ^ Peter B. Golden: An Introduction to the History of the Turkic Peoples; In: Osm an Karatay, Ankara 2002, p.321 ^ "Ismail Safavi" Encyclopdia Iranica ^ Bloom & Blair 2000, pp. 199 204 ^ Esposito (2010, p. 146) ^ Holt 1977a, p. 263 ^ Kohn, G. C. (2006). Dictionary of wars. New York: Facts on File. Page 94. ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 109 ^ Koprulu 1992, p. 111 ^ www.muslimdecline.blogspot.com ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 961, 969 ^ Bentley & Ziegler 2006, pp. 971 972 ^ McNeill, Bentley & Christian 2005, p. 1402 ^ East Bengal a part of the newly created Pakistan later becomes independent. ^ Cyrus Ghani, S?r?s ?an?. Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collap se to Pahlavi Power. I.B.Tauris, Jan 6, 2001. ^ Farrokh, Kaveh. Iran at War: 1500 1988. Oxford: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 97817809 62214. ^ Causes of Anti-Americanism in the Arab World: A Socio-Political Perspective by Abdel Mahdi Abdallah (MERIA Journal). Volume 7, No. 4 - December 2003 ^ Arab-Israeli Conflict: Role of religion (Israel Science and Technology) ^ Arab-American Psychiatrist Wafa Sultan: There is No Clash of Civilizations but a Clash between the Mentality of the Middle Ages and That of the 21st Century ^ The Three Circles of War: Understanding the Dynamics of Conflict in Iraq By He ather S. Gregg Page 66 [19] ^ After Khomeini:Iran Under His Successors By Said Amir Arjomand Page 195 [20] ^ Islamic Identity and the Struggle for Justice edited by Nimat Hafez Barazangi, M. Raquibuz Zaman, Omar Afzal Page 5 [21] ^ Iran's Economy Under the Islamic Republic By Jahangir Amuzegar ^ Iran: A Country Study: A Country Study edited by Glenn E. Curtis, Eric Hooglun d Page 196 [22] ^ Islam and Politics By John L. Esposito References and further reading[edit] Books, articles, and journals Armstrong, Karen (2000). Islam: A Short History. Modern Library. ISBN 978-0-67964040-0. Bloom; Blair (2000). Islam:A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. Esposito, John (2000b). Oxford History of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9 78-0-19-510799-9.

Hart, Michael (1978). The 100:Ranking of the most influential persons in history . New York: Carol Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8065-1057-9. Holt, P. M.; Bernard Lewis (1977a). Cambridge History of Islam, Vol. 1. Cambridg e University Press. ISBN 0-521-29136-4. Holt, P. M.; Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis (1977b). Cambridge History of Isla m, Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29137-2. Hourani, Albert; Ruthven, Malise (2003). A History of the Arab Peoples. Belknap Press; Revised edition. ISBN 978-0-674-01017-8. Khadd?r?, Maj?d (2002). The Islamic Law of Nations: Shaybani's Siyar. JHU Press. pp. 19 20. ISBN 0-8018-6975-7, 9780801869754 Check |isbn= value (help).