engineering

+ National Institute on Aging

technology

Brain on a Chip
Computer Architecture Branches Out
by Camille Sindhu A medical illustration showing the
structre of a typical neuron.

T
he next revolution in computer architecture may not making practical and informative simulations nearly
come from research in computer science, but rather impossible.
from the bench of a biology laboratory. Researchers The startling difficulty in simulation of neural activity is
working at the intersection of neurobiology and electrical due to fundamental differences between the von Neumann
engineering are already capable of building artificial analogs model of computer architecture, the design upon which
of biological sensory systems in silicon, but difficulties arise in most computers today are built, and the neural architecture
emulating the more complex neural networks of brain tissue. of an animal brain. Von Neumann machines operate in a
Photo Credit: Dr. Boahen Dr. Kwabena Boahen, Associate sequential manner, executing step-by-step a programmed
Professor in the Department of
Bioengineering, believes these
difficulties are rooted in the lack of
Fortunately, biological
extensive knowledge about brain
function. Overcoming this hurdle
evolution has already created
has catalyzed a gradual shift in his
research goals to design techniques
a computing paradigm whose
that enable the study of brain
function on a much deeper level
design is dictated by energy
Dr. Kwabena Boahen
than ever before. efficiency: the brain.
Neural vs. Von Neumann Computation
To tease apart the intricate puzzle of brain function, set of instructions, in marked contrast to the brain’s highly
experimentation is required at the molecular and parallel and interconnected architecture. These differences
biochemical levels, a nearly impossible task to carry out in are reconciled by the Boahen lab’s Neurogrid computer: a
vivo. Instead, experiments are conducted and analyzed using neurobiology lab on a chip born from combining knowledge
a computational model of the brain. Since all the computing of neuroscience, computer architecture and electrical
done by the brain is via action potentials triggered by the flow engineering. This device provides previously unattainable
of ions through selective channels, understanding higher insights into brain function by modeling the underlying
brain function necessitates a thorough grasp of ion channel architecture of an animal brain.
dynamics. An ideal
experiment would
Photo Credit: Dr. Boahen
therefore manipulate Right: Ionic currents measured in neural cells
variables such as Below: Ionic current modeled in a three-transistor circuit
ion type, channel
characteristics and
cell type, then observe
the changes in activity
or capability of the
neural network as a
whole. Unfortunately,
simulation of one
second of neural
activity at the level
of molecular detail
required by a biologist
takes a modern
Above: The voltage pulse characteristic of the action potential in a neuron (left) can be mimicked by the capacitor/transistor
supercomputer one circuit of the silicon neuron (right).
hour and 20 minutes,

52 stanford scientific

Photo Credit: Dr. Boahen
Six-transistor circuit with the primary characteristics of silicon neurons,
consisting of a membrane capacitance (center) supplied by input current,
a positive-feedback loop delivering sodium current, and a leak current
returning membrane to resting potential. Iin is the supplied input current,
Ina is the positive-feedback loop that delivers sodium current to the
membrane voltage, and Vmem is the resting membrane potential.
Mimicking the Brain
The fundamental component of the Neurogrid computer
is not a logic gate like in most computing devices, but a
“silicon neuron” -- an electrical circuit of transistors and
capacitors arranged in a pattern that mimics the voltage
pulse of a real neuron’s action potential. These voltage
spikes are read and processed by an external computer
running a software application that assembles and analyzes
the generated data. This arrangement enables an incredible
versatility in experimental analysis, from selecting a single
cell in the network and plotting its firing pattern to examining
the activity of the whole array or any level of complexity in
between.
Any change in connectivity patterns or cell types can easily
be programmed and the experiment can be conducted again.
In essence, Neurogrid models the layered organization of
the cortex, with each cortical layer corresponding to another
“Say you’re a biologist and you
come and tell me you’ve
figured out how the brain
works—well I’m going to ask
you, how does it do it with just
10 watts?” -Boahen
chip. This type of parallel architecture facilitates studying
large systems of neural cells while taking into account the
characteristics of individual neurons, thereby elucidating
the connection between molecular events at the ion channel
level to macroscopic changes in brain function.
The Need for a New Computational Paradigm
While the applications of neuromorphic processor
technologies like Neurogrid may appear limited to providing
layout design: Jessica Chia-Rong Lee
engineering
+
neurobiologists with a brain on a chip, they are technology
actually part of a much more profound shift in
computing paradigms. Today we know how to build
machines that compute precisely and with blazing
speed. The challenge is to do it efficiently in terms of power
and space. Fortunately, biological evolution has already
created a computing paradigm whose design is dictated by
energy efficiency: the brain.
When comparing the power used per computation by
a brain versus that of a modern computer, one finds that
computers use up to a staggering billion times more energy.
When comparing the power used
per computation by a brain versus
that of a modern computer, one
finds that computers use up to
a staggering billion times more
energy.
Boahen is convinced that the key to reducing this massive
energy consumption is to approach computer design in a
way that emulates the brain’s organization. “This question is
really a scientific one, not just an engineering one,” Boahen
explains. “Say you’re a biologist and you come and tell me
you’ve figured out how the brain works—well I’m going to
ask you, how does it do it with just 10 watts?” Any system
seeking to mediate human-machine, real world, real time
interactions must possess the same computing power as
the brain, and in a similarly compact package running on
comparable amounts of energy.
Neurogrid’s Future
Boahen insists that computers like the Neurogrid won’t
replace our current von Neumann machines, which are
already very efficient for current purposes. Neuromorphic
processors would be complementary, specialized modules
called upon in situations where adaptability, not precision,
is required. The concept of a computer that can react to its
surroundings rather than execute a sequence of programmed
steps, as well as last longer on a small, portable energy
supply, is dictating evolution of computation. Surprising
as it may be, the solution to our computational challenges
today is looking more and more like what biology has already
designed. S
CAMILLE SINDHU is a fourth-year Biological Sciences major
interested in research at the intersection of molecular biology and
engineering.
To Learn More
Visit Dr. Boahen’s lab page: http://www.stanford.edu/
group/brainsinsilicon/index.html
Read Scientific American (May 2005) “Mimic the nervous
system with neuromorphic chips.”
volume v 53