1. Define the concept LIFE . Fundamental characteristics of life (1-6). Levels organisation of living things (Molecules. Cell.

Tissue) Life is the living things share a group of characteristics not found in living things. Fundamental characteristics of life is: Composed of cells They grow and develop Have genetics information Use energy Respond to stimuli Levels organisation of living things Cell tissue organ system Chemical level cellular level organ system ecological system

20. The main stages of the development of genetics. Scientific contribution in to the development of genetics. 1. Aregor Mendel a) Present model of inheritance b) Rediscovered by Hugo,Erich, Carl c) Law of Hybridisation (1st and 2nd law) *movement of chromosome in mitosis and meiosis discovered 2. Thomas Morgan a) Discovered specific gene with specific chromosome 3. Johansen ( Danish Botanist) a) Explain unit of gene (carried by chromosome) b) Study Drophille of wing used chromosome mapping find out crossing over

21. Heredity and variability as fundamental characteristic of life. Heredity: process transmit from generatio to next generation through gene Variability: different in characteristics within same species caused by mutation, DNA recombination Genetic material and characteristic; -Genetic: study of variability and heredity -Gene: hereditary unit that encode genetic information to control specific traits DNA was fomed DNA + Histone Chromosome

-Alleles: Dominant when express Homozygous AA, Heterozygous Aa, Recessive only when Homozygous aa -Genotype: Genetic make up, not expressed ( Homo/Heterozygous) -Phenotype: controlled by genotype : eye colour ; by environment : twins( different family); by genotype and environment : height

22. Mendelian Genetics. Regularities of inheritance and their cytological base. Test Cross. a) Study garden pea inheritance using hybridisation method (used homozygous parent analyses next generation): self polirisation has no intermediate traits easy to cultivate several varities available b) Monohybrid crossing (crossing between 2 homoxygous parent with only 2 gene different 1st law (Law of Unit Character) in monohybrid crossing, parent homozygous. F1 all same genotype and phenotype.

RR R R F1 Rr R Rr

X
r Rr

rr

r Rr

2nd law ( Law of Segregation) monohbyrid crossing over between heterozygous (F1) 2 alleles forming 1 gene separate and form different gamete *only 1 of 2 allele can be found in one gamete:

Rr

Rr

F2

RR

Rr

Rr

rr

c) Dihybrid crossing- crossing between 2 homozygous parent with 2 gene different (form cross and punnet square) 3rd law ( Law of Independent Assortment) Gene are inherited independently if gene located in different loci. Only 1 allele of gene can pair with 1 allele from another gene in a gamete. 2 pairs of contrasting chromosome characters distributed independently. d) Test cross: method cross a plant with unknown gene and known gene See 1st generation and predict genotype of unknown gene 23. Multiple alleles and polygene inheritance. Human ABO Blood Groups. Polygenic characters Multiple alleles: a gene contain more than 2 alleles or same gene locos, 2 or more alleles controlled one characteristic Human Blood group: Example: Blood sympolined by I (Isohaemoglutinogen) carried by 3 alleles. (A, B, O): multiple allele I A code: Enzyme acetyl-galactose attach to protein ( Antigen A) IB code: enzyme galactose attach protein( Antigen B) *I do not code for enzyme no antigen, have antibodies A & B Transfusion: B O Rhesus: antigen (pominant allele : Rh+, Rh -), antibodies to this antigen is IgG (monomer, so can cross placenta), Erythoblastosis Fetalis, Anemic Danger!!! If mother Rh- and baby Rh- ( first baby) , when fetal blood cross through placenta, mothers I-immune will respon d. 2nd baby has Rh+ , the IgG will destroy baby blood. So to prevent this situation, the mother have to be injected with antibodies Rh after 1st baby. Polyhenicharacter: phenotype influence by more than1 gene at different loci or more pair of homozygous chromosomes Has 2 types: Qualitative- 2 conditions which is different controlled by a single pair of gene. Example: skin colour - AABBCC darkest person - aabbcc albino person Quantitative measurable , example: height, weight A AB

Non-allelic genes- alleles located on different loci but contaion and control same gene

24. Interaction of nonallele genes:epistasis, polymeria complementation. Epistasis: pairs of gene of one locus may prevent the pair of gene at different locus to express Example 2 parents both are AB, children will be supposed AA/BB/AB but comes out O. This is because the recessive allele at different loci suppress AB blood type. Polymeria: has 2 types CUMULATIVE INCUMULATIVE Nodegree

Degree phenotype expression depend on dominant allele Have intermendiate

Skin colour :AABBCC>AAbbCC>aabbc c

Intermediate -if any one of 3 gene is homologous dominant, trait of dominant will be expressed Flower :AAbbCC (red colour)

Complementation: 2 or more gene contribute to form 1 trait. Example; -good hearing- 1st gene cochlear development, 2nd gene acoustic nerve - good hearing- AABb/AABB/AaBB, if one gene recessive= deaf.

25. Interaction of allele genes: dominance,incomplete dominance, codominance Allelic gene: alleles controlling a gene at same locus, when heterozygote has intermediate phenotype (pink flower) red( pigmented) > pink (less pigmented) > white (no pigmented) Dominance: phenotype of homozygous dominant and heterozygous is the same Incomplete dominance( ray sach disease): unable to metabolise liquid in brain cell, so accumulate,mental retard. Heterezygote no symptoms Codominance : when phenotype fully express both alleles on heterozygous ( eg. Blood group) 26.Linkage groups. Chromosome theory of heredity Linkage grous: genes present on the same chromosomes and are linked

: 2 or more genes tends to be inherited together. Each chromosomes carries in large in large hereditary characters. Example: drosophila melanogaster (fruitfly)- 8 chromosmes in somatic cell but carry 2500 genes chromosome theory ( hereditary) No linkage of groups cannot be greater than number of pairs of homologous chromosome 2 or more genes transmitted without being segregated during gamete formation

27. Sex determination. Sex chromosomes. Sex linkage. Sex determination: depends on the pairs of chromosomes (in hmans and fruit fly). XY: male ( heterogametic), XX: female (homogametic). Egg was produced by one of XX female, the father (XY) will determine sex of baby. *Birds and reptiles: ZZ( male), ZW (female), amphibinans, butterflies. Sex linkage: Non homologous portion( y chromosome has not matching loci) Non homologous loci on the sex chromosome (sex linked) Sex linked genes show a pattern of inheritance ( depends on the sex of parents and offsprings *gene found on sex chromosome follow Morganics law of linkage X chromosome. The longer one carry more gene father pass sex linkage to all daughter, not to son. * Male will inherit disoreder because they only have 1 pair of allele.

28.Genotype. Phenotype. Phenotype as result of expression of hereditary information in particular conditions of ambience. Genotype: the genetic make up of an organism Phenotype: the traits resulting from gene expression Phenotype; Used to refer to an organisms appearance Different genotype different phenotype ( genotype is fixed byt phenotype can be vary.