Bittner, Quasi-Military Organization of the Police

o o Conception of the police as a quasi-military institution with a warlike mission plays is overlooked in the literature Why military like? o Apparent analogies between the military and the police Both are instruments of force o Police reform possible through introduction of military discipline o Police used this military method because no other options of secure internal discipline nsisting officers keep their nose clear! officers simply arrest the person they brutali"ed #mphasis on military-bureaucratic control rewards the appearance of staying out of trouble as far as internal regulations go o $nus of the operative%s misconduct on citi"ens &iscipline of police superiors o Police official someone who can do a great deal to his subordinates and very little for them 'nlike army officer! doesn%t lead his men to battle &epend on goodwill of the subordinates thus are forced to resort to the only available means of securing loyalty by covering transgressions (ubverts police training o $verall trying to turn into compliant solider-bureaucrats and rather than competent parishioners of the craft of peacekeeping o )o direct relations between knowing the regulation and maintaining the appearance of complying with them *ost highly developed in his constabulary role of the man of the beat o +he uniformed ,cop% o )ot really caste distinction in sociali"ation o #very officer of the rank must serve as an apprenticeship as a patrolman +he symbolic assailant and the police culture o $ccupied with potential violence and develops a shorthand to identify certain kinds of people as symbolic as symbolic assailant o #n-oy possibility of danger o +rained to be suspicious (ocial isolation o &o not get along with anybody regardless o solation from the public as a whole .ack of respect for the police! lack of cooperation! lack of understanding /eel re-ected when sociali"ing (olidarity o Police show unusually high degree of occupational solidarity (ocially active occupational group Police solidarity and danger o &oesn%t feel his status as civil servant should relieve the public of responsibility for law enforcement .ack of public support and public apathy Police works at identifying and possibly apprehending the symbolic assailant0 the ordinary citi"en doesn%t (ocial isolation and authority o Awareness of isolation and apt to weight authority as a casual factor &ifficulties association with his in-unction to regulate public morality

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Skolnic, A sketch of the policemans working personality

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s hypocritical o &iscrepancy between moral regulation and the norms and behaviour of policemen in these areas 1letting oneself go2 in presence of others Correlates of public isolation o +he element of authority f they feel their authority declines! internal solidarity becomes important to the police o Conservative emotionally and politically mplicated in affirming them as well enforcing them

Skolnic, A sketch of the policemans working personality

o *ost highly developed in his constabulary role of the man of the beat o +he uniformed ,cop% o )ot really caste distinction in sociali"ation o #very officer of the rank must serve as an apprenticeship as a patrolman +he symbolic assailant and the police culture o $ccupied with potential violence and develops a shorthand to identify certain kinds of people as symbolic as symbolic assailant o #n-oy possibility of danger o +rained to be suspicious (ocial isolation o &o not get along with anybody regardless o solation from the public as a whole .ack of respect for the police! lack of cooperation! lack of understanding /eel re-ected when sociali"ing (olidarity o Police show unusually high degree of occupational solidarity (ocially active occupational group Police solidarity and danger o &oesn%t feel his status as civil servant should relieve the public of responsibility for law enforcement .ack of public support and public apathy Police works at identifying and possibly apprehending the symbolic assailant0 the ordinary citi"en doesn%t (ocial isolation and authority o Awareness of isolation and apt to weight authority as a casual factor

an Maanen, !insmen in "epose

o o +he patrolman on the street is the tail Policemen generally see themselves as performing society%s dirty work and thus there is a gap between the police and the public where patrolman feels cut off and stimati"ed unfairly by the public o +he element of authority f they feel their authority declines! internal solidarity becomes important to the police o Conservative emotionally and politically $ccupational perspectives o Patrolman%s unique role in the social world and 1outsider2 position in the community o )ature of the patrolman%s task requirements and deals with the survival dictums of his occupation o +he $utsider .ow visibility

*onopolistic grip on legal application of force and the stress of deciding when to use this &ecision made in the emotional fever or fear! immediacy of anger thus ultimate responsibility &anger inherent in police work and alienates from the public ndifferent and antagonistic manner b which he is treated by the public 3arely see the men people twice thus only assistance from brother officers (hift work Cynicism from public apathy $utsider perspective that crystalli"es patrolman%s identity because sets him off others and provides an anchor in which he attaches his personal relationships (urvival4 lay low and avoid trouble 13eal2 police work Calls for a patrolman to e5ercise his e5pertise o (ource of satisfaction and frustration 1back-up2 o 1help the officer2 most seriously Producing activity for the sergeant (taying out of trouble Will do what is assigned to him and little more o .ittle incentive to work hard Working hard increases chances of encounter with citi"ens Answering call meant for someone else hard o )o-ret rules 6iolation of the rules are met with swift informal disapproval o +actic norm to not call attention that is critical to a colleague but acceptable to cover up for the mistake of another o +he sergeant screens all reports written by men and if ambiguous phrase could be deemed negative he will have to re-write the paper o Covering your ass by not taking imitative on the street but reacting primarily to department directive .aying low develops as officer finds about the e5ternal reward of a police career is fi5ed &on%t e5pect much (urvival perspective is strengthened by patrol work has little to no value outside

incent, #mpact of Stress Situation

o o o o &on%t treat any situation as routine or in an offhand manner o (urvival wisdom (tress is the non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it (tress for office is further specified by possible use of force and intensifying the learning process *ost important factor is crisis situation o 1have to make arrests2 o &o not feel they have adequate training o f dealt incorrectly then have wide repercussions Police officers are great talkers Courtroom another area in which the officer comes to grip with his realities of the -ob o Can learn a lesson from his poor showing on the witness stand and operate in a more calculated way o (ee himself as an avenger of wrongs against society o #mbittered and discouraged

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Conclusion4 officer in isolation and his reaction on his part is not only stressful factors but also his perception of the public as being non-supportive! demanding and critical

$he %riminal #n&estigation Process

o Part 7 crimes are criminal homicide! forcible rape! robbery! aggravated assaults! burglary! larceny and auto theft o (tudy focused on Part crime only and e5cluded misdemeanours! vice! narcotics! gambling of the study o 789 -urisdiction! 78: full-time employees with cities of 7::!::: or more /indings o nvestigative unit4 7;<9= o Clearance and arrest stats are not suited measures of effectiveness of investigative operations because administration discretion plays into factors of department%s clearance rates o Arrests because arrests can be made without resulting in any clearance and reflect more activities of patrol officers and member of the police than investigators o )o more than ><; percent of Part clearances can be attributed to investigators in unknown offender o $nly 7: percent of all its clearances are towards investigative o $nly in cases of homicides! robbery! and commercial theft any qualitative effort could affect clearance rates o Contributions of victims! witnesses! and patrol officers most important to identification and apprehension o VARIATION o *ost important determinants of a department%s arrest rates are4 &epartment si"e .agers claim more clearance rates per arrest but arrest rates do not differ 3egion of country (outh central states more ts crime workload &epartments having larger number of reported crimes per police officer have lower arrest rates than other departments #ffect strongest for above threshold f numbers of total officer kept fi5ed! switching some officers into or out of investigative unit not likely to have substantial effect on arrest or clearance rate &epartments that assign ma-or investigation to patrol officers may have lower clearance rate but not low arrest rates o *any other characteristics of investigations were found to be unrelated to arrest rates +raining! service rank! nature of interaction with crown o ?ot time spent o .ess than half of all reported crimes reported any serious consideration by investigator and less than a day%s attention o *ost activity4 homicide! rape! and suicide o Average detective doesn%t work on a large number of cases ach month and usually only one per day o 88 percent doing administrative and only 88 percent doing casework and only @: percent of that is spent doing investigating and only 7> percent or ; spent doing eventually solved crime and @A or >B on cleared cases o (pend C9 percent of time doing activities that do not lead to solving previously reported crimes o /ingerprints o 3ate at which fingerprints are used to identify burglary thief unrelated to print recover rate 7 to > percent o .ifting more prints do not result in a higher rate of identification o /inger identification capability more productive of identifications than a more intensive print collection effort o 3arely do police contact victims

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Proactive techniques can be productive in making arrests particularly fencing and bur glaring f a function now assigned to investigators can be done better should taken away from investigators o f serve ob-ective of prosecutors! then competent investigators $nly when apprehension proves difficult should investigative units be involved &o more routine investigative actions o But not by investigators $nly serious crimes by investigators *ost departments collect more evidence than productive process o 3eference print area by geographic area o Communicative links o /ingerprint specialist (hould enhance victim%s desire to cooperate with police *ost initial investigations to patrolling officers and away from traditional reactive investigative units