Time of Medieval Music: Generally, the time frame applied to Medieval Music is from the fall of the Roman

Empire (486 A ! to the "e#innin# of the Renaissance ($4%%!& 'hat is Medieval Music(: Medieval music is characteri)ed "y the si#nificant use of chant& *t +as later harmoni)ed +ith 4ths, ,ths, and octaves& Many styles of music too- form durin# the Medieval .eriod: Gre#orian /hant, or#anum, motets, litur#ical dramas, and chansons& Medieval Music Manuscript: 0ecause the cost of printin#, +hich involved scri"es hand copyin# each piece of music and duplicatin# it for each mem"er, +as e1tremely hi#h, only the +ealthier institutions (churches and monasteries! +ere a"le to create and duplicate manuscripts& .opular music at the time +as not printed, and thus, its style is relatively un-no+n& 2ince music notation +e -no+ today +as not yet invented, musical interpretation can vary drasitcally amon# music scholars& Medieval .eriod *nstruments: Many of the instruments used durin# the Medieval .eriod still e1ist today3 the pan4flute, cornett (an ancestor of the trumpet!, recorder, lute, mandolin, and last "ut not least, the dulcimer& Medieval /omposers: These Medieval composers resent a fraction of the many composers durin# the Medieval .eriod: 5ilde#ard von 0in#en Guillaume de Machaut .erotin 6aufre Rudel 7eidhart von Reuental Maestro .iero 8oren)o da 9iren)e 9rancesco 8andini 2ola#e 6acopo da 0olo#na http:::classicalmusic&a"out&com:od:medievalmusic:p:medievalmusic&htm

Classical period
The /lassical period in 'estern music occurred from a"out $;<% to $8=%, despite considera"le overlap at "oth ends +ith precedin# and follo+in# periods, as is true for all musical eras& Althou#h the term classical music is used as a "lan-et term meanin# all -inds of music in this tradition, it can also occasionally mean this particular era +ithin that tradition& The /lassical period falls "et+een the 0aro>ue and the Romantic periods& .ro"a"ly the "est -no+n composers from this period are 'olf#an# Amadeus Mo)art, 6oseph 5aydn, and 8ud+i# van 0eethoven, thou#h other nota"le names include Mu)io /lementi, 6ohann 8adislaus usse-, /arl .hilipp Emanuel 0ach, and /hristoph 'illi"ald Gluc-& 0eethoven is also re#arded either as a Romantic composer or a composer +ho +as part of the transition to the Romantic3 9ran) 2chu"ert is also somethin# of a transitional fi#ure& The period is sometimes referred to as ?iennese /lassic, since Mo)art, 5aydn, 0eethoven, and 2chu"ert all +or-ed at some time in ?ienna&

Main characteristics of music in the Classical period

8i#hter, clearer te1ture than 0aro>ue music, and less complicated3 mainly homophonic @ melody a"ove chordal accompaniment ("ut counterpoint is "y no means for#otten, especially later in the period!& An emphasis on #race and "eauty of melody and form3 proportion and "alance, moderation and control3 polished and ele#ant in character +ith e1pressiveness and formal structure held in perfect "alance& More variety and contrast +ithin a piece: of -eys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics (no+ usin# crescendo and sfor)ando!3 fre>uent chan#es of mood and tim"re& Melodies tend to "e shorter than those of 0aro>ue, +ith clear4cut phrases and clearly mar-ed cadences& Archestra increases in si)e and ran#e3 harpsichord continuo falls out of use3 +ood+ind "ecomes a self4contained section& The harpsichord is replaced "y the piano (or fortepiano!: early piano music is thinnish in te1ture, often +ith Al"erti "ass accompaniment (5aydn and Mo)art!, "ut later "ecomes richer, more sonorous and po+erful (0eethoven!& *mportance #iven to instrumental music @ main -inds: sonata, trio, strin# >uartet, symphony, concerto, serenade and divertimento& 2onata form develops, and "ecomes the most important desi#n @ used to "uild up the first movement of most lar#e4scale +or-s, "ut also other movements, and sin#le pieces (such as overtures!&

History of the Classical period

The Classical style as part of a larger artistic change

*n the middle of the $8th century, Europe "e#an to move to a ne+ style in architecture, literature, and the arts #enerally, -no+n as /lassicism& 'hile still ti#htly lin-ed to the court culture and a"solutism, +ith its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the ne+ style +as also a cleaner style, one that favored clearer divisions "et+een parts, "ri#hter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than comple1ity& The remar-a"le development of ideas in Bnatural philosophyB had esta"lished itself in the pu"lic consciousness, +ith 7e+tonCs physics ta-en as a paradi#m: structures should "e +ell4 founded in a1ioms, and articulated and orderly& This taste for structural clarity +or-ed its +ay into the +orld of music as +ell, movin# a+ay from the layered polyphony of the 0aro>ue period, and to+ards a style +here a melody over a su"ordinate harmony @ a com"ination called homophony @ +as preferred& This meant that playin# of chords, even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a sin#le part, "ecame a much more prevalent feature of music, and this in turn made the tonal structure of +or-s more audi"le& (2ee also counterpoint and harmony&! The ne+ style +as also pushed for+ard "y chan#es in the economic order and in social structure& As the $8th century pro#ressed, the no"ility more and more "ecame the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there +as a rise in the pu"lic taste for comic opera& This led to chan#es in the +ay music +as performed, the most crucial of +hich +as the move to standard instrumental #roups, and the reduction in the importance of the BcontinuoB, the harmonic fill "eneath the music, often played "y several instruments& Ane +ay to trace this decline of the continuo and its fi#ured chords is to e1amine the decline of the term Bo""li#atoB, meanin# a mandatory instrumental part in a +or- of cham"er music& *n the 0aro>ue +orld, additional instruments could "e optionally added to the continuo3 in the /lassical +orld, all parts +ere noted specifically, thou#h not al+ays notated, as a matter of course, so the +ord Bo""li#atoB "ecame redundant& 0y $8%%, the term +as virtually e1tinct, as +as the practice of conductin# a +or- from the -ey"oard& The chan#es in economic situation Dust noted also had the effect of alterin# the "alance of availa"ility and >uality of musicians& 'hile in the late 0aro>ue a maDor composer +ould have the entire musical resources of a to+n to dra+ on, the forces availa"le at a huntin# lod#e +ere smaller, and more fi1ed in their level of a"ility& This +as a spur to havin# primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso #roup, a spur to +ritin# spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the Mannheim orchestra& *n addition, the appetite for a continual supply of ne+ music, carried over from the 0aro>ue, meant that +or-s had to "e performa"le +ith, at "est, one rehearsal& *ndeed, even after $;E% Mo)art +rites a"out Bthe rehearsalB, to imply that his concerts +ould have only one& 2ince polyphonic te1ture +as no lon#er the focus of music, "ut rather a sin#le melodic line +ith accompaniment, there +as #reater emphasis on notatin# that line for dynamics and phrasin#& The simplification of te1ture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention4#ettin# openin# fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet #enre, more important in

esta"lishin# and unifyin# the tone of a sin#le movement& This led to the /lassical styleCs #radual "rea-in# +ith the 0aro>ue ha"it of ma-in# each movement of music devoted to a sin#le BaffectB or emotion& *nstead, it "ecame the style to esta"lish contrasts "et+een sections +ithin movements, #ivin# each its o+n emotional colorin#, usin# a ran#e of techni>ues: opposition of maDor and minor3 strident rhythmic themes in opposition to lon#er, more son#4li-e themes3 and especially, ma-in# movement "et+een different harmonic areas the principal means of creatin# dramatic contrast and unity& Transitional episodes "ecame more and more important, as occasions of surprise and deli#ht& /onse>uently composers and musicians "e#an to pay more attention to these, hi#hli#htin# their arrival, and ma-in# the si#ns that pointed to them, on one hand, more audi"le, and on the other hand, more the su"Dect of BplayB and su"version @ that is, composers more and more created false e1pectations, only to have the music s-itter off in a different direction&

Beginnings of the Classical style (1730-1760

At first the ne+ style too- over 0aro>ue forms @ the ternary Bda capo ariaB and the BsinfoniaB and BconcertoB @ and composed +ith simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections& 5o+ever, over time, the ne+ aesthetic caused radical chan#es in ho+ pieces +ere put to#ether, and the "asic layouts chan#ed& (2ee 5istory of sonata form&! /omposers from this period sou#ht dramatic effects, stri-in# melodies, and clearer te1tures& The *talian composer omenico 2carlatti +as an important fi#ure in the transition from 0aro>ue to /lassical& 5is uni>ue composition style is stron#ly related to that of the early /lassical period& 5e is "est -no+n for composin# more than five hundred one4movement -ey"oard sonatas& Another important "rea- +ith the past +as the radical overhaul of opera "y /hristoph 'illi"ald Gluc-, +ho cut a+ay a #reat deal of the layerin# and improvisational ornament, and focused on the points of modulation and transition& 0y ma-in# these moments +here the harmony chan#es more focal, he ena"led po+erful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music& To hi#hli#ht these episodes he used chan#es in instrumentation, melody, and mode& Amon# the most successful composers of his time, Gluc- spa+ned many emulators, one of +hom +as Antonio 2alieri& Their emphasis on accessi"ility +as hu#ely successful in opera, and in vocal music more +idely: son#s, oratorios, and choruses& These +ere considered the most important -inds of music for performance, and hence enDoyed #reatest success in the pu"lic estimation& The phase "et+een the 0aro>ue and the rise of the /lassical, +ith its "road mi1ture of competin# ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and B+orldvie+B, #oes "y many names& *t is sometimes called BGalantB, BRococoB, or Bpre4 /lassicalB, or at other times, Bearly /lassicalB& *t is a period +here composers still +or-in# in the 0aro>ue style are still successful, if sometimes thou#ht of as "ein# more of the past than the present @ 0ach, 5andel and Telemann all compose +ell "eyond the point at +hich the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant& Musical culture +as cau#ht at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the techni>ue, "ut the pu"lic hun#ered for the ne+& This is one of the reasons /&.&E& 0ach +as held in such hi#h

re#ard: he understood the older forms >uite +ell, and -ne+ ho+ to present them in ne+ #ar", +ith an enhanced variety of form3 he +ent far in overhaulin# the older forms from the 0aro>ue&

The early Classical style (1760-177!

0y the late $;,%s there are flourishin# centers of the ne+ style in *taly, ?ienna, Mannheim, and .aris3 do)ens of symphonies are composed, and there are B"andsB of players associated +ith theatres& Apera or other vocal music is the feature of most musical events, +ith concerti and BsymphoniesB, +hich +ould over the course of the /lassical develop and "ecome independent instrumental +or-s (see symphony!, servin# as instrumental interludes and introductions, for operas, and for even church services& The norms of a "ody of strin#s supplemented "y +inds, and of movements of particular rhythmic character, are esta"lished "y the late $;,%s in ?ienna& 0ut the len#th and +ei#ht of pieces is still set +ith some 0aro>ue characteristics: individual movements still focus on one affect or have only one sharply contrastin# middle section, and their len#th is not si#nificantly #reater than 0aro>ue movements& *t should also "e noted that at this time there is not yet a clearly enunciated theory of ho+ to compose in the ne+ style& *t +as a moment ripe for a "rea-throu#h& Many consider this "rea-throu#h to have "een made "y /&.&E& 0ach, Gluc-, and several others& *ndeed, /&.&E& 0ach and Gluc- are often considered to "e founders of the /lassical style itself& The first #reat master of the style +as the composer 6oseph 5aydn& *n the late $;,%s he "e#an composin# symphonies, and "y $;6$ he had composed a triptych (BMornin#B, B7oonB, and BEvenin#B! solidly in the BcontemporaryB mode& As a Bvice4FapellmeisterB and later BFapellmeisterB, his output e1panded: he +ould compose over forty symphonies in the $;6%s alone& And +hile his fame #re+, as his orchestra +as e1panded and his compositions +ere copied and disseminated, his voice +as only one amon# many& 'hile some su##est that he +as overshado+ed "y Mo)art and 0eethoven, it +ould "e difficult to overstate 5aydnCs centrality to the ne+ style, and therefore to the future of 'estern art music as a +hole& At the time, "efore the pre4eminence of Mo)art or 0eethoven, and +ith 6ohann 2e"astian 0ach -no+n primarily to connoisseurs of -ey"oard music, 5aydn reached a place in music that set him a"ove all other composers e1cept perhaps Geor#e 9riedrich 5andel& 2ome have pointed out that he occupieda place e>uivalent to the 0eatles, for e1ample, in the history of Roc- and Roll& *t +as he +ho, more than any other sin#le individual, reali)ed that the evolvin# ne+ style needed to "e directed "y ne+ ideas and principles& 5e too- e1istin# ideas, and radically altered ho+ they functioned @ earnin# him the titles Bfather of the symphony,B and Bfather of the strin# >uartet&B Ane mi#ht truly say that he +as the father of the sonata form @ +hich, in its /lassical flo+erin#, relied on dramatic contrast, tension of melody a#ainst harmony and rhythm, and re>uired the audience to follo+ a dramatic curve over a lar#er span of time than +as previously necessary&

2tran#ely enou#h, one of the forces that +or-ed as an impetus for his pressin# for+ard +as the first stirrin# of +hat +ould later "e called BRomanticismB @ the B2turm und ran#B, or Bstorm and stressB phase in the arts, a short period +here o"vious emotionalism +as a stylistic preference: the fad of the $;;%s& 5aydn accordin#ly +anted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealin# melodies, +ith sharpened character and individuality& This period faded a+ay in music and literature: ho+ever, it +ould color +hat came after+ard, and eventually "e a component of aesthetic taste in comin# decades& The B9are+ellB 2ymphony, 7o& 4, in 9G Minor, e1emplifies 5aydnCs inte#ration of the differin# demands of the ne+ style, +ith surprisin# sharp turns, and a lon# ada#io to end the +or-& *n $;;=, 5aydn completed his Apus =% set of si1 strin# >uartets, in +hich he deploys the polyphonic techni>ues he #athered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capa"le of holdin# to#ether his melodic ideas& 9or some this mar-s the "e#innin# of the BmatureB /lassical style, +here the period of reaction a#ainst the comple1ity of the late 0aro>ue "e#ins to "e replaced +ith a period of inte#ration of elements of "oth 0aro>ue and /lassical styles&

The middle Classical style (177!-17"0

5aydn, havin# +or-ed for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composin# than most, and also the a"ility to shape the forces that +ould play his music& This opportunity +as not +asted, as 5aydn, "e#innin# >uite early on his career, restlessly sou#ht to press for+ard the techni>ue of "uildin# ideas in music (see development!& 5is ne1t important "rea-throu#h +as in the Apus << strin# >uartets ($;8$!, +here the melodic and the harmonic roles se#ue amon# the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear +hat is melody and +hat is harmony& This chan#es the +ay the ensem"le +or-s its +ay "et+een dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flo+s smoothly and +ithout o"vious interruption& 5e then too- this inte#rated style and "e#an applyin# it to orchestral and vocal music& 5aydnCs #ift to music +as a +ay of composin#, a +ay of structurin# +or-s, +hich +as at the same time in accord +ith the #overnin# aesthetic of the ne+ style& *t +ould, ho+ever, "e a youn#er contemporary, 'olf#an# Amadeus Mo)art, +ho +ould "rin# his #enius to 5aydnCs ideas, and apply them to t+o of the maDor #enres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto& 'hereas 5aydn spent much of his +or-in# life as a court composer, Mo)art +anted pu"lic success in the concert life of cities& This meant opera, and it meant performin# as a virtuoso& 5aydn +as not a virtuoso at the international tourin# level3 nor +as he see-in# to create operatic +or-s that could play for many ni#hts in front of a lar#e audience& Mo)art +anted "oth& Moreover, Mo)art also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and #reater contrasts in harmonic lan#ua#e #enerally!, a #reater love for creatin# a +elter of melodies in a sin#le +or-, and a more *talianate sensi"ility in music as a +hole& 5e found, in 5aydnCs music, and later in his study of the polyphony of 0ach, the means to discipline and enrich his #ifts& Mo)art rapidly came to the attention of 5aydn, +ho hailed the ne+ composer, studied his

+or-s, and considered the youn#er man his only true peer in music& Their letters to each other are filled +ith the -ind of asides that only t+o people +or-in# at a hi#her plane than their contemporaries can share& *n Mo)art, 5aydn found a #reater ran#e of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource @ the learnin# relationship moved in t+o directions& Mo)artCs arrival in ?ienna in $;8% "rou#ht an acceleration in the development of the /lassical style& There Mo)art a"sor"ed the fusion of *talianate "rilliance and Germanic cohesiveness +hich had "een "re+in# for the previous =% years& 5is o+n taste for "rilliances, rhythmically comple1 melodies and fi#ures, lon# cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes +as mer#ed +ith an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness& 2tran#ely enou#h, it is at this point that +ar and inflation halted a trend to lar#er and lar#er orchestras and forced the dis"andin# or reduction of many theatre orchestras& This pressed the /lassical style in+ards: to+ards see-in# #reater ensem"le and technical challen#e @ for e1ample, scatterin# the melody across +ood+inds, or usin# thirds to hi#hli#ht the melody ta-en "y them& This process placed a premium on cham"er music for more pu"lic performance, #ivin# a further "oost to the strin# >uartet and other small ensem"le #roupin#s& *t +as durin# this decade that pu"lic taste "e#an, increasin#ly, to reco#ni)e that 5aydn and Mo)art had reached a hi#her standard of composition& 0y the time Mo)art arrived at a#e =,, in $;8$, the dominant styles of ?ienna +ere reco#ni)a"ly connected to the emer#ence in the $;,%s of the early /lassical style& 0y the end of the $;8%s, chan#es in performance practice, the relative standin# of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had "ecome esta"lished in the composers +ho imitated Mo)art and 5aydn& urin# this decade Mo)art +ould compose his most famous operas, his si1 late symphonies +hich +ould help redefine the #enre, and a strin# of piano concerti +hich still stand at the pinnacle of these forms& Ane composer +ho +as influential in spreadin# the more serious style that Mo)art and 5aydn had formed is Mu)io /lementi, a #ifted virtuoso pianist +ho dueled Mo)art to a dra+ "efore the Emperor, +hen they e1hi"ited their compositions in performance& 5is o+n sonatas for the piano circulated +idely, and he "ecame the most successful composer in 8ondon durin# the $;8%s& The sta#e +as set for a #eneration of composers +ho, havin# a"sor"ed the lessons of the ne+ style earlier, and havin# clear e1amples to aim at, +ould ta-e the /lassical style in ne+ directions& Also in 8ondon at this time +as 6ohann 8adislaus usse-, +ho, li-e /lementi, encoura#ed piano ma-ers to e1tend the ran#e and other features of their instruments, and then fully e1ploited the ne+ly opened possi"ilities& The importance of 8ondon in the /lassical period is often overloo-ed @ "ut it served as the home to the 0road+oodCs factory for piano manufacturin#, and as the "ase for composers +ho, +hile less famous than the B?ienna 2choolB, +ould have a decisive influence on +hat came later& They +ere composers of a num"er of fine +or-s, nota"le in their o+n ri#ht& 8ondonCs taste for virtuosity may +ell have encoura#ed the comple1 passa#e +or- and e1tended statements on tonic and dominant&

The late Classical style (17"0-1#$!

'hen 5aydn and Mo)art "e#an composin#, symphonies +ere played as sin#le movements "efore, "et+een, or as interludes +ithin other +or-s, and many of them lasted only ten or t+elve minutes3 instrumental #roups had varyin# standards of playin# and the BcontinuoB +as a central part of music4ma-in#& *n the intervenin# years, the social +orld of music had seen dramatic chan#es: international pu"lication and tourin# had #ro+n e1plosively, concert societies +ere "e#innin# to "e formed, notation had "een made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for +or-s had "een simplified (yet "ecame more varied in their e1act +or-in# out!& *n $;E%, Dust "efore Mo)artCs death, +ith his reputation spreadin# rapidly, 5aydn +as poised for a series of successes, nota"ly his late oratorios and B8ondonB symphonies& /omposers in .aris, Rome and all over Germany turned to 5aydn and Mo)art for their ideas on form& The moment +as a#ain ripe for a dramatic shift& The decade of the $;E%s sa+ the emer#ence of a ne+ #eneration of composers, "orn around $;;%, +ho, +hile they had #ro+n up +ith the earlier styles, found in the recent +or-s of 5aydn and Mo)art a vehicle for #reater e1pression& *n $;88 8ui#i /heru"ini settled in .aris, and in $;E$ composed B8odois-aB, an opera that shot him to fame& *ts style is clearly reflective of the mature 5aydn and Mo)art, and its instrumentation #ave it a +ei#ht that had not yet "een felt in the #rand opera& 5is contemporary Htienne MIhul e1tended instrumental effects +ith his $;E% opera BEuphrosine et /oradinB, from +hich follo+ed a series of successes& Af course, the most fateful of the ne+ #eneration +ould "e 8ud+i# van 0eethoven, +ho launched his num"ered +or-s in $;E4 +ith a set of three piano trios, +hich remain in the repertoire& 2ome+hat youn#er than these, thou#h e>ually accomplished "ecause of his youthful study under Mo)art and his native virtuosity, +as 6ohann 7epomu- 5ummel& 5ummel studied under 5aydn as +ell3 he +as a friend to 0eethoven and 2chu"ert, and a teacher to 9ran) 8is)t& 5e concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in 8ondon in $;E$ and $;E= sa+ the composition, and pu"lication in $;E<, of three piano sonatas, opus =, +hich idiomatically used Mo)artCs techni>ues of avoidin# the e1pected cadence, and /lementiCs sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso fi#uration& Ta-en to#ether, these composers can "e seen no+ as the van#uard of a "road chan#e in style and the center of #ravity in music& They +ould study one anotherCs +or-s, copy one anotherCs #estures in music, and on occasion "ehave li-e >uarrelsome rivals& The crucial differences +ith the previous +ave can "e seen in the do+n+ard shift in melodies, increasin# durations of movements, the acceptance of Mo)art and 5aydn as paradi#matic, the #reater and #reater use of -ey"oard resources, the shift from BvocalB +ritin# to BpianisticB +ritin#, the #ro+in# pull of the minor and of modal am"i#uity, and the increasin# importance of varyin# accompanyin# fi#ures to "rin# Bte1tureB for+ard as an element in music& *n short, the late /lassical +as see-in# a music that +as internally more comple1& The #ro+th of concert societies and amateur orchestras, mar-in# the importance of music as part of middle4class life, contri"uted to a "oomin# mar-et for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as e1amplars& 5ummel, 0eethoven, /lementi +ere all reno+ned for their improvisin#&

Ane e1planation for the shift in style has "een advanced "y 2choen"er# and others: the increasin# centrality of the idea of theme and variations in compositional thin-in#& 2choen"er# ar#ues that the /lassical style +as one of Bcontinuin# variationB, +here a development +as, in effect, a theme and variations +ith #reater continuity& *n any event, theme and variations replaced the fu#ue as the standard vehicle for improvisin#, and +as often included, directly or indirectly, as a movement in lon#er instrumental +or-s& irect influence of the 0aro>ue continued to fade: the fi#ured "ass #re+ less prominent as a means of holdin# performance to#ether, the performance practices of the mid $8th century continued to die out& 5o+ever, at the same time, complete editions of 0aro>ue masters "e#an to "ecome availa"le, and the influence of 0aro>ue style, as the /lassical period understood it, continued to #ro+, particularly in the ever more e1pansive use of "rass& Another feature of the period is the #ro+in# num"er of performances +here the composer +as not present& This led to increased detail and specificity in notation3 for e1ample, there +ere fe+er and fe+er BoptionalB parts that stood separately from the main score& The force of these shifts +ould "e a"undantly apparent +ith 0eethovenCs <rd 2ymphony, #iven the name BEroicaB, +hich is *talian for BheroicB, "y the composer& As +ith 2travins-yCs Rite of 2prin#, it may not have "een the first in all of its innovations, "ut its a##ressive use of every part of the /lassical style set it apart from its contemporary +or-s: in len#th, am"ition, and harmonic resources&

Classical influence on later composers

Musical eras seldom disappear at once3 instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as Bold4fashionedB& The /lassical style did not BdieB so much as transform under the +ei#ht of chan#es& Ane crucial chan#e +as the shift to+ards harmonies centerin# around Bflat+ardB or su"dominant -eys& *n the /lassical style, maDor -ey +as far more common than minor, chromaticism "ein# moderated throu#h the use of Bsharp+ardB modulation, and sections in the minor mode +ere often merely for contrast& 0e#innin# +ith Mo)art and /lementi, there "e#an a creepin# coloni)ation of the su"dominant re#ion& 'ith 2chu"ert, su"dominant moves flourished after "ein# introduced in conte1ts in +hich earlier composers +ould have confined themselves to dominant shifts (9or a fuller discussion of these terms see Tonality&!& This introduced dar-er colors to music, stren#thened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain& 0eethoven +ould contri"ute to this, "y his increasin# use of the fourth as a consonance, and modal am"i#uity @ for e1ample, the openin# of the Minor 2ymphony& Amon# this #eneration of B/lassical RomanticsB 9ran) 2chu"ert, /arl Maria von 'e"er, and 6ohn 9ield are amon# the most prominent, alon# +ith the youn# 9eli1 Mendelssohn& Their sense of form +as stron#ly influenced "y the /lassical style, and they +ere not yet BlearnedB (imitatin# rules +hich +ere codified "y others!, "ut directly respondin# to +or-s "y 0eethoven, Mo)art, /lementi, and others, as they encountered them& The

instrumental forces at their disposal +ere also >uite B/lassicalB in num"er and variety, permittin# similarity +ith avo+edly /lassical +or-s& 5o+ever, the forces destined to end the hold of the /lassical style #ather stren#th in the +or-s of each of these composers& The most commonly cited one is, of course, harmonic innovation& 5o+ever, also important is the increasin# focus on havin# a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanyin# fi#uration& 0eethovenCs Moonli#ht 2onata +ould "e the model for hundreds of later pieces @ +here the shiftin# movement of a rhythmic fi#ure provides much of the drama and interest of the +or-, +hile a melody drifts a"ove it& As years +ore on, #reater -no+led#e of +or-s, #reater instrumental e1pertise, increasin# variety of instruments, the #ro+th of concert societies, and the unstoppa"le domination of the piano @ +hich created a hu#e audience for sophisticated music @ all contri"uted to the shift to the BRomanticB style& ra+in# the line e1actly is impossi"le: there are sections of Mo)artCs +or-s +hich, ta-en alone, are indistin#uisha"le in harmony and orchestration from music +ritten 8% years later, and composers continue to +rite in normative /lassical styles all the +ay into the =%th century& Even "efore 0eethovenCs death, composers such as 8ouis 2pohr +ere self4 descri"ed Romantics, incorporatin#, for e1ample, more and more e1trava#ant chromaticism in their +or-s& 5o+ever, #enerally the fall of ?ienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to "e the occasion of the /lassical styleCs final eclipse, alon# +ith its continuous or#anic development of one composer learnin# in close pro1imity to others& 9ran) 8is)t and 9rIdIric /hopin visited ?ienna +hen youn#, "ut they then moved on to other vistas& /omposers such as /arl /)erny, +hile deeply influenced "y 0eethoven, also searched for ne+ ideas and ne+ forms to contain the lar#er +orld of musical e1pression and performance in +hich they lived& Rene+ed interest in the formal "alance and restraint of $8th century classical music led in the early =%th century to the development of so4called 7eoclassical style, +hich num"ered 2travins-y and .ro-ofiev amon# its proponents& http:::+++&music#uide"oo-&com:articles:classical4period

Renaissance or Bre"irthB, a period of si#nificant chan#es in history includin#

music& 13"7 - 1%7% 4 Guillaume ufay, -no+n as the transitional fi#ure to the Renaissance& 1%!0 - 1!!0 4 urin# this period composers e1perimented +ith cantus firmus& /antus firmus +as commonly used in the Middle A#es +hich +as stron#ly "ased on the Gre#orian /hant& Fno+n composers durin# this period +ere 6ohannes Ac-e#hem, 6aco" A"recht and 6os>uin espre)& 1!17 4 .rotestant Reformation spar-ed "y Martin 8uther& 2i#nificant chan#es occurred to church music such as the chorale, hymns that +ere meant to "e sun# "y a con#re#ation& *ts earliest form +as monophonic and then evolved to four part harmony& *t +as also the period +hen psalms of the 0i"le +ere translated into 9rench and then set to music& 1!!0 4 /atholic /ounter4Reformation& The /ouncil of Trent met from $,4, to $,6< to discuss complaints a#ainst the church includin# its music& 1!00 - 1!!0 4 The 9rench /hanson, a polyphonic 9rench son# that +as ori#inally for = to 4 voices& urin# the Renaissance, composers +ere less restricted to the formes fi1es (fi1ed form! of chansons and e1perimented on ne+ styles that +ere similar to contemporary motets and litur#ical music& Fno+n composers durin# this period +ere /lIment 6ane>uin and /laudin de 2ermisy& 1!00 - 16$0 4 *talian Madri#al, polyphonic secular music that +ere performed in #roups of 4 to 6 sin#ers +ho san# mostly love son#s& There +ere three periods of the *talian Madri#al

1!00 - 1!%0 4 Fno+n composers +ere Adrian 'illaert and 6aco" Arcadelt& 1!%0 - 1!70 4 Fno+n composers +ere a#ain Adrian 'illaert and Arlando 8assus& 1!70 - 1610 4 Fno+n composers +ere 8uca Maren)io, /arlo Gesualdo and /laudio Monteverdi& Monteverdi is also -no+n as the transitional fi#ure to the 0aro>ue music era&

1!70 -160! 4 6ohn 9armer, En#lish madri#al composer& 1!$! - 1!"% 4 Giovanni .ierlui#i da .alestrina, -no+n as the 5i#h Renaissance composer of /ounter4Reformation sacred music& urin# this period Renaissance polyphony reached its hei#ht& 1!%# - 1611 4 Tomas 8uis de ?ictoria, -no+n 2panish composer durin# the Renaissance +ho composed mainly sacred music&

1!!% - 161$ 4 Giovanni Ga"rielli, -no+n composer in ?enetian 5i#h Renaissance music +ho +rote instrumental and church music& 1!%3 - 16$3 4 'illiam 0yrd, leadin# En#lish composer of the late Renaissance +ho composed church, secular, consort and -ey"oard music& 1!63 - 16$6 4 6ohn o+land, -no+n for his lute music in Europe and composed "eautiful melancholic music& http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:famousmusicians$:a:trenaissance&htm

Humanism in Music
*n *taly durin# the Renaissance, a ne+ philosophy called BhumanismB developed& The emphasis of humanism is on the >uality of life on earth, much different from earlier "eliefs that life should "e vie+ed as a preparation for death& 0y this time the influence of the /hurch on the arts #re+ +ea-, composers and their patrons +ere ready for ne+ artistic ideas& 9lemish composers and musicians +ere summoned to teach and perform in *talian courts and the invention of printin# helped spread these ne+ ideas&

&mitati'e Counterpoint
6os>uin espre) "ecame one of the most important composers of this period& 5is music +as +idely pu"lished and appreciated in Europe& espre) +rote "oth sacred and secular music, focusin# more on motets of +hich he +rote over a hundred& 5e utili)ed +hat is -no+n as Bimitative counterpointC, +herein each voice part enters successively usin# the same note patterns& *mitative counterpoint +as used "y 9rench and 0ur#undian composers in +ritin# chansons, or secular poems set to music for instruments and solo voices&

Madrigals
0y the $,%%s the simplicity of earlier madri#als +ere replaced "y more ela"orate forms, usin# 4 to 6 voice parts& /laudio Monteverdi +as one of the leadin# *talian composers of madri#als&

(eligion and Music

Reli#ious Reformation occurred in the early half of the $,%%s& Martin )uther, a German priest, +anted to reform the Roman /atholic /hurch& 5e spo-e to the .ope and those holdin# positions in the church a"out the need to chan#e certain /atholic practices& 8uther also +rote and pu"lished < "oo-s in $,=%& 2ensin# that his pleas +ere left unheard, 8uther sou#ht the help of princes and feudal lords +hich lead to a political

uprisin#& 8uther +as one of the forerunners of .rotestantism +hich eventually led to the foundin# of the 8utheran /hurch& 8uther -ept certain elements of the 8atin litur#y in his reli#ious services& Ather .rotestant denominations +ere esta"lished as a result of the Reformation& *n 9rance another .rotestant named 6ohn /alvin sou#ht to eliminate music from +orship& *n 2+it)erland, 5uldreich J+in#li li-e+ise "elieved that music should "e removed from +orship as +ell as holy ima#es and statues& *n 2cotland, 6ohn Fno1 founded the /hurch of 2cotland& There +ere chan#es +ithin the /atholic /hurch as +ell& A need for simpler melodies that did not overpo+er the te1t +ere sou#ht& Giovanni .erlu#i de .alestrina +as one of the prominent composers durin# this time&

&nstrumental Music
0y the second half of the $,%%s instrumental music "e#an to ta-e shape& The instrumental can)one made use of "rass instruments, music for -ey"oard instruments such as the clavichord, harpsichord and or#an +ere also +ritten& The lute +as +idely used at that time, "oth to accompany sin#in# and for instrumental music& At first only instruments of the same family +ere played to#ether "ut eventually mi1ed instruments +ere used& http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:historyofmusic:a:renaissance&htm

B*(+,-.
The +ord B"aro>ueB comes from the *talian +ord B"aroccoB +hich means "i)arre& This +ord +as first used to descri"e the style of architecture mainly in *taly durin# the $;th and $8th century& 8ater on the +ord "aro>ue +as used to descri"e the music styles of the $6%%s to the $;%%s& The 0aro>ue period +as a time +hen composers e1perimented +ith form, styles and instruments& This period sa+ the development of opera and instrumental music& The violin +as also considered an important musical instrument durin# this time& 1!73 4 The first -no+n meetin# of the /lorentine Camerata, a #roup of musicians +ho came to#ether to discuss various su"Dects includin# the arts& *t is said that the mem"ers +ere interested in revivin# the Gree- dramatic style& 0oth the monodies and the opera are "elieved to have come out from their discussions and e1perimentation& 2ome of the -no+n mem"ers of the /lorentine Camerata are 6acopo .eri and /laudio Monteverdi

1!"7 4 The period of the early opera +hich +ill last until $6,%& Apera is #enerally defined as a sta#e presentation or +or- that com"ines music, costumes, and scenery to relay a story& Most operas are sun#, +ith no spo-en lines& urin# the 0aro>ue period, operas +ere derived from ancient Gree- tra#edy and there +as often an overture at the "e#innin#, a solo part and "oth an orchestra and chorus are present& 2ome e1amples of early operas are BEurydiceB +hich had t+o settin#s3 one "y 6acopo .eri and the other "y Giulio /accini& Another e1ample is BArpheusB and B/oronation of .oppeaB "y /laudio Monteverdi& 1600 4 2tart of monody +hich +ill last until the $;%%s& Monody refers to an accompanied solo music& E1amples of early monody can "e found in the "oo- Le Nuove Musiche "y Giulio /accini& The said "oo- is a collection of son#s for the fi#ured "ass and solo voice, it also included madri#als& Le Nuove Musiche is considered one of /acciniCs most important +or-& 16!0 4 urin# this era, musicians did a lot of improvisation& The 0asso continuo or fi#ured "ass is music created "y com"inin# -ey"oard music and one or more "ass instruments& The period from $6,% to $;,% is -no+n as the *ge of &nstrumental Music +here other forms of music developed includin# the suite and sonata& 1700 4 Kntil $;,% this is -no+n as the High Baro1ue period& *talian opera "ecame more e1pressive and e1pansive& The composer:violinist Arcan#elo /orelli "ecame -no+n and music for the harpsichord +as also #iven importance& 0ach and 5andel are -no+n as the fi#ures of the late 0aro>ue music& Ather forms of music li-e the canons and fu#ues evolved durin# this time&

http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:timelines:a:"aro>uetimeline&htm

2enice and the +pera

*n $,;<, a #roup of musicians and intellectuals came to#ether to discuss various su"Dects, especially the desire to revive Gree- drama& This #roup of individuals are -no+n as the 9lorentine /amerata, they +anted lines to "e sun# instead of simply "ein# spo-en& 9rom this came the opera +hich e1isted in *taly around $6%%& The composer /laduio Monteverdi +as an important contri"utor, specifically his opera Orfeo, the first opera to #ain pu"lic acclaim& At first the opera +as only for the upper class or aristocrats "ut soon even the #eneral pu"lic patroni)ed it& ?enice "ecame the center of musical activity, in $6<; a pu"lic opera house +as "uilt there& ifferent sin#in# styles +here developed for the opera such as L recitati'e 4 imitatin# the pattern and rhythm of speech L aria 4 +hen a character e1presses feelin#s throu#h a flo+in# melody L 0el canto 4 *talian for B"eautiful sin#in#B L castrato 4 urin# the 0aro>ue period, youn# "oys +ere castrated "efore they reached pu"erty to avoid the deepenin# of voice& Main roles of the opera +ere +ritten for the castrato&

3t4 Mar56s Basilica

This "asilica in ?enice "ecame an important venue for musical e1periments durin# the early 0aro>ue period& The composer Giovanni Ga"rielli +rote music for 2t& Mar-Cs as +ell as Monteverdi and 2travins-y& Ga"rielli e1perimented +ith choral and instrumental #roups, positionin# them in different sides of the "asilica and ma-in# them perform alternately or in unison& Ga"rielli also e1perimented in the contrasts of sound 4 fast or slo+, loud or soft&

Musical Contrast
urin# the 0aro>ue period, composers e1perimented +ith musical contrasts that differed #reatly from the music of the Renaissance& They used +hat is -no+n as a melodic soprano line supported "y a "ass line& Music "ecame homophonic, meanin# it +as "ased on one melody +ith harmonic support comin# from a -ey"oard player& Tonality +as divided into maDor and minor&

/a'orite Themes and Musical &nstruments

Ancient myths +ere a favorite theme of 0aro>ue opera composers& *nstruments used +ere "rass, strin#s, especially violins (Amati and 2tradivari!, harpsichord, or#an and cello&

+ther Music /orms

Aside from the opera, composers also +rote numerous sonatas, concerto #rosso and choral +or-s& *t is important to point out that composers at the time +ere employed "y

the /hurch or the aristocrats and as such +ere e1pected to produce compositions in lar#e volumes, at times in a momentCs notice& *n Germany, or#an music usin# the toccata form +as popular& Toccata is an instrumental piece that alternates "et+een improvisation and contrapuntal passa#es& 9rom the toccata emer#ed +hat is -no+n as prelude and fugue, an instrumental music "e#innin# +ith a short Bfree styleB piece (prelude! follo+ed "y a contrapuntal piece usin# imitative counterpoint (fu#ue!& Ather music forms of the 0aro>ue period are the chorale prelude, Mass and oratorio,

7ota0le Composers
L 6ean 0aptiste48ully 4 'rote *talian opera L omenico 2carlatti 4 Aver ,%% sonatas for the harpsichord L Antonio ?ivaldi 4 'rote operas and over 4%% concertos L Geor#e 9rideric 5andel 4 /omposed operas and oratorios, the most famous of +hich is BMessiahB L 6ohann 2e"astian 0ach 4 /omposed thousands of +or-s in various forms e1cludin# the opera& http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:historyofmusic:a:"aro>uemusic&htm

ROMANTIC PERIOD
5istorio#raphers define the Romantic Music period to "e "et+een $8%% to $E%%& *t is characteri)ed "y usin# music to tell a story or e1press an idea, the use of various instruments includin# +ind instruments and melodies are fuller and more dramatic& 5ere is a timeline of music4related events from $8=$ to $E%% to #ive you an idea of the maDor music events +hich occurred durin# the Romantic .eriod& 1#$1 4 The harmonica +as invented "y 9riedrich 0uschmann& 1#$! 4 /arl AlmenrMder redesi#ned the 9rench "assoon& 1#$6 4 /arl Maria von 'e"er died& 1#$7 4 8ud+i# van 0eethoven died& 1#$# 4 9ran) 2chu"ert died& 1#$" 4 9eli1 Mendelssohn conducted the first modern performance of 6&2& 0achCs B2t& Matthe+ .assionB& 1#30 4 8ouis45ector 0erlio) completed his B2ymphonie 9antasti>ueB& 1#31 4 ?incen)o 0elliniCs opera, Norma, +as first performed at 8a 2cala in M*lan& 1#3$ 4 9rIdIric /hopin performed his B.iano /oncerto in 9 MinorB and the B?ariations, opus =B in .aris& 1#33 4 6ohannes 0rahms +as "orn& 1#3# 4 Geor#es 0i)et +as "orn& Also on the same year in 2cotland, music +as pu"lished in 0raille notation& 1#%0 4 .yotr *lCNich Tchai-ovs-y +as "orn and 7iccolO .a#anini died& Also, the clarinet +as redesi#ned #ivin# it its mature form& 1#%1 4 9eli1 Mendelssohn "ecame the director of the 8eip)i# /onservatory& 1#%$ 4 7e+ Nor- .hilharmonic Archestra +as founded& 1#%6 4 Adolphe 2a1 patented his first sa1ophone& 1#%7 4 9eli1 Mendelssohn died& 1#%" 4 9rederic /hopin died& 1#!3 4 Giuseppe ?erdi +rote his B8a traviataB& 1#!6 4 5enry En#elhard 2tein+ay created his first #rand piano& 1#!# 4 The *talian composer Giacomo .uccini +as "orn& 1#!" 4 *n 7e+ Arleans, 8ouisiana, the first opera house +as opened& 1#6$ 4 /laude e0ussy, one of the most influential composers of his time, +as "orn& 1#6% 4 The German composer, Richard 2trauss +as "orn& 1#67 4 Amy 0each, the first maDor American female composer, +as "orn& 1#6# 4 Gioacchino Rossini died& 1#6" 4 8ouis45ector 0erlio) died& An the same year, the opera B9austB "y /harles Gounod +as first performed in .aris& 1#7% 4 The Austro45un#arian composer, Arnold 2chPn"er#, and the American composer, /harles *ves, +ere "orn& 1#7! 4 The opera B/armenB "y Geor#es 0i)et +as first performed in .aris& 5e +ould also pass a+ay that year& 1#76 4 Edvard Grie# +rote the incidental music for *"senCs .eer Gynt&

1#77 4 BRe>uiemB "y Ga"riel 9aurI +as first performed in .aris& That same year, Thomas Edison patented the phono#raph +hich +ill chan#e the +ay people listened to music& Also, 2+an 8a-eB "y Tchai-ovs-y, +as first performed in Mosco+& 1##1 4 Ane of the maDor =%th century composers, 0Ila 0artQ-, +as "orn& 1##$ 4 The Russian composer, *#or 2travins-y, +as "orn& That same year, 5u#o Riemann pu"lished his Musiklexikon, his study on musical harmony& 1##3 4 The Metropolitan Apera Association opened in 7e+ Nor- and Richard 'a#ner died after completin# his final +or- B.arsifalB& 1##6 4 9ran) 8is)t died and in ?ienna, BTe eumB "y Anton 0ruc-ner +as first performed& 1##" 4 The famous ca"aret, BMoulin Rou#eB, opened in .aris& 1#"1 4 /arne#ie 5all opened in 7e+ Nor- /ity& 1#"7 4 6ohannes 0rahms died and Gustav Mahler "ecame director of the ?ienna Art Apera& 1#"" 4 2cott 6oplin pu"lished his Maple Leaf Rag& 1"00 4 Giacomo .ucciniCs opera, BToscaB, premiered in Rome&

http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:timelines:a:romanticperiod&htm

Beetho'en and (omanticism

L )ud8ig 'an Beetho'en 4 /ontri"uted to the composerCs shift in status from merely a servant of the +ealthy to an artist& 'rote choral, cham"er music and opera& 0riefly studied under 5aydn, +as also influenced "y the +or-s of Mo)art& 5e used dissonance in his music +hich intri#ued his listeners& 0eethoven "e#an to lose his hearin# at a#e =8, losin# it completely "y a#e ,%& Ane of his most popular +or-s is the Ninth Symphony& 5e influenced a ne+ crop of youn# composers #uided "y the ideals of Romanticism&

9hat is (omanticism:
Romanticism or the Romantic movement +as a concept that encompassed different art mediums3 from music to paintin# to literature& The Romantics "elieved in allo+in# their ima#ination and passion to soar spontaneously and transcend it to their art& This +as different from the /lassical "elief of lo#ical order and clarity& urin# the $Eth century, ?ienna and .aris +ere the centers of musical activity&

Music /orms;3tyles
L <rogram music 4 An instrumental music +hich relays ideas or narrates a story& 0erlio)C Fantastic Symphony is an e1ample of this& L Character pieces 4 A short piece for the piano that depicts a sin#le emotion, often in A0A form&

Musical &nstrument

The piano +as still the main instrument durin# the Early Romantic period& The piano under+ent many chan#es and composers "rou#ht the piano to ne+ hei#hts of creative e1pression&

7ota0le Composers;Musicians
L /ran= 3chu0ert 4 'rote a"out 6%% lieders (German son#s!& Ane of his most famous pieces is titled Unfinished named so "ecause it only has = movements& L Hector Berlio= 4 5is Fantastic Symphony +as +ritten for a sta#e actress he fell in love +ith& *ncluded the harp and En#lish horn in his symphonies& L /ran= )is=t 4 5is Fantastic Symphony +as inspired "y one of 0erlio)C +or-s& eveloped the symphonic poem, ma-in# use of chromatic devices& L /rederic Chopin 4 'rote character pieces for solo piano& L (o0ert 3chumann 4 Also +rote character pieces, some of his +or-s +ere performed "y /lara, his +ife& L >iuseppe 2erdi 4 'rote many operas +ith patriotic themes& T+o of his most famous +or-s are Otello and Falstaff& http:::musiced&a"out&com:od:historyofmusic:a:romanticmusic&htm

Baro1ue period

0aro>ue .eriod, a time durin# the $;th century that portrayed e1emplified drama and #randeur& urin# this era architectural structures consisted of irre#ular shapes and ela"orate desi#n& The musical #enre of this time falls "et+een the Renaissance and the /lassical era& The music forms a maDor portion of the classical music canon& 0aro>ue period is reco#ni)ed as the time +hen more ornamental and ela"orate music appeared and +as associated +ith composers such as 6&2& 0ach, Antonio ?ilvaldi and /laudio Monteverdi&

+'er'ie8
'hen +e spea- of music associated to the 0aro>ue era +e are #enerally spea-in# of music from a +ide ran#e of styles and #eo#raphical re#ion& This music +as composed durin# a period of $,% years& The term 0aro>ue as applied to music is a more recent development, only ac>uirin# currency in En#lish in the $E4%Cs& *n the $E6%Cs it +as commonly disputed as to the result of lumpin# to#ether such diverse music&

Baro1ue 's4 (enaissance

To distin#uish "et+een these t+o eras +e "e#in "y ta-in# a close loo- at +hat stylistic differences the music had& 'hile "oth shared a heavy use of polyphony and counterpoint they differed in the use of these techni>ues& Renaissance achieved harmony throu#h the consonances incidental to the smooth flo+ of polyphony +here the 0aro>ue used these consonances as chords in a hierarchical, functional tonal scheme& The chord root motion is also distinctly different in terms of ho+ these t+o eras achieved harmony& 0aro>ue music uses lon#er lines and stron#er rhythms than does Renaissance& These differences sho+ a definite transition from the fantasias of the Renaissance to the more definin# 0aro>ue form&

Baro1ue 's4 Classical

The classical era follo+ed 0aro>ue diminishin# the role of counterpoint all to#ether& *t +as replaced +ith a homophonic te1ture& /lassical +or-s "e#in to reduce the need for ornamentation and "ecame more articulated& /lassical era used the use of modulation to portray a dramatic Dourney throu#h a se>uence of musical -eys& *n comparison the 0aro>ue modulation has less structural importance than that of the classical era& 0aro>ue is -no+n to portray a sin#le emotion +here classical #ave "irth to the +idely varyin# emotions in music endin# in a more dramatic clima1&

Brief history
0aro>ue music "e#an to surface in *taly "et+een $,6;4$64<& The first composer to "e#in this ne+ era +as /laudio Monteverdi& 5e created a recitative style and the rise of musical drama called opera& The adoption of this chan#e demonstrated a chan#e in musical thin-in# all to#ether placin# a hi#her emphasis on harmony rather than polyphony& 'hile harmonic thin-in# occurred amon# particular composers it +as not until after the Renaissance that it "ecame part of the common voca"ulary& *n *taly, the Roman /atholic /hurch sou#ht a method to increase faith in their reli#ion& They decided that the arts should communicate reli#ious themes in direct and emotional involvement& The demands of reli#ion +ere also to ma-e the test of sacred +or-s clearer& This increased the pressure to move a+ay from the Renaissance era +hich offered more densely layered polyphony& *t demanded lines that put the +ords front and center or had a more limited ran#e of imitation&

Middle Baro1ue music

The middle 0aro>ue is separated "y the comin# of systematic thin-in# to a ne+ style& This time "rou#ht a #radual institutionali)ation of the forms and norms particularly in opera& The printin# press and trade created an e1panded international audience of +or-s for music much in the same fashion they had done for literature& This time period is often identified "y increasin#ly harmonic focus and the creation of formal systems of teachin#& The teachin# of music demanded to "e tau#ht in an orderly fashion to uphold the demands of this art& There are many influential composers that stand out from the middle 0aro>ue period includin# 6ean40aptiste 8ully ($6<=4$68;! +ho e1plored contrast "et+een stately and fully orchestrated sections and simple recitatives and airs, Arcan#elo /orelli ($6,<4$;$<! +ho is remem"ered for his achievements on the other side of musical techni>ue as a violinist +ho or#ani)ed violin techni>ue and peda#ouy, 5enry .urcell ($6,E4$6E,! +ho is referred to as a commentary #enius "ecause he produced a profusion of music +idely reco#ni)ed in his lifetime, and ietrich 0u1tehude ($6<;4$;%;! +ho, in contrast to the previous composers, +as an or#anist and entrepreneurial presenter of music&

)ate Baro1ue music

0et+een $68% and $;=% the dividin# "et+een middle and late 0aro>ue occurred& The e1act date is +idely de"ated due a lac- in synchroni)ed transition& The important dividin# line seems to lay in the full a"sorption of tonality as a structurin# principle of music& The theoretical +or- of Rameau made this particularly evident& The sense of t+o styles of composition +as created from the com"ination of modal counterpoint +ith tonal lo#ic of cadences& These t+o styles +ere referred to as the homophonic dominated "y vertical considerations and the polyphonic dominated "y imitation and contrapuntal considerations& 2ome of the famous composers closely associated +ith this time period include Antonio ?ivaldi ($6;84$;4$!, omenico 2carlatti ($68,4$;,;! and pro"a"ly the most famous composer Geor#e 9rederic 5andel ($68,4$;,E!& Ather leadin# fi#ures include 6&2& 0ach ($68,4$;,%!, Geor#e .hilipp Telemann ($68$4$;6;! and 6ean4.hilippe Rameau ($68<4 $;64!&

The Baro1ue influence on later music

0aro>ue music +as the "asis for peda#o#y and as a result retained a stylistic influence& *t "ecame an influence in the $Eth century as a para#on of academic and formal purity& Many composers set a standard to aspire to from 0achCs fu#ue style in music& *n contemporary music there are many pieces "ein# pu"lished as RrediscoveredS 0aro>ue such as a viola concerto +ritten "y 5enri /asadesus "ut attri"uted to 5andel& *n addition many pieces have "een termed as neo40aro>ue for a focus on imitative polyphony& There are many similarities "et+een the 0aro>ue style and that of Da)) as +ell& 0aro>ue is similar to a Da)) >uartet in that pieces used a variety of improvisation on the performers part +ith the most similar aspect "ein# improvisation of the lead instrument& http:::+++&music#uide"oo-&com:articles:"aro>ue4period

(omantic period
The era of Romantic music is defined as the period of European classical music that runs rou#hly from the early $8%%s to the first decade of the =%th century, as +ell as music +ritten accordin# to the norms and styles of that period& The Romantic period +as preceded "y the classical period, and +as follo+ed "y the modern period& Romantic music is related to Romantic movements in literature, art, and philosophy, thou#h the conventional periods used in musicolo#y are no+ very different from their counterparts in the other arts, +hich define BromanticB as runnin# from the $;8%s to the $84%s& The Romanticism movement held that not all truth could "e deduced from a1ioms, that there +ere inescapa"le realities in the +orld +hich could only "e reached throu#h emotion, feelin# and intuition& Romantic music stru##led to increase emotional e1pression and po+er to descri"e these deeper truths, +hile preservin# or even e1tendin# the formal structures from the classical period& The vernacular use of the term romantic music applies to music +hich is thou#ht to evo-e a soft or dreamy atmosphere& This usa#e is rooted in the connotations of the +ord BromanticB that +ere esta"lished durin# the period, "ut not all BRomanticB pieces fit this description& /onversely, music that is BromanticB in the modern everyday usa#e of the +ord (that is, relatin# to the emotion of love! is not necessarily lin-ed to the Romantic period&

Trends of the (omantic period

Musical language
Music theorists of the Romantic era esta"lished the concept of tonality to descri"e the harmonic voca"ulary inherited from the 0aro>ue and /lassical periods& Romantic composers sou#ht to fuse the lar#e structural harmonic plannin# demonstrated "y earlier masters such as 0ach, 5aydn, Mo)art, and 0eethoven +ith further chromatic innovations, in order to achieve #reater fluidity and contrast, and to meet the needs of lon#er +or-s& /hromaticism #re+ more varied, as did dissonances and their resolution& /omposers modulated to increasin#ly remote -eys, and their music often prepared the listener less for these modulations than the music of the classical era& 2ometimes, instead ofa pivot chord, a pivot note +as used& The properties of the diminished seventh and related chords, +hich facilitate modulation to many -eys, +ere also e1tensively e1ploited& /omposers such as 0eethoven and, later, Richard 'a#ner e1panded the harmonic lan#ua#e +ith previously4unused chords, or innovative chord pro#ressions& Much has "een +ritten, for e1ample, a"out 'a#nerCs Tristan chord, found near the openin# of Tristan und *solde, and its precise harmonic function& 2ome Romantic composers analo#i)ed music to poetry and its rhapsodic and narrative structures, +hile creatin# a more systematic "asis for the composin# and performin# of

concert music& Music theorists of the Romantic era codified previous practices, such as the sonata form, +hile composers e1tended them& There +as an increasin# focus on melodies and themes, as +ell as an e1plosion in the composition of son#s& The emphasis on melody found e1pression in the increasin#ly e1tensive use of cyclic form, +hich +as an important unifyin# device for some of the lon#er pieces that "ecame common durin# the period& The #reater harmonic elusiveness and fluidity, the lon#er melodies, poesis as the "asis of e1pression, and the use of literary inspirations +ere all present prior to the Romantic period& 5o+ever, some composers of the Romantic period adopted them as the central pursuit of music itself& Romantic composers +ere also influenced "y technolo#ical advances, includin# an increase in the ran#e and po+er of the piano and the improved chromatic a"ilities and #reater proDection of the instruments of the symphony orchestra&

7on-musical influences
Ane of the controversies that ra#ed throu#h the Romantic period +as the relationship of music to e1ternal te1ts or sources& 'hile pro#ram music +as common "efore the $Eth century, the conflict "et+een formal and e1ternal inspiration "ecame an important aesthetic issue for some composers durin# the Romantic era& urin# the $8<%s 5ector 0erlio)Cs 2ymphonie 9antasti>ue, +hich +as presented +ith an e1tensive pro#ram te1t, caused many critics and academics to pic- up their pens& .rominent amon# the detractors +as 9ranTois46oseph 9Itis, the head of the ne+ly4 founded 0russels /onservatory, +ho declared that the +or- +as Bnot musicB& Ro"ert 2chumann defended the +or-, "ut not the pro#ram, sayin# that "ad titles +ould not hurt #ood music, "ut #ood titles could not save a "ad +or-& 9ran) 8is)t +as one of the prominent defenders of e1tra4musical inspiration& This rift #re+, +ith polemics delivered from "oth sides& 9or the supporters of Ba"soluteB music, formal perfection rested on musical e1pression that o"eys the schematics laid do+n in previous +or-s, most nota"ly the sonata form then "ein# codified& To the adherents of pro#ram music, the rhapsodic e1pression of poetry or some other e1ternal te1t +as, itself, a form& They ar#ued that for the artist to "rin# his life into a +or-, the form must follo+ the narrative& 0oth sides used 0eethoven as inspiration and Dustification& The rift +as e1emplified "y the conflict "et+een follo+ers of 6ohannes 0rahms and Richard 'a#ner: 0rahmsC disciples too- him to "e a pinnacle of a"solute music, +hile 'a#nerites put their faith in the poetic Bsu"stanceB shapin# the harmonic and melodic flo+ of his music& E1amples of music inspired "y literary and artistic sources include 8is)tCs 9aust 2ymphony, ante 2ymphony, his symphonic poems and his Annees de .elerina#e, Tchai-ovs-yCs Manfred 2ymphony, MahlerCs 9irst 2ymphony ("ased on the novel Titan!, and the tone poems of Richard 2trauss& 2chu"ert included material from his 8ieder in some of his e1tended +or-s, and others, such as 8is)t, transcri"ed opera arias and son#s for solo instrumental performance&

(omantic opera
*n opera, the forms for individual num"ers that had "een esta"lished in classical and "aro>ue opera +ere more loosely used& 0y the time 'a#nerCs operas +ere performed, arias, choruses, recitatives and ensem"le pieces often cannot easily "e distin#uished from each other in the continuous, throu#h4composed music& The decline of castrati led to the heroic leadin# role in many operas "ein# ascri"ed to the tenor voice& The chorus +as often #iven a more important role& To+ards the end of the Romantic period, verismo opera "ecame popular, particularly in *taly& *t depicted realistic, rather than historical or mytholo#ical, su"Dects& 9rance follo+ed +ith operas such as 0i)etCs /armen&

7ationalism
A num"er of Romantic composers +rote nationalist music& Mi-hail Glin-aCs operas, for e1ample, are on specifically Russian su"Dects, +hile 0edUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_`U]Z[UV^_`U]Z\ich 2metana and Antonan voUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_`U]Z[UV^_`U]Z\b"oth used rhythms and themes from /)ech fol- dances and son#s& 8ate in the $Eth century, 6ean 2i"elius +rote music "ased on the 9innish epic, the Falevala and his piece C9inlandiaC "ecame a sym"ol of 9innish nationalism&

&nstrumentation and scale

*nstrumentation continued to under#o technolo#ical advances durin# the romantic era& /omposers such as 5ector 0erlio) used the ne+ capa"ilities of instruments in hitherto unima#ined orchestrations& 2ome composersC +or-s called for a much lar#er symphony orchestra, and instruments that +ere previously rarities "e#an to "e used more fre>uently& MahlerCs 2ymphony 7o& 8 is -no+n as the 2ymphony of a Thousand "ecause of the massive choral and orchestral forces re>uired to perform it& Also much lon#er +or-s "ecame accepta"le& A typical 5aydn or Mo)art symphony lasts "et+een t+enty and t+enty4five minutes& 0eethovenCs Third 2ymphony lasts over forty4 five minutes, and the lon#est symphonies of, amon# others, Anton 0ruc-ner and Mahler last more than an hour& The Romantic period also sa+ the continuin# rise of the instrumental virtuoso& The violinist 7iccolO .a#anini +as one of the musical stars of the early $Eth century& 8is)t, in addition to his s-ills as a composer, +as also a very popular and influential virtuoso pianist& A leadin# virtuoso +as an outstandin# attraction for audiences& /hopin +rote in forms li-e the polonaise and ma)ur-a, that +ere derived from .olish fol- music& Many Russian composers li-e 0al-irev, /ui, 0orodin, Rims-i4Forsa-ov, and 0al-irev shared the commone dream to +rite music that +as inspired "y Russian fol- music&

Chronology
Classical roots (17#0-1#1!
*n literature, the Romantic period is often ta-en to start in $;;%s or $;8%s Germany +ith the movement -no+n as 2turm und ran# (Bstorm and stru##leB! attended "y a #reater re#ard for 2ha-espeare and 5omer, and for fol- sa#as, +hether #enuine or Assian& *t affected +riters includin# Goethe and 2chiller, +hile in 2cotland Ro"ert 0urns "e#an settin# do+n fol- music&ccitation neededd This literary movement is reflected in the music of contemporary composers, includin# Mo)artCs German operas, 5aydnCs so4called 2turm und ran# symphonies, the lyrics that composers (particularly 2chu"ert! chose for their 8ieder, and a #radual increase in the violence of emotion that music e1pressed& As lon# as most composers relied on royal or court patrona#e, their opportunity to en#a#e in Bromanticism and revoltB +as limited& Mo)artCs trou"les in the "annin# of his The Marria#e of 9i#aro as revolutionary are a case in point& Romanticism dre+ its fundamental formal su"stance from the structures of classical practice& .erformin# standards improved durin# the classical era +ith the esta"lishment of performin# #roups of professional musicians& The author E&T&A& 5offmann called Mo)art, 0eethoven and 5aydn the Bthree Romantic composersB& The role of chromaticism and harmonic am"i#uity developed durin# the classical era& All of the maDor classical composers used harmonic am"i#uity, and the techni>ue of movin# rapidly "et+een different -eys& Ane of the most famous e1amples is the Bharmonic chaosB at the openin# of 5aydnCs The /reation, in +hich the composer avoids esta"lishin# a BhomeB -ey at all& 0y the $8$%s, the use of chromaticism and the minor -ey, and the desire to move into remote -eys to #ive music a deeper ran#e, +ere com"ined +ith a #reater operatic reach& 'hile 0eethoven +ould later "e re#arded as the central fi#ure in this movement, it +as composers such as /lementi and 2pohr +ho represented the contemporary taste in incorporatin# more chromatic notes into their thematic material& There +as a tension "et+een the desire for more e1pressive BcolorB and the desire for classical structure& Ane response +as in the field of opera, +here te1ts could provide structure in the a"sence of formal models& ETA 5offman is principally -no+n as a critic no+adays, "ut his opera Kndine of $8$4 +as a radical musical innovation& Another response to the tension "et+een structure and emotional e1pression +as in shorter musical forms, includin# novel ones such as the nocturne&

.arly (omantic (1#1!-1#!0

0y the second decade of the $Eth century, the shift to+ards ne+ sources of musical inspiration, alon# +ith an increasin# chromaticism in melody and more e1pressive harmony, "ecame a palpa"le stylistic shift& The forces underlyin# this shift +ere not only musical, "ut economic, political and social&ccitation neededd A ne+ #eneration of composers emer#ed in post47apoleonic Europe, amon# +hom +ere 0eethoven, 8ud+i#

2pohr, ETA 5offman, /arl Maria von 'e"er and 9ran) 2chu"ert& These composers #re+ up amidst the dramatic e1pansion of pu"lic concert life durin# the late $8th and early $Eth centuries, +hich partly shaped their su"se>uent styles and e1pectations& 0eethoven +as e1tremely influential as amon# the first composers to +orfreelance rather than "ein# employed full4time "y a royal or ecclesiastic patron& The chromatic melodies of Mu)io /lementi and the stirrin# operatic +or-s of Rossini, /heru"ini and MIhul, also had an influence& The settin# of fol- poetry and son#s for voice and piano, to serve a #ro+in# mar-et of middle4class homes +here private music4 ma-in# +as "ecomin# an essential part of domestic life, +as also "ecomin# an important source of income for composers& 'or-s of this #roup of early Romantics include the son# cycles and symphonies of 9ran) 2chu"ert, and the operas of 'e"er, particularly A"eron, er 9reischet) and Euryanthe& 2chu"ertCs +or- found limited contemporary audiences, and only #radually had a +ider impact& *n contrast, the compositions of 6ohn 9ield >uic-ly "ecame +ell4-no+n, partly "ecause he had a #ift for creatin# small BcharacteristicB piano forms and dances& Early4Romantic composers of a sli#htly later #eneration included 9ran) 8is)t, 9eli1 Mendelssohn, 9rIdIric /hopin, and 5ector 0erlio)& All +ere "orn in the $Eth century, and produced +or-s of lastin# value early in their careers& Mendelssohn +as particularly precocious, and +rote t+o strin# >uartets, a strin# octet and orchestral music "efore even leavin# his teens& /hopin focussed on compositions for the piano& 0erlio) "ro-e ne+ #round in his orchestration, and +ith his pro#ramatic symphonies 2ymphonie 9antasti>ue and 5arold in *taly, the latter "ased on 0yronCs /hilde 5aroldCs .il#rima#e& 'hat is no+ la"elled BRomantic AperaB "ecame esta"lished at around this time, +ith a stron# connection "et+een .aris and northern *taly& The com"ination of 9rench orchestral virtuosity, *talianate vocal lines and dramatic flare, alon# +ith te1ts dra+n from increasin#ly popular literature, esta"lished a norm of emotional e1pression +hich continues to dominate the operatic sta#e& The +or- of 0ellini and oni)etti +as immensely popular at this time& ?irtuoso concerts (or BrecitalsB, as they +ere called "y 9ran) 8is)t! "ecame immensely popular& This phenomenon +as pioneered "y 7iccolO .a#anini, the famous violin virtuoso& The virtuoso piano recital "ecame particularly popular, and often included improvisations on popular themes, and the performance of shorter compositions as +ell as lon#er +or-s such as the sonatas of 0eethoven and Mo)art& Ane of the most prominent e1ponents of 0eethoven +as /lara 'iec-, +ho later married Ro"ert 2chumann& The increase in travel, facilitated "y rail and later "y steamship, created international audiences for tourin# piano virtuosi such as 8is)t, /hopin and Thal"er#& /oncerts and recitals +ere promoted as si#nificant events& urin# the late $8<%s and $84%s, music of Romantic e1pression "ecame #enerally accepted, even e1pected& The music of Ro"ert 2chumann, Giacomo Meyer"eer and the youn# Giuseppe ?erdi continued the trends& BRomanticismB +as not, ho+ever, the only,

or even the dominant, style of music ma-in# at the time& A post4classical style e1emplified "y the .aris /onservatoire, as +ell as court music, still dominated concert pro#rams& This "e#an to chan#e +ith the rise of performin# institutions, alon# the lines of the .hilharmonic 2ociety of 8ondon founded in $8$<& 2uch institutions often promoted re#ular concert seasons, a trend promoted "y 9eli1 Mendelssohn amon# others& 8istenin# to music came to "e accepted as a life4enhancin#, almost reli#ious, e1perience& The pu"licCs en#a#ement in the music of the time contrasted +ith the less formal manners of concerts in the classical period, +here music had often "een promoted as a "ac-#round diversion& Also the $8<%s and $84%s Richard 'a#ner produced his first successful operas& 5e ar#ued for a radically e1panded conception of Bmusical dramaB& A man +ho descri"ed himself as a revolutionary, and +ho +as in constant trou"le +ith creditors and the authorities, he "e#an #atherin# around him a "ody of li-e4minded musicians, includin# 9ran) 8is)t, +ho dedicated themselves to ma-in# the BMusic of the 9utureB& 8iterary Romanticism ended in $848, +ith the revolutions of that year mar-in# a turnin# point in the mood of Europe& 'ith the rise of realism, as +ell as the deaths of .a#anini, Mendelssohn and 2chumann, and 8is)tCs retirement from pu"lic performance, perceptions altered of +here the cuttin# ed#e in music and art lay&

)ate (omantic .ra (1#!0-1"10

As the $Eth century moved into its second half, many social, political and economic chan#es set in motion in the post47apoleonic period "ecame entrenched& Rail+ays and the electric tele#raph "ound the European +orld ever closer to#ether& The nationalism that had "een an important strain of early $Eth century Romantic music "ecame formali)ed "y political and lin#uistic means& 8iterature for the middle classes "ecame the pu"lishin# norm, includin# the rise of the novel as the primary literary form& *n the previous ,% years numerous innovations in instrumentation, includin# the dou"le escarpment piano action, the valved +ind instrument, and the chin rest for violins and violas, +ere no lon#er novelties "ut re>uirements& The dramatic increase in musical education "rou#ht a still +ider sophisticated audience, and many composers tooadvanta#e of the #reater re#ularity of concert life, and the #reater financial and technical resources availa"le& These chan#es "rou#ht an e1pansion in the sheer num"er of symphonies, concerti and Btone poemsB +hich +ere composed, and the num"er of performances in the opera seasons in .aris, 8ondon and *taly& The esta"lishment of conservatories and universities also created centers +here musicians could for#e sta"le teachin# careers, rather than relyin# on their o+n entrepreneurship& urin# this late Romantic period, some composers created styles and forms associated +ith their national fol- cultures& The notion that there +ere BGermanB and B*talianB styles had lon# "een esta"lished in +ritin# on music, "ut the late $Eth century sa+ the rise of a nationalist Russian style (Glin-a, Mussor#s-y, Rims-y4Forsa-ov, Tchai-ovs-y and 0orodin!, and also /)ech, 9innish and 9rench nationalist styles of composition& 2ome

composers +ere e1pressly nationalistic in their o"Dectives, see-in# to rediscover their countryCs national identity in the face of occupation or oppression, as did for e1ample the 0ohemian 0edUVWXUYZ[Z\UVZYU]Z[U]Z\UVWXU]ZYUV^_`U]Z[UV^_`U]Z\ich 2metana and the 9innish 6ean 2i"elius&

(omanticism in the $0th century

Many composers "orn in the nineteenth century continued to compose in a Romantic style +ell into the =%th century, includin# 2er#ei Rachmaninoff, Giacomo .uccini and Richard 2trauss& *n addition, many composers +ho +ould later "e identified as musical modernists composed +or-s in Romantic styles early in their career, includin# *#or 2travins-y +ith his 9ire"ird "allet, Arnold 2choen"er# +ith Gurrelieder, and 0Ila 0artQ+ith 0lue"eardCs /astle& The voca"ulary and structure of the music of the late $Eth century +as no mere relics3 composers includin# Ralph ?au#han 'illiams, Erich Forn#old, 0erthold Goldschmidt and 2er#ei .ro-ofiev continued to compose +or-s in reco#ni)a"ly Romantic styles after $E,%& 'hile ne+ tendencies such as neo4classicism and atonal music challen#ed the preeminence of the Romantic style, the desire to use a tonally4centered chromatic voca"ulary remained present in maDor +or-s& 2amuel 0ar"er, 0enDamin 0ritten, Gustav 5olst, mitri 2hosta-ovich, Malcolm Arnold and Arnold 0a1 dre+ fre>uently from musical Romanticism in their +or-s, and did not consider themselves old4fashioned& Musical romanticism reached a rhetorical and artistic nadir around $E6%: it seemed as if the future lay +ith avant #arde styles of composition, or +ith neo4classicism of some -ind& 'hile 5indemith moved "ac- to a style more reco#ni)a"ly rooted in romanticism, most composers moved in the other direction& Anly in the conservative academic hierarchy of the K22R and /hina did it seem that musical romanticism had a place& 5o+ever, "y the late $E6%s a revival of music usin# the surface of musical romanticism "e#an& /omposers such as Geor#e Roch"er# s+itched from serialism to models dra+n from Gustav Mahler, a proDect +hich found him the company of 7icholas Ma+ and avid el Tredici& This movement is descri"ed as 7eo4Romanticism, and includes +or-s such as 6ohn /ori#lianoCs 9irst 2ymphony& Another area +here the Romantic style has survived, and even flourished, is in film scorin#& Many of the early Imi#res escapin# from 7a)i Germany +ere 6e+ish composers +ho had studied, or even studied under, Gustav MahlerCs disciples in ?ienna& Ma1 2teinerCs lush score for Gone +ith the 'ind provides an e1ample of the use of 'a#nerian leitmotifs and Mahlerian orchestration& The BGolden A#e of 5olly+oodB film music rested heavily on the +or- of composers such as Forn#old and 2teiner as +ell as 9ran) 'a1man and Alfred 7e+man& The ne1t #eneration of film composers, Ale1ander 7orth, 6ohn 'illiams, and Elmer 0ernstein dre+ on this tradition to +rite some of the most familiar orchestral music of the late =%th century& http:::+++&music#uide"oo-&com:articles:romantic4period

Medie'al period
The term medieval music encompasses European music +ritten durin# the Middle A#es& This era "e#ins +ith the fall of the Roman Empire (4;6 A ! and ends in appro1imately the middle of the fifteenth century& Esta"lishin# the end of the medieval era and the "e#innin# of the Renaissance is admittedly ar"itrary3 $4%% is used here&

+'er'ie8
3tyle and trends
The only medieval music +hich can "e studied is that +hich +as +ritten do+n and survived& 2ince creatin# musical manuscripts +as very e1pensive, due to the e1pense of parchment, and the hu#e amount of time necessary for a scri"e to copy it all do+n, only very rich institutions +ere a"le to create manuscripts +hich survived to the current time& These institutions #enerally included the church and church institutions, such as monasteries, althou#h some secular music +as also preserved in these institutions& These manuscript traditions do not reflect much of the popular music of the time& At the start of the era, the notated music is presumed to "e monophonic and homorhythmic +ith +hat appears to "e a unison sun# te1t and no notated instrumental support& *n earlier medieval notation, rhythm cannot "e specified, althou#h neumatic notations can #ive clear phrasin# ideas, and some+hat later notations indicate rhythmic modes& The simplicity of chant, +ith unison voice and natural declamation, is most common& The notation of polyphony develops, and the assumption is that formalised polyphonic practices first arose in this period& 5armony, in consonant intervals of perfect fifths, unisons, octaves, (and later, perfect fourths! "e#ins to "e notated& Rhythmic notation allo+s for comple1 interactions "et+een multiple vocal lines in a repeata"le fashion& The use of multiple te1ts and the notation of instrumental accompaniment has developed "y the end of the era&

&nstruments
The instruments used to perform medieval music lar#ely still e1ist, thou#h in different forms& The medieval cornett differed immensely from its modern counterpart, the trumpet, not least in traditionally "ein# made of ivory or +ood rather than metal& /ornetts in medieval times +ere >uite short& They +ere either strai#ht or some+hat curved, and construction "ecame standardised on a curved version "y appro1imately the middle $,th century& *n one side, there +ould "e several holes& The flute +as once made of +ood rather than silver or other metal, and could "e made as a side4"lo+n or end4"lo+n instrument& The recorder, on the other hand, has more or less retained its past form& The #emshorn is similar to the recorder in havin# fin#er holes on its front, thou#h it is really a mem"er of the ocarina family& Ane of the fluteCs predecessors, the pan flute, +as popular

in medieval times, and is possi"ly of 5ellenic ori#in& This instrumentCs pipes +ere made of +ood, and +ere #raduated in len#th to produce different pitches& Many medieval pluc-ed strin# instruments +ere similar to the modern #uitar, such as the lute and mandolin& The hammered dulcimer, similar in structure to the psaltery and )ither, +as not pluc-ed "ut struc-& The hurdy4#urdy +as (and still is! a mechanical violin usin# a rosined +ooden +heel attached to a cran- to B"o+B its strin#s& *nstruments +ithout sound "o1es such as the 6e+Cs harp +ere also popular& Early versions of the or#an, fiddle (or vielle!, and trom"one (called the sac-"ut! e1isted as +ell&

>enres
*n this era, music +as "oth sacred and secular, althou#h almost no early secular music has survived, and since notation +as a relatively late development, reconstruction of this music, especially "efore the $=th century, is currently su"Dect to conDecture (see authentic performance!&

Theory and notation

*n music theory the period sa+ several advances over previous practice, mostly in the conception and notation of rhythm& .reviously music +as or#anised rhythmically into Blon#sB and B"revesB (in other +ords, BshortsB!, thou#h often +ithout any clear re#ular differentiation "et+een +hich should "e used& The most famous music theorist of the first half of the $<th century, 6ohannes de Garlandia, +as the author of the e mensura"ili musica (a"out $=4%!, the treatise +hich defined and most completely elucidated the rhythmic modes,a notational system for rhythm in +hich one of si1 possi"le patterns +as denoted "y a particular succession of note4shapes (or#ani)ed in +hat is called Bli#aturesB!& The melodic line, once it had its mode, +ould #enerally remain in it, althou#h rhythmic adDustments could "e indicated "y chan#es in the e1pected pattern of li#atures, even to the e1tent of chan#in# to another rhythmic mode& A German theorist of a sli#htly later period, 9ranco of /olo#ne, +as the first to descri"e a system of notation in +hich differently shaped notes have entirely different rhythmic values (in the Ars /antus Mensura"ilis of appro1imately $=6%!, an innovation +hich had a massive impact on the su"se>uent history of European music& Most of the survivin# notated music of the $<th century uses the rhythmic modes as defined "y Garlandia& .hilippe de ?itry is most famous in music history for +ritin# the Ars 7ova ($<==!, a treatise on music +hich #ave its name to the music of the entire era& 5is contri"utions to notation, in particular notation of rhythm, +ere particularly important, and made possi"le the free and >uite comple1 music of the ne1t hundred years& *n some +ays the modern system of rhythmic notation "e#an +ith ?itry, +ho "ro-e free from the older idea of the rhythmic modes, short rhythmic patterns that +ere repeated +ithout "ein# individually differentiated& The notational predecessors of modern time meters also ori#inate in the Ars 7ova3 for 9ranco, a "reve (for a "rief e1planation of the mensural notation in #eneral, see the article Renaissance music! had e>ualled three semi"reves (that is, half "reves! (on occasion, t+o, locally and +ith certain conte1t3 almost al+ays, ho+ever, these t+o

semi"reves +ere one of normal len#th and one of dou"le len#th, there"y ta-in# the same space of time!, and the same ternary division held for all lar#er and smaller note values& 0y the time of Ars 7ova, the "reve could "e pre4divided, for an entire composition or section of one, into #roups of t+o or three smaller semi"reves "y use of a Bmensuration si#n,B e>uivalent to our modern Btime si#nature&B This +ay, the BtempusB (denotin# the division of the "reve, +hich ultimately achieved the same primacy over rhythmic structure as our modern BmeasureB! could "e either Bperfect,B +ith ternary su"division, or Bimperfect,B +ith "inary su"division& Tempus perfectus +as indicated "y a circle, +hile tempus imperfectus +as denoted "y a half4circle (our current B/B as a stand4in for the 4:4 time si#nature is actually a holdover from this practice, not an a""reviation for Bcommon timeB, as popularly "elieved!& *n a similar fashion, the semi"reve could in turn "e divided into three BminimaB or BminimsB (prolatio perfectus or maDor prolation! or t+o (prolatio imperfectus or minor prolation! and, at the hi#her level, the lon#s into three or t+o "reves (modus perfectus or perfect mode, or modus imperfectus or imperfect mode respectively!& 9or the duration of the medieval period, most music +ould "e composed primarily in perfect tempus, +ith special effects created "y sections of imperfect tempus3 there is a #reat current controversy amon# musicolo#ists as to +hether such sections +ere performed +ith a "reve of e>ual len#th or +hether it chan#ed, and if so, at +hat proportion& *n the hi#hly syncopated +or-s of the Ars su"tilior, different voices of the same composition +ould sometimes "e +ritten in different tempus si#natures simultaneously& Many scholars, citin# a lac- of positive attri"utory evidence, no+ consider B?itryCsB treatise to "e anonymous, "ut this does not diminish its importance for the history of rhythmic notation& The first definitely identifia"le scholar to accept and e1plain the mensural system +as 6ohannes de Muris (6ehan des Mars!, +ho can "e said to have done for it +hat Garlandia did for the rhythmic modes&

.arly medie'al music ( -11!0

.arly chant traditions
/hant (or plainson#! is a monophonic sacred form +hich represents the earliest -no+n music of the /hristian church& The 6e+ish 2yna#o#ue tradition of sin#in# psalms +as a stron# influence on /hristian chantin#& /hant developed separately in several European centres& The most important +ere Rome, 2pain, Gaul, Milan, and *reland& These chants +ere all developed to support the re#ional litur#ies used +hen cele"ratin# the Mass there& Each area developed its o+n chants and rules for cele"ration& *n 2pain, Mo)ara"ic chant +as used and sho+s the influence of 7orth African music& The Mo)ara"ic litur#y even survived throu#h Muslim rule, thou#h this +as an isolated strand and this music +as later suppressed in an attempt to enforce conformity on the entire litur#y& *n Milan, Am"rosian chant, named after 2t& Am"rose, +as the standard, +hile 0eneventan chant developed around 0enevento, another *talian

litur#ical center& Gallican chant +as used in Gaul, and /eltic chant in *reland and Great 0ritain& Around $%$$ A , the Roman /atholic /hurch +anted to standardi)e the Mass and chant& At this time, Rome +as the reli#ious centre of +estern Europe, and .aris +as the political centre& The standardi)ation effort consisted mainly of com"inin# these t+o (Roman and Gallican! re#ional litur#ies& This "ody of chant "ecame -no+n as Gre#orian /hant& 0y the $=th and $<th centuries, Gre#orian chant had superseded all the other 'estern chant traditions, +ith the e1ception of the Am"rosian chant in Milan, and the Mo)ara"ic chant in a fe+ specially desi#nated 2panish chapels&

>regorian chant
A doctrinally unified version +hich came to#ether from under the supervision of Rome in appro1imately the ninth century +as called Gre#orian chant, a type of plainson# that +as central to the musical tradition of Europe in the Medieval era& The actual melodies that ma-e up the repertory pro"a"ly come from several sources, some as far "ac- as the pontificate of Gre#ory the Great himself (c& ,E%@6%4!& Many of them +ere pro"a"ly +ritten in the politically sta"le, relatively literate settin# of +estern monasteries durin# the rei#n of /harlema#ne& The earliest survivin# sources of chant sho+in# musical notation are from the early ninth century, thou#h the consistency of the music across a +ide area implies that some form of chant notation, no+ lost, may have e1isted earlier than this& *t should "e noted that music notation e1isted in the ancient +orld@for e1ample Greece@"ut the a"ility to read and +rite this notation +as lost around the fifth century, as +as all of the music that +ent +ith it& To +hat e1tent the music of the Gre#orian chant represents a survival of the music of the ancient +orld is much de"ated "y scholars, "ut certainly there must have "een some influence, if only from the music of the syna#o#ue& Anly the smallest of scraps of ancient music have survived (for instance, the 2ei-ilos epitaph!, "ut those that have sho+ an unsurprisin# similarity of mode, shape and phrase conception to later 'estern music& /hant survived and prospered in monasteries and reli#ious centres throu#hout the chaotic years of the early middle a#es, for these +ere the places of #reatest sta"ility and literacy& Most developments in +estern classical music are either related to, or directly descended from, procedures first seen in chant and its earliest ela"orations&

.arly polyphony? organum

Around the end of the ninth century, sin#ers in monasteries such as 2t& Gall in 2+it)erland "e#an e1perimentin# +ith addin# another part to the chant, #enerally a voice in parallel motion, sin#in# in mostly perfect fourths or fifths +ith the ori#inal tune (see interval!& This development is called or#anum, and represents the "e#innin#s of harmony

and, ultimately, counterpoint& Aver the ne1t several centuries or#anum developed in several +ays& The most si#nificant +as the creation of Bflorid or#anumB around $$%%, sometimes -no+n as the school of 2t& Martial (named after a monastery in south4central 9rance, +hich contains the "est4preserved manuscript of this repertory!& *n Bflorid or#anumB the ori#inal tune +ould "e sun# in lon# notes +hile an accompanyin# voice +ould sin# many notes to each one of the ori#inal, often in a hi#hly ela"orate fashion, all the +hile emphasi)in# the perfect consonances (fourths, fifths and octaves! as in the earlier or#ana& 8ater developments of or#anum occurred in En#land, +here the interval of the third +as particularly favoured, and +here or#ana +ere li-ely improvised a#ainst an e1istin# chant melody, and at 7otre ame in .aris, +hich +as to "e the centre of musical creative activity throu#hout the thirteenth century& Much of the music from the early medieval period is anonymous& 2ome of the names may have "een poets and lyric +riters, and the tunes for +hich they +rote +ords may have "een composed "y others& Attri"ution of monophonic music of the medieval period is not al+ays relia"le& 2urvivin# manuscripts from this period include the Musica Enchiriadis, /ode1 /ali1tinus of 2antia#o de /ompostela, and the 'inchester Troper&

)iturgical drama
Another musical tradition of Europe ori#inated durin# the early Middle A#es +as the litur#ical drama& *n its ori#inal form, it may represent a survival of Roman drama +ith /hristian stories 4 mainly the Gospel, the .assion, and the lives of the saints 4 #rafted on& Every part of Europe had some sort of tradition of musical or semi4musical drama in the middle a#es, involvin# actin#, spea-in#, sin#in# and instrumental accompaniment in some com"ination& .ro"a"ly these dramas +ere performed "y travellin# actors and musicians& Many have "een preserved sufficiently to allo+ modern reconstruction and performance (for e1ample the .lay of aniel, +hich has "een recently recorded!&

>oliards
The Goliards +ere itinerant poet4musicians of Europe from the tenth to the middle of the thirteenth century& Most +ere scholars or ecclesiastics, and they +rote and san# in 8atin& Althou#h many of the poems have survived, very little of the music has& They +ere possi"ly influential f even decisively so f on the trou"adour4trouvgre tradition +hich +as to follo+& Most of their poetry is secular and, +hile some of the son#s cele"rate reli#ious ideals, others are fran-ly profane, dealin# +ith drun-enness, de"auchery and lechery&

High medie'al music (11!0-1300

*rs anti1ua

The flo+erin# of the 7otre ame school of polyphony from around $$,% to $=,% corresponded to the e>ually impressive achievements in Gothic architecture: indeed the centre of activity +as at the cathedral of 7otre ame itself& 2ometimes the music of this period is called the .arisian school, or .arisian or#anum, and represents the "e#innin# of +hat is conventionally -no+n as Ars anti>ua& This +as the period in +hich rhythmic notation first appeared in +estern music, mainly a conte1t4"ased method of rhythmic notation -no+n as the rhythmic modes& This +as also the period in +hich concepts of formal structure developed +hich +ere attentive to proportion, te1ture, and architectural effect& /omposers of the period alternated florid and discant or#anum (more note4a#ainst4note, as opposed to the succession of many4note melismas a#ainst lon#4held notes found in the florid type!, and created several ne+ musical forms: clausulae, +hich +ere melismatic sections of or#ana e1tracted and fitted +ith ne+ +ords and further musical ela"oration3 conductus, +hich +as a son# for one or more voices to "e sun# rhythmically, most li-ely in a procession of some sort3 and tropes, +hich +ere rearran#ements of older chants +ith ne+ +ords and sometimes ne+ music& All of these #enres save one +ere "ased upon chant3 that is, one of the voices, (usually three, thou#h sometimes four! nearly al+ays the lo+est (the tenor at this point! sun# a chant melody, thou#h +ith freely composed note4len#ths, over +hich the other voices san# or#anum& The e1ception to this method +as the conductus, a t+o4 voice composition that +as freely composed in its entirety& The motet, one of the most important musical forms of the hi#h Middle A#es and Renaissance, developed initially durin# the 7otre ame period out of the clausula, especially the form usin# multiple voices as ela"orated "y .Irotin, +ho paved the +ay for this particularly "y replacin# many of his predecessor (as canon of the cathedral! 8IoninCs len#thy florid clausulae +ith su"stitutes in a discant style& Gradually, there came to "e entire "oo-s of these su"stitutes, availa"le to "e fitted in and out of the various chants& 2ince, in fact, there +ere more than can possi"ly have "een used in conte1t, it is pro"a"le that the clausulae came to "e performed independently, either in other parts of the mass, or in private devotions& The clausulae, thus practised, "ecame the motet +hen troped +ith non4litur#ical +ords, and +as further developed into a form of #reat ela"oration, sophistication and su"tlety in the fourteenth century, the period of Ars nova& 2urvivin# manuscripts from this era include the /ode1 Montpellier, /ode1 0am"er#, and El /ode1 musical de 8as 5uel#as& /omposers of this time include 8Ionin, .Irotin, '& de 'ycom"e, Adam de 2t& ?ictor, and .etrus de /ruce (.ierre de la /roi1!& .etrus is credited +ith the innovation of +ritin# more than three semi"reves to fit the len#th of a "reve& /omin# "efore the innovation of imperfect tempus, this practice inna#urated the era of +hat are no+ called B.etronianB motets& These late $<th4century +or-s are in three, sometimes four, parts and have multiple te1ts sun# simultaneously& These te1ts can "e either sacred or secular in su"Dect, and +ith 8atin and 9rench mi1ed& The .etronian motet is a hi#hly comple1 #enre, #iven its mi1ture of several semi"reve "reves +ith rhythmic modes and sometimes (+ith increasin# fre>uency! su"stitution of secular son#s for chant in the tenor& *ndeed, ever4

increasin# rhythmic comple1ity +ould "e a fundamental characteristic of the $4th century, thou#h music in 9rance, *taly, and En#land +ould ta-e >uite different paths durin# that time&

Trou0adours and trou'@res

The music of the trou"adours and trouvgres +as a vernacular tradition of monophonic secular son#, pro"a"ly accompanied "y instruments, sun# "y professional, occasionally itinerant, musicians +ho +ere as s-illed as poets as they +ere sin#ers and instrumentalists& The lan#ua#e of the trou"adours +as Accitan (also -no+n as the lan#ue dCoc, or .rovenTal!3 the lan#ua#e of the trouvgres +as Ald 9rench (also -no+n as lan#ue dCoil!& The period of the trou"adours corresponded to the flo+erin# of cultural life in .rovence +hich lasted throu#h the t+elfth century and into the first decade of the thirteenth& Typical su"Dects of trou"adour son# +ere +ar, chivalry and courtly love& The period of the trou"adours ended a"ruptly +ith the Al"i#ensian /rusade, the fierce campai#n "y .ope *nnocent *** to eliminate the /athar heresy (and northern "aronsC desire to appropriate the +ealth of the south!& 2urvivin# trou"adours +ent either to 2pain, northern *taly or northern 9rance (+here the trouvgre tradition lived on!, +here their s-ills and techni>ues contri"uted to the later developments of secular musical culture in those places& The music of the trouvgres +as similar to that of the trou"adours, "ut +as a"le to survive into the thirteenth century unaffected "y the Al"i#ensian /rusade& Most of the more than t+o thousand survivin# trouvgre son#s include music, and sho+ a sophistication as #reat as that of the poetry it accompanies& The Minnesin#er tradition +as the Germanic counterpart to the activity of the trou"adours and trouvgres to the +est& Knfortunately, fe+ sources survive from the time3 the sources of Minnesan# are mostly from t+o or three centuries after the pea- of the movement, leadin# to some controversy over their accuracy&

)ate medie'al music (1300-1%00

/rance? *rs no'a
The "e#innin# of the Ars nova is one of the fe+ clean chronolo#ical divisions in medieval music, since it corresponds to the pu"lication of the Roman de 9auvel, a hu#e compilation of poetry and music, in $<$% and $<$4& The Roman de 9auvel is a satire on a"uses in the medieval church, and is filled +ith medieval motets, lais, rondeau1 and other ne+ secular forms& 'hile most of the music is anonymous, it contains several pieces "y .hilippe de ?itry, one of the first composers of the isorhythmic motet, a development +hich distin#uishes the fourteenth century& The isorhythmic motet +as perfected "y Guillaume de Machaut, the finest composer of the time& urin# the Ars nova era, secular music ac>uired a polyphonic sophistication formerly found only in sacred music, a development not surprisin# considerin# the secular

character of the early Renaissance (and it should "e noted that +hile this music is typically considered to "e BmedievalB, the social forces that produced it +ere responsi"le for the "e#innin# of the literary and artistic Renaissance in *talyfthe distinction "et+een Middle A#es and Renaissance is a "lurry one, especially considerin# arts as different as music and paintin#!& The term BArs novaB (ne+ art, or ne+ techni>ue! +as coined "y .hilippe de ?itry in his treatise of that name (pro"a"ly +ritten in $<==!, in order to distin#uish the practice from the music of the immediately precedin# a#e& The dominant secular #enre of the Ars 7ova +as the chanson, as it +ould continue to "e in 9rance for another t+o centuries& These chansons +ere composed in musical forms correspondin# to the poetry they set, +hich +ere in the so4called formes fi1es of rondeau, "allade, and virelai& These forms si#nificantly affected the development of musical structure in +ays that are felt even today3 for e1ample, the ouvert4clos rhyme4scheme shared "y all three demanded a musical reali)ation +hich contri"uted directly to the modern notion of antecedent and conse>uent phrases& *t +as in this period, too, in +hich "e#an the lon# tradition of settin# the mass ordinary& This tradition started around mid4 century +ith isolated or paired settin#s of Fyries, Glorias, etc&, "ut Machaut composed +hat is thou#ht to "e the first complete mass conceived as one composition& The sound +orld of Ars 7ova music is very much one of linear primacy and rhythmic comple1ity& BRestin#B intervals are the fifth and octave, +ith thirds and si1ths considered dissonances& 8eaps of more than a si1th in individual voices are not uncommon, leadin# to speculation of instrumental participation at least in secular performance&

&taly? Trecento
Most of the music of Ars nova +as 9rench in ori#in3 ho+ever, the term is often loosely applied to all of the music of the fourteenth century, especially to include the secular music in *taly& There this period +as often referred to as Trecento& *talian music has al+ays, it seems, "een -no+n for its lyrical or melodic character, and this #oes "ac- to the $4th century in many respects& *talian secular music of this time (+hat little survivin# litur#ical music there is, is similar to the 9rench e1cept for some+hat different notation! featured +hat has "een called the cantalina style, +ith a florid top voice supported "y t+o (or even one3 a fair amount of *talian Trecento music is for only t+o voices! that are more re#ular and slo+er movin#& This type of te1ture remained a feature of *talian music in the popular $,th and $6th century secular #enres as +ell, and +as an important influence on the eventual development of the trio te1ture that revolutioni)ed music in the $;th& There +ere three main forms for secular +or-s in the Trecento& Ane +as the madri#al, not the same as that of $,%4=,% years later, "ut +ith a verse:refrain4li-e form& Three4line stan)as, each +ith different +ords, alternated +ith a t+o4line ritornello, +ith the same te1t at each appearance& .erhaps +e can see the seeds of the su"se>uent late4Renaissance and 0aro>ue ritornello in this device3 it too returns a#ain and a#ain, reco#ni)a"le each time, in contrast +ith its surroundin# disparate sections& Another form, the caccia (Bchase,B! +as +ritten for t+o voices in a canon at the unison& 2ometimes, this form also

featured a ritornello, +hich +as occasionally also in a canonic style& Ksually, the name of this #enre provided a dou"le meanin#, since the te1ts of caccia +ere primarily a"out hunts and related outdoor activities, or at least action4filled scenes& The third main form +as the "allata, +hich +as rou#hly e>uivalent to the 9rench "allade& 2urvivin# *talian manuscripts include the 2>uarcialupi /ode1 and the Rossi /ode1& *n all, ho+ever, si#nificantly less *talian music survives from the $4th century than 9rench&

>ermany? >eisslerlieder
The Geisslerlieder +ere the son#s of +anderin# "ands of fla#ellants, +ho sou#ht to appease the +rath of an an#ry God "y penitential music accompanied "y mortification of their "odies& There +ere t+o separate periods of activity of Geisslerlied: one around the middle of the thirteenth century, from +hich, unfortunately, no music survives (althou#h numerous lyrics do!3 and another from $<4E, for +hich "oth +ords and music survive intact due to the attention of a sin#le priest +ho +rote a"out the movement and recorded its music& This second period corresponds to the spread of the 0lac- eath in Europe, and documents one of the most terri"le events in European history& 0oth periods of Geisslerlied activity +ere mainly in Germany& There +as also 9rench4influenced polyphony +ritten in German areas at this time, "ut it +as some+hat less sophisticated than its models& *n fairness to the mostly anonymous composers of this repertoire, ho+ever, most of the survivin# manuscripts seem to have "een copied +ith e1treme incompetence, and are filled +ith errors that ma-e a truly thorou#h evaluation of the musicCs >uality impossi"le&

Mannerism and *rs su0tilior

As often seen at the end of any musical era, the end of the medieval era is mar-ed "y a hi#hly manneristic style -no+n as Ars su"tilior& *n some +ays, this +as an attempt to meld the 9rench and *talian styles& This music +as hi#hly styli)ed, +ith a rhythmic comple1ity that +as not matched until the =%th century& *n fact, not only +as the rhythmic comple1ity of this repertoire lar#ely unmatched for five and a half centuries, +ith e1treme syncopations, mensural tric-ery, and even e1amples of au#enmusi- (such as a chanson "y 0aude /ordier +ritten out in manuscript in the shape of a heart!, "ut also its melodic material +as >uite comple1 as +ell, particularly in its interaction +ith the rhythmic structures& Already discussed under Ars 7ova has "een the practice of isorhythm, +hich continued to develop throu#h late4century and in fact did not achieve its hi#hest de#ree of sophistication until early in the $,th century& *nstead of usin# isorhythmic techni>ues in one or t+o voices, or tradin# them amon# voices, some +or-s came to feature a pervadin# isorhythmic te1ture +hich rivals the inte#ral serialism of the =%th century in its systematic orderin# of rhythmic and tonal elements& The term BmannerismB +as applied "y later scholars, as it often is, in response to an impression of sophistication "ein# practised for its o+n sa-e, a malady +hich some authors have felt infected the Ars su"tilior&

Transitioning to the (enaissance

emarcatin# the end of the medieval era and the "e#innin# of the Renaissance, +ith re#ards to the composition of music, is pro"lematic& 'hile the music of the fourteenth century is fairly o"viously medieval in conception, the music of the early fifteenth century is often conceived as "elon#in# to a transitional period, not only retainin# some of the ideals of the end of the Middle A#es (such as a type of polyphonic +ritin# in +hich the parts differ +idely from each other in character, as each has its specific te1tural function!, "ut also sho+in# some of the characteristic traits of the Renaissance (such as the international style developin# throu#h the diffusion of 9ranco49lemish musicians throu#hout Europe, and in terms of te1ture an increasin# e>uality of parts!& The Renaissance "e#an early in *taly, "ut musical innovation there la##ed far "ehind that of 9rance and En#land3 the Renaissance came late to En#land, "ut musical innovation there +as ahead of continental Europe& Music historians do not a#ree on +hen the Renaissance era "e#an, "ut most historians a#ree that En#land +as still a medieval society in the early fifteenth century (see a discussion of periodi)ation issues of the Middle A#es!& 'hile there is no consensus, $4%% is a useful mar-er, "ecause it +as around that time that the Renaissance came into full s+in# in *taly& The increasin# reliance on the interval of the third as a consonance is one of the most pronounced features of transition into the Renaissance& .olyphony, in use since the $=th century, "ecame increasin#ly ela"orate +ith hi#hly independent voices throu#hout the $4th century& 'ith 6ohn unstaple and other En#lish composers, partly throu#h the local techni>ue of fa"urden (an improvisatory process in +hich a chant melody and a +ritten part predominantly in parallel si1ths a"ove it are ornamented "y one sun# in perfect fourths "elo+ the latter, and +hich later too- hold on the continent as Bfau1"ordonB!, the interval of the third emer#es as an important musical development3 "ecause of this /ontenance An#loise (BEn#lish countenanceB!, En#lish composersC music is often re#arded as the first to sound less truly "i)arre to modern, unschooled audiences& En#lish stylistic tendencies in this re#ard had come to fruition and "e#an to influence continental composers as early as the $4=%s, as can "e seen in +or-s of the youn# ufay, amon# others& 'hile the 5undred NearsC 'ar continued, En#lish no"les, armies, their chapels and retinues, and therefore some of their composers, travelled in 9rance and performed their music there3 it must also of course "e remem"ered that the En#lish controlled portions of northern 9rance at this time& http:::+++&music#uide"oo-&com:articles:medieval4period

(enaissance period
Renaissance music is European classical music +ritten durin# the Renaissance, appro1imately $4%% to $6%%& efinin# the "e#innin# of the era is difficult, #iven the lacof a"rupt shifts in musical thin-in# durin# the $,th century& Additionally, the process "y +hich music ac>uired BRenaissanceB characteristics +as a #radual one, "ut $4%% is used here&

+'er'ie8
3tyle and trends
The increasin# reliance on the interval of the third as a consonance is one of the most pronounced features of early Renaissance European art music (in the Middle A#es, thirds had "een considered dissonances: see interval!& .olyphony, in use since the $=th century, "ecame increasin#ly ela"orate +ith hi#hly independent voices throu#hout the $4th century: the "e#innin# of the $,th century sho+ed simplification, +ith the voices often strivin# for smoothness& This +as possi"le "ecause of a #reatly increased vocal ran#e in musicfin the Middle A#es, the narro+ ran#e made necessary fre>uent crossin# of parts, thus re>uirin# a #reater contrast "et+een them& The modal (as opposed to tonal! characteristics of Renaissance music "e#an to "reado+n to+ards the end of the period +ith the increased use of root motions of fifths& This has since developed into one of the definin# characteristics of tonality&

>enres
.rincipal litur#ical forms +hich endured throu#hout the entire Renaissance period +ere masses and motets, +ith some other developments to+ards the end, especially as composers of sacred music "e#an to adopt secular forms (such as the madri#al! for their o+n desi#ns& /ommon sacred #enres +ere the mass, the motet, the madri#ale spirituale, and the laude& urin# the period, secular music had an increasin#ly +ide distri"ution, +ith a +ide variety of forms, "ut one must "e cautious a"out assumin# an e1plosion in variety: since printin# made music more +idely availa"le, much more has survived from this era than from the precedin# Medieval era, and pro"a"ly a rich store of popular music of the late Middle A#es is irretrieva"ly lost& 2ecular music included son#s for one or many voices, forms such as the frottola, chanson and madri#al& 2ecular vocal #enres included the madri#al, the frottola, the caccia, the chanson in several forms (rondeau, virelai, "er#erette, "allade, musi>ue mesurIe!, the can)onetta, the villancico, the villanella, the villotta, and the lute son#&

.urely instrumental music included consort music for recorder or viol and other instruments, and dances for various ensem"les& /ommon #enres +ere the toccata, the prelude, the ricercar, the can)ona, and inta"ulation (intavolatura, inta"ulierun#!& *nstrumental ensem"les for dances mi#ht play a "asse danse (or "assedan)a!, a pavane, a #alliard, an allemande, or a courante& To+ards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as monody, the madri#al comedy, and the intermedio are seen&

Theory and notation

Accordin# to Mar#aret 0ent ($EE8!, BRenaissance notation is under4prescriptive "y our standards3 +hen translated into modern form it ac>uires a prescriptive +ei#ht that overspecifies and distorts its ori#inal openness&B Renaissance compositions +ere notated only in individual parts3 scores +ere e1tremely rare, and "arlines +ere not used& 7ote values +ere #enerally lar#er than are in use today3 the primary unit of "eat +as the semi"reve, or +hole note& As had "een the case since the Ars 7ova (see Medieval music!, there could "e either t+o or three of these for each "reve (a dou"le4+hole note!, +hich may "e loo-ed on as e>uivalent to the modern Bmeasure,B thou#h it +as itself a note4value and a measure is not& The situation can "e considered this +ay: it is the same as the rule "y +hich in modern music a >uarter4note may e>ual either t+o ei#hth4notes or three, +hich +ould "e +ritten as a Btriplet&B 0y the same rec-onin#, there could "e t+o or three of the ne1t4smallest note, the Bminim,B (e>uivalent to the modern Bhalf noteB! to each semi4"reve& These different permutations +ere called Bperfect:imperfect tempusB at the level of the "reve4semi"reve relationship, Bperfect:imperfect prolationB at the level of the semi"reve4minim, and e1isted in all possi"le com"inations +ith each other& Three4to4one +as called Bperfect,B and t+o4to4one Bimperfect&B Rules e1isted also +here"y sin#le notes could "e halved or dou"led in value (BimperfectedB or Baltered,B respectivelyh +hen preceded or follo+ed "y other certain notes& 7otes +ith "lac- noteheads (such as >uarter notes! occurred less often& This development of +hite mensural notation may "e a result of the increased use of paper (rather than vellum!, as the +ea-er paper +as less a"le to +ithstand the scratchin# re>uired to fill in solid noteheads3 notation of previous times, +ritten on vellum, had "een "lac-& Ather colors, and later, filled4in notes, +ere used routinely as +ell, mainly to enfore the aforementioned imperfections or alterations and to call for other temporary rhythmical chan#es& Accidentals +ere not al+ays specified, some+hat as in certain fin#erin# notations (ta"latures! today& 5o+ever, Renaissance musicians +ould have "een hi#hly trained in dyadic counterpoint and thus possessed this and other information necessary to read a score, B+hat modern notation re>uires caccidentalsd +ould then have "een perfectly apparent +ithout notation to a sin#er versed in counterpoint&B 2ee musica ficta& A sin#er +ould interpret his or her part "y fi#urin# cadential formulas +ith other parts in mind, and +hen sin#in# to#ether musicians +ould avoid parallel octaves and fifths or alter their cadential parts in li#ht of decisions "y other musicians (0ent, $EE8!&

*nterestin#ly, it is throu#h contemporary ta"latures for various pluc-ed instruments that +e have #ained much information a"out +hat accidentals +ere performed "y the ori#inal practitioners&

.arly (enaissance music (1%00 - 1%67

The 0ur#undian 2chool of composers, led "y Guillaume ufay, demonstrated characteristics of "oth the late Medieval era and the early Renaissance (see Medieval music!& This #roup #radually dropped the late Medieval periodCs comple1 devices of isorhythm and e1treme syncopation, resultin# in a more limpid and flo+in# style& 'hat their music BlostB in rhythmic comple1ity, ho+ever, it #ained in rhythmic vitality, as a Bdrive to the cadenceB "ecame a prominent feature around mid4century&

Middle (enaissance music (1%67 - 1!3%

To+ards the end of the $,th century, polyphonic sacred music (as e1emplified in the masses of 6ohannes Ac-e#hem and 6aco" A"recht! had once a#ain "ecome more comple1, in a manner that can perhaps "e seen as correlatin# to the stunnin# detail in the paintin# at the time& Ac-e#hem, particularly, +as fond of canon, "oth contrapuntal and mensural& 5e even composed a mass in +hich all the parts are derived canonically from one musical line& *t +as in the openin# decades of the ne1t century that music felt in a tactus (thin- of the modern time si#nature! of t+o semi"reves4to4a4"reve "e#an to "e as common as that +ith three semi"reves4to4a4"reve, as had prevailed prior to that time& *n the early $6th century, there is another trend to+ards simplification, as can "e seen to some de#ree in the +or- of 6os>uin des .re) and his comtemporaries in the 9ranco4 9lemish 2chool, then later in that of G& .& .alestrina, +ho +as partially reactin# to the strictures of the /ouncil of Trent, +hich discoura#ed e1cessively comple1 polyphony as inhi"itin# understandin# the te1t& Early $6th4century 9ranco49lemmin#s moved a+ay from the comple1 systems of canonic and other mensural play of Ac-e#hemCs #eneration, tendin# to+ard points of imitation and duet or trio sections +ithin an overall te1ture that #re+ to five and si1 voices& They also "e#an, even "efore the Tridentine reforms, to insert ever4len#thenin# passa#es of homophony, to underline important te1t or points of articulation& .alestrina, on the other hand, came to cultivate a freely flo+in# style of counterpoint in a thic-, rich te1ture +ithin +hich consonance follo+ed dissonance on a nearly "eat4"y4"eat "asis, and suspensions ruled the day (see counterpoint!& 0y no+, tactus +as #enerally t+o semi"reves per "reve +ith three per "reve used for special effects and climactic sections3 this +as a nearly e1act reversal of the prevailin# techni>ue a century "efore&

)ate (enaissance music (1!3% - 1600

*n ?enice, from a"out $,<4 until around $6%%, an impressive polychoral style developed, +hich #ave Europe some of the #randest, most sonorous music composed up until that time, +ith multiple choirs of sin#ers, "rass and strin#s in different spatial locations in the 0asilica 2an Marco di ?ene)ia (see ?enetian 2chool!& These multiple revolutions spread over Europe in the ne1t several decades, "e#innin# in Germany and then movin# to 2pain, 9rance and En#land some+hat later, demarcatin# the "e#innin# of +hat +e no+ -no+ as the 0aro>ue musical era& The Roman 2chool +as a #roup of composers of predominantly church music, in Rome, spannin# the late Renaissance into early 0aro>ue eras& Many of the composers had a direct connection to the ?atican and the papal chapel, thou#h they +or-ed at several churches3 stylistically they are often contrasted +ith the ?enetian 2chool of composers, a concurrent movement +hich +as much more pro#ressive& 0y far the most famous composer of the Roman 2chool is Giovanni .ierlui#i da .alestrina, +hose name has "een associated for four hundred years +ith smooth, clear, polyphonic perfection& The "rief "ut intense flo+erin# of the musical madri#al in En#land, mostly from $,88 to $6=;, alon# +ith the composers +ho produced them, is -no+n as the En#lish Madri#al 2chool& The En#lish madri#als +ere a cappella, predominantly li#ht in style, and #enerally "e#an as either copies or direct translations of *talian models& Most +ere for three to si1 voices& Musica reservata is a term referrin# to either a style or a performance practice in a cappella vocal music of the latter, mainly in *taly and southern Germany, involvin# refinement, e1clusivity, and intense emotional e1pression of sun# te1t& *n addition, many composers o"served a division in their o+n +or-s "et+een a prima pratica (music in the Renaissance polyphonic style! anda seconda pratica (music in the ne+ style! durin# the first part of the $;th century&

Mannerism
*n the late $6th century, as the Renaissance era closes, an e1tremely manneristic style develops& *n secular music, especially in the madri#al, there +as a trend to+ards comple1ity and even e1treme chromaticism (as e1emplified in madri#als of 8u))aschi, Maren)io, and Gesualdo!& The term BmannerismB derives from art history&

Transition to the Baro1ue

0e#innin# in 9lorence, there +as an attempt to revive the dramatic and musical forms of Ancient Greece, throu#h the means of monody, a form of declaimed music over a simple accompaniment3 a more e1treme contrast +ith the precedin# polyphonic style +ould "e hard to find3 this +as also, at least at the outset, a secular trend& These musicians +ere -no+n as the 9lorentine /amerata& 'e have already noted some of the musical developments that helped to usher in the

0aro>ue, "ut for further e1planation of this transition, see polychoral, concertato, monody, madri#al, and opera, as +ell as the +or-s #iven under B2ources and further readin#&B http:::+++&music#uide"oo-&com:articles:renaissance4period

* 2ery Basic &ntroduction

Today most people understand the term Rclassical musicS to refer to music +ritten "efore the "e#innin# of the first 'orld 'ar or +hich re>uires an orchestra to perform& *n actual fact, classical music is still "ein# +ritten today and can "e performed "y as fe+ as three people (a trio!& /lassical music is divided into Rperiods&S These include:

Medieval Renaissance 0aro>ue /lassical Romantic T+entieth /entury

*n this article +e +ill "e loo-in# at composers from the 0aro>ue, the /lassical and the Romantic periods& 8etXs #et started&

The Baro1ue <eriod *nd 2i'aldi

The 0aro>ue period occurred "et+een $68, and $;,%& urin# this time, Rem"randt +as paintin# up a storm& Architect /hristopher 'ren +as #iven the Do" of restorin# 8ondon, +hich lay rava#ed after the Great 9ire of $66;& Ane of the #reat universities of the Knited 2tates, Nale, +as founded& And in $;<$, 0enDamin 9ran-lin started the very first circulatin# li"rary& Music +ritten durin# this period +as very ela"orate and ener#etic& The musical form -no+n as RoperaS emer#ed (+hich +as either a #ood thin# or a "ad thin#, dependin# on your point of vie+!& /omposers "e#an to indicate the RtempoS (fast, slo+, etc&! they +ished their pieces performed at& This direction helped to define the mood they +anted their +or- to convey& Music +as also "ein# +ritten in a +ay that mimic-ed the sounds of nature& .ro"a"ly the "est e1ample of this style of music +as +ritten "y the 0aro>ue composer, ?ivaldi& Antonio ?ivaldi +as "orn in $6;8 in ?enice, *taly& 5e +as -no+n as the RRed .riestS for his hair color and his first career choice& 5o+ever, ?ivaldiCs days as a man of the cloth came to an end in $;<; +hen he +as accused of conduct un"ecomin# a priest& 8e#end has it that one 2unday, +hile cele"ratin# Mass, ?ivaldi a"ruptly left the service and disappeared& The reason( To Dot do+n a musical idea& urin# his lifetime, Antonio composed over ,%% concertos, of +hich =<% of these +ere constructed around the violin& A concerto is a piece of music +ritten +hich features a solo instrument performin# +ith an orchestra& iuite often the solo instrument and the

orchestra are said to RopposeS each other, +ith the music #oin# "ac- and forth "et+een them& An accomplished violinist himself, ?ivaldiXs first official post involved teachin# youn# #irls in an orphana#e ho+ to play the violin as +ell as a num"er of other musical instruments& Ane of ?ivaldiXs "est4-no+n compositions are the first four concertos (out of $=! in his RApus 8 @ *l /imento ellXArmonio E ellX*nvention&S ThatXs a mouthfulj 9or those of us +ho spea- En#lish that +ould "e RThe Trial of 5armony and *nvention&S Each of the four seasons is represented "y a concerto& 8isten for the sound of "irds +elcomin# 2prin# as performed "y three solo violins& 9eel the la)y days of 2ummer as they are reflected in the slo+ movin#, almost lan#uid tempo of the second concerto& The drun-en antics of peasants cele"ratin# the 9all harvest, the sound of cautious footsteps on 'interXs ice, all are found +ithin this "eautiful composition&

The Classical <eriod *nd Mo=art

Music composed durin# the /lassical period ($;;,4$8<%! em"odied lo#ic, precision and unity& Music +as +ritten so that it flo+ed in an orderly, reasoned +ay& 'hich +as in star- contrast to other events happenin# in the +orld& 8ouis the k?*Xs re#ime +as overthro+n "y the 9rench revolution& Americans +ere fi#htin# for their independence from the 0ritish& And a short, feisty man "y the name of 7apoleon 0onaparte "e#an +a#in# +ar across Europe and Russia& And there +ere chan#es in the +orld of classical music as +ell& 7o lon#er +ere composers +ritin# primarily for the church3 the no"ility had "ecome the desired audience& *f you +ere a mem"er of royalty, you +ere certain to have a composer as +ell as a chef on your payroll& 'ithout >uestion, the most famous of these RemployeesS +as 'olf#an# Amadeus Mo)art& Re#arded "y many as the +orldXs #reatest composer, Mo)artXs #enius #raced Europe for a mere <, years& 0orn in $;,6 in 2al)"ur#, Austria, he "e#an playin# the piano at a#e four and +as composin# simple pieces a year later& At a#e seven, little Amadeus +ent out on his first RtourS +hich lasted three and a half years& 5e +ould do four additional tours over the ne1t ten years at the ur#in# of his tour mana#er, his father 8eopold& 0ut travelin# and performin# +ere not all that Mo)art +as doin#& 5e +as a prolific composer& The follo+in# is only a partial list of his accomplishments&

4$ symphonies =6 strin# >uartets $; piano sonatas 4= violin sonatas

*s it any +onder that ones of the thin#s that -illed him +as >uite simply over+or-(

Ane of my favorite compositions +ritten "y Mo)art is REine Fleine 7achtmusi-S (A 8ittle 7i#ht Music!& /omposed in the summer of $;8;, it ori#inally contained five movements (a movement is a section of music +ithin a lar#er piece! "ut some+here alon# the +ay, one movement +as lost& 8i#ht and airy, this is definitely easy and enDoya"le listenin#&

The (omantic <eriod *nd 3aint-3aens

0et+een the years $8<% and $E%%, music turned to+ards the emotional& 9rom intimate to dramatic to rousin#, you canXt help "ut "e moved in some +ay "y the compositions of the Romantic .eriod& And it +asnXt Dust music that had emotions runnin# hi#h& The +orld +atched +hile =&, million people perished as potato crops failed in Europe, Great 0ritain and Russia& *n $84E, the first #old see-ers arrived in 2an 9rancisco, an1ious to sta-e their claim& And the Americans +ere fi#htin# a#ain, "ut this time they +ere "attlin# each other& This +as the #olden a#e of the piano +ith 9rederic /hopin and 9ran) 8is)t leadin# the +ay& A ne+ dance cra)e, the +alt), emer#ed& Music +as all a"out individual e1pression and one of the most e1pressive of these individuals +as /amille 2aint42aens& 0orn in .aris in $8<,, 2aint42aens +as nothin# short of a child prodi#y& At the a#e of three he +as ta-in# piano lessons, ma-in# his de"ut at ten& A virtuoso at the piano, he +as also an accomplished or#anist& *n fact, he +as so enamored of this instrument that he +rote his third symphony featurin# the or#an as a complement to the orchestra& 0ut "y far the most entertainin# of 2aint42aens +or-s is RThe /arnival of the Animals&S *t +ould appear that he -ne+ in advance Dust ho+ popular this piece +ould "e& 5e actually for"id its pu"lication for fear it +ould overshado+ his more serious +or-& *t +asnXt until after his death that the +orld +as treated to this parody of then contemporary music& Each movement +as named for an animal& 8isten as elephants, tortoises and a s+an cavort& 'ho said classical music couldnXt "e fun(

)etAs >o To The 3tore

9irst, letXs revie+ my recommendations&

?ivaldi 4 RThe 9our 2easonsS Mo)art 4 REine Fleine 7achtmusi-S 2aint42aens @ RThe /arnival of the AnimalsS

7o+ letXs march into our nearest record store and pic- these up& 0ut +ait& There are =% different versions of RThe 9our 2easons&S And t+ice as many variations of REine Fleine 7achtmusi-&S 5o+ do you -no+ +hich are #ood and +hich arenXt( *s there even such a thin# as a "ad classical music recordin#(

'ell yes and no& /lassical music is all a"out interpretation& And that Do" falls to the conductor& Af course the musical s-ills of the orchestra are important as +ell, "ut the conductor is ultimately the one leadin# the sho+& 5ere is a list of some of the "etter4 -no+n conductors& Af course, this is "ut a fe+ of the +onderful conductors +ho have recorded "ut one has to start some+here&

5er"ert von FaraDan aniel 0aren"oim Michael Tilson Thomas /harles utoit 2ir 7eville Marriner Andre .revin

2till over+helmed( Then let me #ive you some specific information& These are recordin#s +hich * particularly enDoy&

RThe 9our 2easonsS @ conducted "y 2ir 7eville Marriner leadin# the Academy of 2t& Martin4*n4The49ields, soloist Alan 8oveday REine Fleine 7achtmusi-S @ conducted "y 5er"ert von FaraDan leadin# the 0erlin .hilharmonic R/arnival of the AnimalsS @ conducted "y Richard 2tamp leadin# the Academy of 8ondon (this / also has REine Fleine 7achtmusi-S on it @ t+o recommendations for the price of onej!

* truly hope that you +ill #ive classical music a listen& After all, if people are still enDoyin# it hundreds of years after it +as +ritten, +ell there must "e somethin# to itj http:::+++&#oo#o"its&com:articles:p44==,;4classical4music4youll4actually4enDoy&html