Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Lesson 1 - Professional Terminology

As teachers of a foreign language, we all share a common language that we not only speak, but that we also teach: English. However, we do not all necessarily know the professional terminology for the teaching of the English language. Some of these specialized terms are defined in methodology books, or demonstrated during teacher-training courses; others remain unclear and are sometimes difficult to understand for anyone not already immersed in the professional discourse of language teachers. This makes professional terminology particularly problematic, not only for new teachers but for experienced ones too, because our profession is evolving so quickly from decade to decade. That said, for the purposes of this course we will consider the following descriptions of these terms, because these are the definitions put forward among the most recent books for new teachers. Approach The term approach refers to theories about the nature of language and language learning that serve as the source of practices and principles in language teaching. The approach is the why we decide what kind of content, and what sort of procedures are appropriate (Richards and Rogers, 1986). Synonyms for approach are viewpoint, and point of view. It should be noted that all methods and techniques from the 1980s onward claim to work within the Communicative Approach.

Methodology Methodology is the study of general pedagogical practices, including their theoretical underpinnings and related research. Whatever considerations are involved in how to teach are methodological (Lewis, 1993). With a methodology, one specifies the normal manner of teaching. Method A method is an overall plan for presenting language material, based on the selected approach (i.e. how the teaching is to be conducted (Richards and Rogers, 1986). While methodology is a general manner of teaching, a given method provides a concrete, step-by-step description of a lesson.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Technique
A Technique is any one of a wide variety of exercises, activities or devices used in the language classroom for realizing lesson objectives (Richards and Rogers, 1986). A task is an activity in which the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (or goal), in order to achieve an outcome (Willis and Willis, 2002). We can determine how task-like a given activity is by asking the following questions. (The more confidently we can answer yes to each of these questions, the more task-like the activity will be.) a) Does the activity engage learners interest? b) Is there a primary focus on meaning? c) Is there an outcome? d) Is success judged in terms of that outcome? Is completion a priority? e) Does the activity relate to real-world activities? How Many Types of Task Are There? There are at least seven types of task: Listing Ordering / Sorting (sequencing, ranking, classifying) Matching Comparing Problem-solving Sharing personal experiences Projects and creative tasks These criteria do not constitute a watertight definition of what constitutes a task, but they will provide us with guidelines for the design of activities which are task-like in that they involve real language use. (Willis and Willis, 2007).
Sources: Harmer, J. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Lewis, M. 1997. The Lexical Approach. Thomson Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching. Heinemann Willis, J. 1996. A Framework for Task-based Learning, Addison Wesley Longman Willis & Willis. 2007. Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford University Press

Task

For more information on professional ELT terms visit: www.cal.org/resources/digest/rodgers.html www.moramodules.com/ALMMethods.htm

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

A Brief History of Teaching Foreign Languages

Ever since the beginning of mankind, there has always been the need to learn a foreign language. Only 500 years ago, Latin was the main language of education, commerce, religion and government in most of the Western world. As a result, the origin of foreign-language teaching has its roots in the study and teaching of Latin. However, by the end of the 16th century, French, Italian, and English had taken over and displaced Latin. Nonetheless, many scholars claimed that the study of Latin developed intellectual abilities, and so the study of Latin grammar continued for purely academic reasons. While keeping in mind that an approach is more general in nature (because it discusses the beliefs and principles underlying a method), here is a brief chronological history of some of these major approaches and methods: 1880: Grammar-Translation Method Foreign language students using this method only studied grammar rules and translated sentences. There was little oral work, and most of the lessons were focused on memorization of grammatical rules, and some reading in the target language. 19th Century: Direct Method In the 19th century, people began to travel more. Consequently, the need to actually speak other languages became important. A reform movement came about that gave birth to the Direct Method. In contrast to the GrammarTranslation Method, this method gave primacy to spoken language and pronunciation, emphasizing the use of phonetics, and encouraged the teaching of words and sentences in context, to make meaning clear. Grammar was taught inductively, and translation was considered taboo.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

1930: Situational Language Teaching British applied linguists from the 1930s to the 1960s developed the first method that was based on systematic study and research. It differed from the Direct Method in that vocabulary and grammar were carefully selected and graded. The teaching technique was based on behaviorist theory of habit formation. Classroom procedure included the famous Presentation, Practice, Production paradigm (better known by its initials: PPP). What was distinctive was that the Practice phase consisted of the extensive use of oral drills. 1945: Audiolingual Method The Audiolingual Method had students listen to (or view) recordings of language models acting in realistic situations. Students practiced with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasized the use of the target language at all times. This method was used by the United States Army in their "foreign-language crash courses during World War II. Due to weaknesses in performance, the Audiolingual method is rarely the primary method of instruction today. 1960: The Silent Way This method believed that students learn best when they figure things out for themselves, so teacher modeling and feedback are minimal. Cuisenaire Rods, pronunciation charts (called fidels) and a pointer are typical Silent Way tools. The three basic views of this method are: learning is facilitated if the learner discovers, rather than remembers or repeats learning is aided by physical objects problem-solving is central to learning This method encouraged the teacher to be as quiet as possible in the classroom, in order to encourage the learners to produce as much language as possible.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Stevick described the teachers role as, to teach, to test, and to get out of the way. 1965: Content-based Instruction Content-based Instruction means teaching other subjects in English. It focuses not only on learning a second language, but using that language as a medium to learn subjects such as mathematics, geography, science, social studies or other academic subjects. For years, it has been used with foreign students in adult, professional and university education programs. In recent years, CBI has begun to be used at the elementary and secondary levels. Content-based language instruction is based on Krashens language acquisition theory, which states that input must be comprehensible to the learner and be offered in such a way as to allow multiple opportunities to understand and use the language. If comprehensible input is provided and the student feels little anxiety, then acquisition will take place. (Krashen, 1981, 1982) Whether taught by the ESL teacher or content-area teacher, Content-based Instruction provides direct instruction in the special language of the subject matter, while focusing most of the attention on the subject matter itself. Thus CBI is widely accepted in teaching second languages (among immigrants to a country, for example), but remains controversial in the teaching of foreign languages. 1970: Suggestopedia Suggestopedia is one of the most controversial teaching methods developed in the 1970s. Initiated by the Bulgarian educator Georgi Lozanov, it is based on the idea that, as people get older, they inhibit their ability to learn as a way to conform to social norms. Therefore, teachers should use the power of suggestion in order to reactivate the capabilities that the learners used as children. This type of lesson normally consists of four phases:

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Introduction. The teacher teaches the material in a playful manner, rather than analyzing lexis and grammar of the text in a directive manner. Concert session (active and passive). In the active session, the teacher reads (with proper intonation) as selected music is played in the background. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the music as the teacher pauses at particular moments. The passive session is for calm, quiet reading. Elaboration. The students sing classical songs and play games while the teacher acts more like a facilitator. Production. The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language, without interruption or correction. Suggestopedia claims that we are capable of superlearning in the right conditions, when we are relaxed. 1970: Community Language Learning Community Language Learning (CLL) is famous for being very learner-centered. For example, students create their own syllabus. They sit around a table with a tape recorder, and come up with their own text, which the teacher helps them to correct or translate if necessary. The founding figure was Charles Curran, an American Jesuit priest whose work in Counseling Learning (an approach to learning in general, which is based on Rogerian counseling ideas and practices) was applied to language learning. 1970: Total Physical Response Total Physical Response (better known by its initials: TPR) is a method that combines language with physical movement and involves extensive use of imperative drills, such as: Get up. Walk to the door. Open the door. It is meant mainly for low-level students, and should be combined with another method.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

1970: Neuro-linguistic Programming Neurolinguistic Programming (NLP) is more than a language-teaching approach; it is a humanistic philosophy, designed to make better learners by encouraging them to feel better about themselves. It is based on the work of Richard Bandler and John Grinder, who initially recognized the importance of eye contact and movement in identifying emotional states and how individuals think. The roots of NLP are found in psychology and neurology, which study the way the brain works and how it can be trained for the purposes of improvement. It involves left and right brain functions, visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles, multiple intelligences, and gives importance to the individual learner. Although there has been a lot of skepticism regarding NLP, specifically in terms of classroom applicability, scholars have found several sound reasons why NLP is friendly with current classroom practice. NLP is about recognizing patterns NLP is concerned with process, rather than content NLP provides a model of how we communicate with ourselves and others Although NLP is not an approach to the teaching of language, in many ways it is complementary to contemporary ELT methodologies in terms of communicative language learning and humanistic approaches. 1970: Competency-based Language Teaching Competency-based Language Teaching is an output approach, which is useful when students have specific needs such as survival English. CBLT focuses on measurable and usable knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs). It was promoted in the 1970s by Scheck, and is still one of the most popular approaches. The intent is to be practical.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

1977: Natural Approach The Natural Approach is based on the premise that language can only be acquired subconsciously; conscious learning is only useful to monitor what you have said: to self-correct (Krashen and Terrell 1983). The focus of instruction is on "input" rather than on practice, and language is understood as its lexicon, not its grammar. 1980: Cooperative Language Learning Cooperative Language Learning and Collaborative Learning are sometimes used interchangeably. However, Rockwood differentiates them in this way: Cooperative Learning is the methodology for foundational knowledge (i.e. traditional knowledge). The instructor's role in CL is as the center of authority in the class, where group tasks are usually more closed-ended and often have specific answers. Collaborative Learning is connected to the social constructionist view that knowledge itself is a social construct. The instructor abdicates his or her authority, and empowers small groups of learners who are often given more open-ended, complex tasks. 1980: Communicative Approach In the 1980s, the need for communication increased, giving rise to Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). If we compare CLT with Audiolingualism, we will discover that aim of CLT is communicative competence (the ability to use language for communication), whereas in Audiolingualism the main goal is linguistic competence (the ability to manipulate grammatical structures). CLT introduces the concept of functions into the world of language teaching (i.e. using language for a communicative purpose, such as asking for directions and ordering in a restaurant).

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

CLT consists of broad principles which allow for a wide variety of classroom activities. For example, many people see CLT as just Audiolingualism plus functions; but for others it means major changes in procedure, such as the use of information-gap activities, role plays and games, all within a more learnercentered class. 1986: Whole Language Whole Language views language as a whole, and resists breaking it down into its component parts. It is not a specific method or collection of strategies, techniques, or materials. Instead, it presents a perspective on language learning and teaching (Edelsky, Altwerger, & Flores, 1991). It is based on the following sociolinguistic principles: 1. Language must be kept whole when it is learned, or it is no longer language. 2. Written language is as natural as spoken language, and must be integrated with it in learning. 3. Language uses are diverse, and reflect different styles and voices. 4. Language is social, and learned in interaction with other speakers, readers and writers. Whole-language classes consist of communities of learners working together to develop the curriculum, read and write for (and with) each other, and to evaluate products together. Classroom activities might include extended reading and writing of a variety of published and student-written works. It should be noted that, because Whole Language considres written language to be as natural as spoken language, it is a controversial approach for the teaching of first languages (the students mother tongue) and is even more controversial in teaching foreign languages.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

It should be noted that Whole Language is a controversial approach for the teaching of first languages (the students mother tongue) for two reasons: 1. It considers written language to be as natural as spoken language. 2. It relies heavily on the students ability to self-correct. For these same reasons, it is even more controversial for teaching foreign languages. 1987: Task-based Learning According to Willis, Task-Based Language Teaching (TBL) suggests real

communication activities that carry out meaningful tasks. This approach stresses the importance of targeting these tasks to the individual student as much as possible. TBL encourages students to notice the gap between their production and that of native speakers. At this point, there is a language focus. Afterwards, students prepare a report, which often involves some sort of recreation of the task. 1990: Lexical Approach The Lexical Approach is based on the work of Michael Lewis, who once stated: The building blocks are not grammar, functions, notions or some other unit of planning and teaching, but lexis. That is, words and word combinations." This approach believes that multi-word items, such as collocations, deserve much more attention when helping students achieve communicative competence. The Lexical Approach also views learning as an uneven, organic process - not linear, as behaviorist learning theory would imply.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

1993: Theory of Multiple Intelligences This learner-based approach is based on "the Theory of Multiple Intelligences" (Gardner, 1993, 2000). Multiple Intelligences tries to adapt classroom activities to cater to the different intelligence types, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, interpersonal, or bodily. It stresses that all dimensions of intelligence should be developed, not just the language and logic measured by IQ tests. Gardner states that pedagogy is most successful when learner differences are acknowledged and factored into the process. 2002: Dogme Dogme, which has its roots in Communicative Language Teaching, tries to restore the communicative aspect to communicative approaches. Started by Scott Thornbury (from beliefs and ideas about the importance of conversation-driven, learner-focused language teaching), its influence has continued to grow. This method takes its name from the Dogme 95 filmmaking movement that criticizes cinemas dependency on special effects, often at the expense of story. Like Dogme 95, Dogme ELT is based on the following key principles. Interactivity between learners and teachers should be the focus of classroom activity. Content for classes should mainly come out of engagement with the people in the room. Knowledge should be co-constructed, and derive from dialogue (rather than be transmitted from the teacher to the learners). The teacher should shape and support (scaffold) the learning that emerges through conversation. Language learning is an organic process, based on what emerges from dialogue.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Although Dogme shares much of its philosophy with Task-based Language Learning, it differs in terms of methodology. Although there is little research on Dogme, Thornbury argues that the similarities with TBL suggest that it most likely leads to similar results. Learners tend to interact, produce language and collaboratively co-construct their learning when engaged in communicative tasks.
Sources: Goodman, K. 1986. Whats Whole in Whole Language. Berkeley: RDR Books Harmer, J. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Richards, J.C. and Rogers, T. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching. Heinemann

For more information on methods and approaches visit: www.cal.org/resources/digest/rodgers.html www.moramodules.com/ALMMethods.htm iteslj.org/Techniques/Bas-IntegratingMultipleIntelligences.html www.ericdigests.org/1996-2/esl.html www.wcer.wisc.edu/archive/cl1/cl/question/TQ13.htm

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Introductory Activities and Presentation Techniques
The activities a teacher uses to introduce a lesson or a teaching topic are known as introductory activities. There are two types of introductory activities: warmers and lead-ins. Warmers (or warmup activities) are used to create a soothing atmosphere and ease the tension, such as a game or quiz. Lead-ins are used to focus on the topic or the new lesson. When a leadin is used as a link between the topic of the lesson and the students life, it is known as personalization. If a lesson focuses on food vocabulary, for example, we can start the class by discussing favorite foods. Teachers use different techniques to present or introduce new language. These techniques are known as presentation techniques. One of the most common ways to present new language is PPP (Presentation, Practice, Production). Presentation Practice Production (PPP) Presentation Stage
Teacher begins by setting up a situation (i.e. contextualizes new language), using, for example, visuals, model sentences, short texts or listening to a song. Teacher elicits the previously studied language needed to practice the new language. Students practice language learned in the previous class in a controlled way (e.g. in a choral drill).

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Practice Stage
Teacher presents language and students listen. Students repeat new language in a controlled way (dialogues are repeated after the teacher or tape, drilled in chorus and individually), until they are said correctly. Student activities may be: matching parts of sentences, completing sentences or dialogues, or asking and answering questions using the target language. Teacher demonstrates without explaining the grammatical use of the new language. Teacher asks concept questions that check understanding of the use or meaning of the new language. Students carry out restricted practice activities (e.g. gap-filling).

Production Stage
Students are encouraged to use the new language in a less controlled practice by using their own ideas in a context similar to the one in the Presentation stage (e.g., in a role play, a simulation activity or a communication task).

Another presentation technique is Taskbased Learning (TBL). Here the aim of the lesson is a task or product that the students will achieve by carrying out several activities. Taskbased Learning (TBL)
Pre-Task Teacher begins by holding a discussion on the topic of the lesson (e.g. organizing a Christmas party). The teacher gives students tasks to complete (e.g. gets students in small groups and gives them a handout, with names and prices of items for a party). Teacher tells students they will organize the party, and have a $100 budget. During-task Teacher goes around the class, monitoring and answering questions. Teacher and students discuss new language (teacher only explains language to the students who need it). Groups report their choices.

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Lesson Notes Module 3 Language Learning and Teaching Methodology

Post-task Students do a written exercise on the new language. Students express their opinions and experiences of the activity.

PPP and TBL are not the only presentation techniques. The Test-Teach-Test method has these steps: First, give students a task that requires them to use the new language. Then, present the new language. Finally, give students another task (to practice the new language).
Sources: Harmer, J. 2001. The Practice of English Language Teaching. Pearson Scrivener, J. 1994. Learning Teaching. Heinemann Spratt, Pulverness and Williams. 2006. The TKT Course. Cambridge University Press Willis, J. 1996. A Framework for Task-based Learning., Addison Wesley Longman For more information on PPP and TBL visit: www.eltworld.net/howto/2008/04/ppp-for-dummies www.englishonline.org.cn/en/teachers/teaching-articles/plan-preparation/ppp www.teachingenglish.org.uk/forum-topic/ppp-presentation-practice-production en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task-based_language_learning www.onestopenglish.com/support/methodology/teaching-approaches/teaching-approaches-taskbased-learning/146502.article

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