Acoustic Resonance Testing: the upcoming volume-oriented NDT method

Ingolf Hertlin
RTE Akustik + Prueftechnik GmbH Gewerbestr. 26 D 76327 Pfinztal (Germany) I.Hertlin@rte.de

Detlev Schultze
AROTEC S.A. Av. So Camilo, 29 06709-150 Cotia SPO (Brazil) Schultze@amcham.com.br Abstract: Acoustic sonic and ultrasonic resonance analysis is a new non-destructive testing technique that allows 100% testing of a wide range of test objects quickly and at low cost. After an impact, a specimen vibrates in certain characteristic modes and frequencies that can be measured by a microphone or laser vibrometer. Typical faults that can be detected are cracks, cavities, detached layers, material inconsistencies, hardness deviation and nodularity in iron castings. This test method supplements the volume oriented NDT methods and possesses some important advantages. RTE Akustik + Prueftechnik has developed the material test system SR20AT for inline testing in mass production. Applications for automotive safety components like brake callipers, sinter metal parts or airbag inner tubes are presented. Keywords: Natural frequency, resonance testing, nodularity, structure faults, sound analysis

1. Introduction Sound testing by tapping a specimen is said to be one of the oldest NDT methods and still used in many applications, not only with chinaware or glassware. In all cases human beings evaluate the sound subjectively on basis of their experience. In mass production this procedure is far to costly, not reliable, especially with safety parts and in loud environments, not reproducible and can not be documented, too rough, because the human ear cannot distinguish between fine sound differences, stressful for the worker who has only a limited concentration. Acoustic resonance testing - applied to industrial needs - is a new non-destructive technique for a fast and cost effective 100 % testing of a wide range of specimens. To deal with these challenging requirements, this paper focuses on three major areas: firstly how sound testing works even in harsh industrial environments; secondly the properties (and limitations) of Resonance testing within the context of other NDT methods; thirdly, and finally, the test system structure and some applications from the automotive industry for safety components. RTE Akustik + Prueftechnik, Germany, concentrated on acoustic testing technology for inline testing of components and material work pieces. Applications presented in this paper are derived from various installations of the material test system SR20AT in different branches (foundries, forges, sinter metal production, metal forming and ceramics). 2. How Does Acoustic Testing Work? 2.1. Resonances Acoustics deals with sound fields, i.e. with the description and explanation of the phenomena of sound generation, sound emission, sound propagation and sound absorption. Acoustic waves require a physical medium through which they can propagate. Sound (aerial sound = tone, noise) in the narrow sense is understood as elasto-dynamic vibrations and waves in the medium of air, in the frequency range audible to humans i.e. approximately 20 Hz to 16 kHz. Mechanical vibrations in a structure (structure-borne sound) and radiated vibrations in the surrounding air (audible sound) carry information. Nearly all objects will vibrate when they are hit or excited or somehow disturbed. A body contains thousands of acoustic modes within the frequency domain. The frequency or frequencies at which the objects tend to vibrate after excitation is called natural frequency / frequencies or resonances. The resonances depend uniquely on the object's material, geometry and condition. Each of these modes represents a standing wave at a natural frequency. Whereas a flute for example tends to vibrate at a single frequency, other objects create multiple sets of

02 a 06 de Junho de 2003 / June 2 to 6 2003 Rio de Janeiro - RJ - Brasil

frequencies that have no (simple) mathematical relationship between them. So an acoustic wave can be understood as a longitudinal pressure wave that alternately pushes and pulls the substance through which it propagates. 2.2. The Theoretical Approach The vibrations represent the "language" of the test specimen, its fingerprint that can be detected with a sensor and then analysed digitally. A "perfect" work piece can be described as a unique system of natural frequencies I and natural shapes j. The frequencies describe the piece acoustically and the set of describe it geometrically. A defective or out of order part is described by a) a vector of I and j and b) the sum of allowed and non-allowed deviations of its geometrical and physical structure. Work pieces with a rather simple geometry like a rod, bar, ring or tube can be described by a set of mathematical equations. By means of the FEM (finite element method) and modal analysis the natural frequencies and their variations can be calculated on the basis of the geometrical data. Defects can be inserted and their effects, which induce spectral shifts, calculated. Figure 1 shows some of the different modes of a drive shaft.

Figure 1. Some main resonances of a drive shaft (b: bending modes; t: torsion; w: cylindrical swelling As a result you will get a proposition for the identification of the resonant modes, the simulation of volume and bonding defects, a prediction of the influence of defects, an identification of the adjacent modes, a prediction of the required measurement bandwidth, a prediction of classification criteria. The theoretical results must be evaluated by measurements to adapt or refine the underlying model / equations. 2.3. The Experimental Approach Another and more practical approach is the excitation of the work piece and the measurement of the different modes with appropriate sensors and devices. Although this seems to be much easier than the theoretical approach, it is necessary to identify the characteristic resonances (see section 3.2) and thus decode the "language" of the part. In conjunction with this, different influences of the excitation, fixture bed, sensor technology and acquisition of the resulting signal (see section 3.3) have to be considered. This requires engineering and a stepwise approach for the variation of different conditions to observe the influences. The results from the theoretical approach help to interpret the measured resonances and to identify the modes. 2.4. Sensors The appropriate sensor technology has also an important influence for the application. Mainly microphones or laser vibrometers are used. Measuring with a microphone has the advantage that this is an integral signal acquisition of the specimen. Figure 2 shows the laser vibrometer time signal and adjacent resonant spectrum of an example test subject. The peaks are the resonances of the part.

Figure 2. Time signal (left) and adjacent resonances (right) A microphone measures the sound pressure within a near field of the specimen, that means at a distance of about 5 to 15 cm. The distance depends on the size of the object. The frequency range is typically linear within 80 - 18.000 Hz. It is self-evident that the microphone must be suitable for harsh production environments, which are often dusty and oily. Whereas an exact position of a microphone is not necessary, this does not apply for a laser vibrometer, which measures the body vibration in a non-contact manner. Here it is necessary to determine a position on the surface where the beam points to a maximum of the body-inherent waves. It is clear that this depends on the resonance frequencies that are of interest. One major advantage of measuring with a laser is the frequency range up to several hundred kilohertz. A disadvantage is the dependency on the surface of the test part - and the price. In particular, small

deficiencies with respect to the size / mass of a part are highlighted in the higher frequency range beyond the audible area. 2.5. Prerequisites for the Application of Resonance Analysis There some prerequisites to consider for the application of resonance testing. First of all it must be possible to hit the part without damaging it. Otherwise it is also possible to induce the resonances by a piezo-electric actuator with the disadvantage that a piezo generates a single frequency: it is necessary to sweep the frequencies within the relevant range (this is time consuming and contacts the vibrating structure). Secondly the vibration signal should last > 100 ms or more to enable a best possible frequency resolution. To achieve a resolution down to 1 Hz or less, a time signal of more than 500 ms is necessary. And thirdly, the defect must be acoustically relevant. Surface deficiencies, small corrosion plates or small geometric deviations will barely influence the resonance frequencies. 3. Properties of Resonance Testing The resonant frequencies, the spacing between them and the modulus of elasticity are characteristic parameters of the component and depend on the material as well as on its internal structure and geometry. Even very small material defects already influence the acoustic pattern of a body. For example, a crack in a component results in the fact that certain resonances are displaced to low frequencies whilst others remain the same. The natural frequencies of components to be tested are analysed by a computer, by comparing the parameters with previously studied samples. Acoustic resonance analyses can detect defects such as cracks, defective microstructure, shrinkage cavities, exfoliation, material spalling and fluctuations in density. 3.1. Resonance Analysis in the Context of NDT Methods NDT methods can be classified under different aspects. One method is to characterize them with respect to the aim of flaw detection on the surface of the specimen (surface oriented test method) or within the body of the part (volume oriented test method, Figure 3).

Figure 3. Classification of most common NDT methods Table 1 lists the different methods and their primary fields of use for some of the most well known methods and the placement of the resonance analysis. Table 1. Acoustic methods in practice
Method Resonant Analysis (tonal test) Ultrasonic Resonant Analysis Ultrasonic test Impact Echo Sound emission X-ray test Field 0-20 kHz Analytical task Cracks, structural faults, holes, adhesion defects Example shrink Cast parts, forged parts, ceramic parts, composites, sintered parts, rings, halogen lamps, graphite parts, pipes, bars, rods Small parts, pipes, bars, rods

0-100 kHz > 100 kHz > 200 kHz > 1 MHz > 1 GHz

Cracks, structural faults, shrink holes Cracks, structural faults, holes, material composition Cracks, shrink holes structural faults Cracks, structural faults, shrink holes

shrink Cast parts, forged parts, composites, pipes, rings, welding, bars, rods Concrete Composites, concrete, tanks Safety parts, steel ropes

Furthermore resonance analysis is a qualitative method, i.e. it can differentiate between defective and non-defective parts, so that it is especially suitable for quality assurance in the series production cycle. Resonance analysis compares the actual oscillatory situation with the target one derived from a learning base. This learning base is established by using defined standard parts. The number of self-resonant frequencies is determined by the geometry of the object under test. For instance a bar has few resonant frequencies, while a complex lattice-type object has many selfresonances. 3.2. Resonance Effects

Acoustic measurement technology is very sensitive; even minor changes in the oscillatory behaviour of mechanical structures can be detected. The main effects are position of a frequency, shift of one ore more resonant peaks, shift of all resonances, distance between resonances, splitting up of a resonant frequency, decrease of amplitude, time signal (decay time characteristics, effective value) Each of these effects - sometimes in combination - represent a specific property of the part. To find out which of these effects can be used for characteristics to classify good and bad parts is the main task in the engineering phase. 3.3. Influencing factors Another engineering task is to identify the possible influencing factors that affect the conditions of reliable measurement. (Table 2) Table 2. Influence matrix (X = relevant, - not) Excitation Fixture Sensor Type X X X Number X X Position X X X Direction X X Distance X Modes X X X

Within this paper we can only outline some aspects and tasks that have to be solved prior to a successful realisation: 1. 2. It is extremely important to allow the specimen to vibrate. Ideally the piece should by suspended using packaging twine to allow swinging in all directions. As this is not possible under production conditions, the material for holding the part should have a good solid vibration isolation like silicon rubber. If the task is to identify cracks, it is necessary to identify the position / direction of possible defects to determine the excitation direction. The level of important resonances may be low when the part is hit in the same direction as the propagation of the crack. There is no dependency if the aim of the test is to examine structural characteristics such as nodularity or hardness. To induce resonances in the higher frequency range the speed of excitation is important.

3.

3.4. Engineering Procedure Acoustic resonance analysis (AR) is ideally suited to quality assurance and material testing in series production, i.e. this technique is able to separate defective serially produced parts from fault-free parts. As outlined above, certain engineering steps are required in order to introduce acoustic resonance analysis for inline production testing (Table 3). This engineering is facilitated by a set of tools and by experience with similar parts or materials. Table 3. Engineering steps for material testing
Step 0 1 Description Quick look Product sampling Action Assessment of a good and defective part Measurements performed on some good and defective parts for each typical fault to determine distinguishable characteristics Objective Are there measurable resonances? Characteristic product properties, reproducibility, excitation position Determining the relevant features of product and process

Process sampling at Measurements performed close to production to determine the customers premises effect of the manufacturing process, batches and environmental conditions

Acoustic material testing in production at customers premises

System design and implementation Drawing up test characteristics, test procedures Analysis of suitability of test equipment Integration in the process Reproducibility, process optimisation Process tracking Instruction, training, product configuration

Objective, rapid and reliable classification of the product quality with the highest possible severity of testing

3.5. Properties After a systematic approach within this engineering, you can benefit from the following predominant features of the Resonance analysis: High reproducibility: you will get exactly the same frequencies when you hit the part again! High resolution: depending on the length of the signal a resolution down to less than 1 Hertz is possible - linear in the whole range of interest (!), Non-destructive, dry and clean, Fast analysis (within a second!), Simple to automate in comparison to other methods like x-ray and ultrasonic, The entire part is involved independent of the defect position, Documentation, storage and traceability of each or selected parts Excellent cost-value ratio 4. Application of Resonance Analysis 4.1. Application Areas Resonance analysis has passed its acid test in use in different branches of industry to detect cracks inside of the part, crack detection during shearing of bars, nodularity (of cementite or graphite), inclusions, density differences in sinter metal products, hardness differences (heat treated or aged), bonding (welding, friction welding). Table 4. Application areas of resonance testing Material Castings Nodular cast iron Grey iron casting Die casting Ingot mould casting Sinter parts Steel Forgings Steel / castings Steel / steel Ceramic products Test of nodularity (cracks, inclusion) structure natural frequencies cracks, casting defects cracks, casting defects cracks, casting defects cracks, density cracks, natural frequencies cracks bonding quality bonding quality cracks Products (examples) Brake callipers, stub axle Camshafts Brake discs Brake discs Pedals, steering wheels Chassis parts, cylinder heads Transmission parts, toothed wheels Steering rods, drag link Synchronous rings, conrods Rotors Turbocharger shafts Tiles, industrial ceramics

4.2. Properties of the SR20AT Test System RTE has developed the SR20AT material test system for industrial acoustic resonance analysis. This system can be used for manual testing as well on a fully automatic test stand. There is also a choice of excitation systems (pneumatic impact, striking in horizontal or vertical suspension) and sensors (microphone for sound range up to 20 kHz, accelerometers up to 25 kHz and laser vibrometers up to 100 kHz, both for body vibration). The SR20AT system automatically determines the test characteristics by means of a "reference run" with previously classified samples. The high degree of resolution down to a few Hertz also enables detection of very fine defects. Because the acoustic material testing often takes place automatically in the production cycle, the self-

monitoring of the test rig, sensory mechanism, hard and software as well as the calibration capability is particularly important. In addition to the constant functional check, the complete test rig is checked by a "control run" that the system can initiate automatically.

Figure 4. SR20AT Test System: result screen (left) and statistical evaluation (right) The hardware system consists of an industry-standard desk-top case with TFT display, industrial PC with Windows NT or Windows 2000, 8-channel signal card, opto-isolated digital I/O card, lockable keyboard drawer, sensor system with signal conditioning, network and modem connection for remote maintenance and a test control box. The software system consists of components for the test mode, user administration, configuration of test sequences and test specimen parameters, archive component and statistic component. These components communicate via the standard COM/DCOM interface with the SR20AT server, which executes the test steps on the basis of scripts. The components utilize numerous functions, among others, the presentation of results, deviation analyses and trend analysis. The software is available in all common languages. 4.3. Application Areas RTEs acoustic resonance analysis is tried and tested, having been successfully applied to mass-production in various industries. Here are a few examples of its application: Spherical-cast (iron cast) brake callipers for structural changes (nodularity) and cracks, Camshafts for white irradiation, Sintered metal rings and cog belt wheels for cracks, Forged synchronous rings for cracks, Forged conrods, Roof tiles for cracks, Glass for cracks and tensile conditions, Aluminium and magnesium die castings. Three applications are presented in more detail in the following. Firstly we describe the combination of two NDT methods on a test bench for brake callipers. Secondly we outline testing of different sinter metal parts on an adaptable inline test bench with conveyor belts for ingoing and outgoing parts. And finally we present a test machine for steering racks. 4.3.1. Spherical-cast Brake Callipers Spherical-cast brake callipers are safety parts. Structural and casting faults, cracks and cavities should be reliably detected as part of the components' total quality assurance tests. Of special interest is the structure of the material to make sure that the iron cast has not changed to grey cast (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Nodular iron cast (left) and segmented cast (right) There are many different types; costly setting-up times are not tolerated. The 100% production line testing is performed on a revolving transfer table, installed specially for the final tests (Figure 6). The measured parameter is sound, with the specimen excited to oscillate in a defined way. Recording and analysis occur in a few hundred milliseconds. To achieve maximum reliability, all parts are sequentially tested by eddy current and resonance testing. Whereas eddy current checks the surface, the resonance analysis looks more into the volume.

Figure 6. Integrated test bench with eddy current and resonance testing for brake components Monitoring by the test system of all the parameters relevant to the acoustic test leads to high system availability and test result reliability. Parameters can be altered by authorized personnel during operation by using the "online parameter setting" function. Inputs are checked by the SR20AT for physical plausibility, so as not to endanger the testing process. Time-domain and frequency-domain parameters are calculated from the acoustic signal in real time and compared against preset limits. 4.3.2. Sinter metal parts

Sintered parts are widely used in industry. Faults can be cracks, porosity and different density areas within the part. Resonance analysis as a volume-oriented method is very suitable for testing sinter metal components. For fast production testing, RTE has developed an automatic test bench for rotary symmetric parts with an incoming conveyor belt, modular test bench with separating, positioning, resonance testing and sorting / marking, and finally an outgoing conveyor belt (Figure 7). The test bench with a test capacity of 900 parts / h can easily be adapted to different products by changing components. Products and production process are monitored and statistically evaluated.

Figure 7. Inline modular test bench for sinter metal components (right: positioning and resonance testing) 4.3.3. Steering racks The acoustic resonance method was also applied for testing toothed steering racks inline. The main focus here is the test for cracks and heat treatment. The racks are transported into the test bench by a lifting unit and transported to the test position where the tooth position is oriented to make sure the same testing conditions are always present. Three electro-dynamic hammers excite the steering rack sequentially at different positions. The sound is picked up by a microphone (a laser vibrometer can be used as an option). The computer calculates and compares the resonances with a resolution of 1 Hz and generates the decision for the test bench controller. The PLC forwards the toothed rack into the next position where a lifting unit lowers the specimen to the conveyor or transports it to the deposit station (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Automatic test for steering racks 5. Copyright Notice The authors are the only responsible for the printed material in this paper.