Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Technical data: Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum Minimum value of scale graduation Distance between supports !ngle of test piece supports !ngle of inclination of supports Maximum widt$ of t$e stri%er = 300 Joules = 2 Joules = 0 mm = "0# = 0# = &0 ' &( mm

!ngle of stri%ing edge = 30# )eig$t of t$e mac$ine = &* +g ,!pprox-. Observation: &. Material of t$e given specimen = 2. Initial Energy = Joules3. )idt$ of t$e specimen/ b = mm. Dept$ of t$e specimen below t$e notc$/ d = mmSpecimen:
2 45 10 27,5 55 10

LIST O !"#TS &- 0ase wit$ specimen support fitted 2- 1olumn 3- 2endulum pipe - 2endulum 3ammer *- 4tri%er for 1$arpy test 5- 6uard 7820-9atc$ for 1$arpy 8 I:od test (822- 9ever to release t$e pendulum &0- Dial &&- ;eading pointer &2- 0ra%e for pendulum &3- 2ointer 1arrier & - 4pecimen support &*8&5- 9atc$ing tube for 1$arpy 8 I:od test &7- 4tri%er for I:od test 23- 0earing $ousing 30- 2endulum s$aft

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

1$ %&"#!' I(!"%T T)ST

"im: <o determine t$e impact strengt$ of given specimen under dynamic loading"pparat*s: &. =ernier 1aliper2. 4teel rule3. Impact testing mac$ineTheor+: !n impact test signifies toug$ness of material t$at is ability of material to absorb energy during plastic deformation- 4tatic tension tests of un notc$ed specimen do not reveal t$e susceptibility of a metal to brittle fracture- <$is important factor is determined by impact test<oug$ness ta%es into account bot$ t$e strengt$ ductility of t$e material- 4everal engineering materials $ave to wit$stand impact or suddenly applied loads w$ile in service- Impact strengt$s are generally lower as compared to strengt$s ac$ieved under slowly applied loads- >f all types of impact tests/ t$e notc$ed bar tests are extensively used- <$erefore/ t$e impact test measures t$e energy necessary to fracture a standard notc$ bar by applying an impulse load- <$ere are mainly 2 types of impact tests/ namely i. 1$arpy Impact test ii. I:ode Impact test In 1$arpy impact testing simply supported mode of loading is used,otch: ! slot or groove of specified c$aracteristics intentionally cut in a test piece so as to concentrate t$e stress/ t$us locali:ing t$e rupture!roced*re: &- ! standard test piece of overall lengt$ of **mm/ a s?uare cross@section of &0mm side wit$ central A=B notc$ wit$ 2 mm dept$ of * # angles is ta%en to conduct t$e test and t$e dimensions are noted down2- <$e $ammer is lifted and loc%ed in position and t$e pointer is adCusted to coincide wit$ initial position ,i-e-/ maximum value. in t$e 1$arpy scale3- 2endulum is released and friction losses are found ,6enerally itBs adCusted by t$e mac$ine manufacturer.- !gain t$e 2endulum is lifted and loc%ed/ t$en t$e test piece8 specimen is fixed as a simply supported beam wit$ center D suc$ t$at it is on t$e tension side ,Eotc$ is facing opposite to t$e stri%er.*- <$en t$e $ammer is released wit$out any s$oc% D is allowed to stri%e t$e specimen5- <$e reading indicated by t$e pointer is noted-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

%alc*lation &. !rea of cross section of t$e specimen below t$e notc$/ a 2. Energy absorbed by t$e specimen for failure/ % 3. Impact strengt$

=bxd = = = = mm2 Joules%8a Joules 8 mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

!reca*tions to be ta-en: &- Eobody s$ould stand wit$in t$e range of t$e swing of t$e pendulum2- 9oc% t$e pendulum w$ile placing t$e specimen3- 4pecimen s$ould be placed carefully/ considering t$e correct position of t$e = @ notc$/ unless stri%er may be damaged- 2endulum bra%es s$ould not be applied w$en t$e pendulum is returning#es*lt: Impact strengt$ of a given specimen = Joules 8 mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Specimen:
2 45 10 27,5 75 10

Technical data: Maximum Impact Energy of pendulum by t$e $ammer !ngle of stri%ing edge !ngle of rise of t$e pendulum = 22 mm F 0-* = 7*# F &# = &3*# = &5( Joules Distance between base of specimen notc$ ,or top or grips. and t$e point of specimen $it

Observation: &. Initial Energy = 2. )idt$ of t$e specimen/ b = 3. Dept$ of t$e specimen below t$e notc$/ d = %alc*lation: & -!rea of t$e specimen below t$e notc$/ a 2- Energy absorbed by t$e specimen for failure/ % 3- Impact value

Joulesmmmm-

=bxd = = =%8a = mm2 Joules Joules 8 mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

2$ I.O/ I(!"%T T)ST

"im: <o determine t$e impact strengt$ of given specimen under dynamic loading"pparat*s: &- =ernier 1aliper2- 4cale3- Impact testing mac$ineTheor+: Gor deciding t$e suitability of a material w$ic$ is expected to resist repeated s$oc%s/ t$e ordinary static tensile test is not found satisfactory- <esting mac$ines $ave been devised so t$at a specimen can be subCected to a single s$oc% or a number of repeated s$oc%s- <$e energy re?uired to brea% t$e specimen is ta%en as t$e measure of t$e resistance of t$e material against s$oc% loadingIn case of I:ode test t$e mode of loading is cantilever in nature!roced*re: &- ! standard test piece of overall lengt$ 7*mm D a s?uare cross section of &0mm side wit$ standard *# notc$/ 2mm deep at a distance 27-* mm from end/ is ta%en to conduct t$e test and t$e dimensions are noted down2- <$e $ammer is lifted and loc%ed in position and t$e pointer is adCusted to coincide wit$ initial position ,i-e-/ maximum value. in t$e 1$arpy scale3- 2endulum is released and friction losses are found ,6enerally itBs adCusted by t$e mac$ine manufacturer.- !gain t$e 2endulum is lifted and loc%ed/ t$en t$e test piece8 specimen is placed vertically upwards in t$e anvil suc$ t$at t$e s$orter distance between one end of t$e specimen and groove will be protruding up and also t$e groove in t$e specimen s$ould face t$e stri%ing end of t$e $ammer*- <$en t$e $ammer is released wit$out any s$oc% D is allowed to stri%e t$e specimen5- <$e $ammer stri%es t$e specimen D brea%s it- <$e reading indicated by t$e pointer is recorded#es*lt: Impact strengt$ of t$e given specimen = Joules 8 mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

#oc-0ell &ardness Testin1 (achine

Sl ,o$ & 2 3

(aterial 3ard 4teel Mild 4teel !luminium 0rass

(a2or Load in -1 &*0 &00 &00 &00 &00

Indenter Diamond 1one &20# &-*(mm dia 0all Indenter &-*(mm dia 0all Indenter &-*(mm dia 0all Indenter &-*(mm dia 0all Indenter

Scale 1 0 0 0 0

1opper

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

3$ #O%45)LL &"#/,)SS T)ST

"im: <o find t$e ;oc%well $ardness number of a given specimen&- ;oc%well 3ardness testing mac$ine/ 2- Indenters-

"pparat*s:

Theor+: ;oc%well $ardness tester is used to find t$e $ardness value of ferrous and non@ ferrous materials/ w$ic$ is determined t$roug$ an indentation produced under a static load- ! small indenter/ eit$er a small diameter steel ball or a diamond tipped cone called a brale/ is first seated firmly against t$e material by t$e application of a AminorB load of &0 +g- <$is causes a very slig$t penetration into t$e surface/ usually elastic in nature- <$e indicator on t$e dial of t$e tester is t$en set to :ero/ and a AmaCorB load is t$en applied to t$e indenter to produce a deeper penetration- !fter t$e indicating pointer $as come to rest/ t$e maCor load is removed)it$ t$e minor load still applied/ t$e tester now indicates t$e appropriate ;oc%well $ardness number on t$e dial gauge- <$is number is actually an indentation of t$e dept$ of plastic or permanent penetration produced by t$e maCor loadDifferent combinations of maCor loads and indenters are available and are used for materials wit$ various levels of strengt$- 0ecause of t$e different scales/ ;oc%well $ardness numbers must always be accompanied by a letter indicating t$e particular combination of load and indenter used in t$e test- <$e notation 3;1 50 indicates t$at a brale indenter was used in combination wit$ a maCor load of &*0 +g/ and a reading of 50 was obtained- <$e 0 and 1 scales are used more extensively t$an t$e ot$ers/ 0 being common for 1opper and !luminum and 1 for 4teels<$e ;oc%well test s$ould not used for t$in materials on roug$ surfaces/ or on materials t$at are not $omogenous/ suc$ as gray cast iron- 0ecause of t$e small si:e of t$e indentation/ variations in roug$ness/ composition or structure can greatly influence t$e results- In comparison wit$ t$e 0rinnel test/ t$e ;oc%well test offers t$e attractive advantage of direct readings in a single step- 0ecause it can be conducted more rapidly/ it is fre?uently used for monitoring t$e ?uality of products during mass production- Gurt$ermore/ it $as t$e additional advantage of producing a smaller indentation t$at can be easily concealed on t$e finis$ed product or easily removed in a later operation!roced*re: &- 1lean t$e surface of t$e specimen to free from oil and dust2- 2lace t$e specimen on t$e table D fix appropriate indenter3- ;aise t$e table by rotating t$e $and w$eel cloc%wise until t$e specimen contacts wit$ t$e indentor and t$en w$eel is slowly and consistently rotated till t$e small pointer in t$e dial reac$es to t$e red mar% position- 4elect t$e suitable maCor load by referring t$e given table- !pply maCor load by pus$ing bac% t$e lever on t$e rig$t side of t$e mac$ine to its extent*- 9oad is allowed to act on t$e specimen till t$e reading of indicator becomes steady- <$en remove t$e maCor load by operating $and lever5- ;ead t$e $ardness number from t$e appropriate scale7- Minor load is released by rotating t$e $and w$eel in 11) direction(- More number of trials may be ta%en to get t$e steady result!reca*tions: &- !pply t$e minor load carefullyH it s$ould not be less or more t$an t$e re?uired2- 4urface on w$ic$ indentation is carried out s$ould be sufficiently away from t$e earlier indentation mar%s3- Indenter s$ould be fixed firmly-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

- 0efore applying t$e minor load/ c$ec% t$e position of t$e lever w$ic$ is used to apply t$e maCor load- It must be in t$e wit$drawal position#es*lt: ;oc%well $ardness number for t$e given specimen =

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Observations 6 %alc*lations:
Sl ,o$ & 2 3 (aterial Mild steel 1opper 0rass !luminium Load ! in 417 30 20 20 &0 /ia1onal len1th in mm 8/ /1 /2 "vera1e / 9&,

=3E = 9oad 8 !rea of impression = 2 8 ID28sin , 82.J = 22 sin , 82. 8 D2 = &-(* 2 8 D2

)$ere

= K &35

2 = 9oad in +gf D = Diagonal lengt$

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

10

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

4$ 9I%4)#S &"#/,)SS T)ST

"im: <o find t$e =ic%ers $ardness number of a given specimen&- =ic%ers 3ardness testing mac$ine/ 2- 1one IndenterTheor+: <$e =ic%ers $ardness test is also similar to t$e ;oc%well D 0rinnel tests/ but a s?uare based diamond pyramid is used as t$e indenter- <$e =ic%ers $ardness number is defined as load divided by t$e surface area of t$e indention expressed in units of %ilograms per s?uare millimeter- <$e advantage of t$e =ic%ers approac$ is t$e increased accuracy in determining t$e diagonal of a s?uare impression as opposed to t$e diameter of a circle and t$e assurance t$at even lig$t loads will produce plastic deformation9i%e t$e ot$er indentation $ardness met$ods/ t$e =ic%ers test offers a number of attractive featuresL ,&. it is simple to conduct/ ,2. little time is involved/ ,3. little surface preparation is re?uired/ , . t$e test can be done on location/ ,*. it is relatively inexpensive/ and ,5. it often provides results t$at can be used to evaluate material strengt$ or access product ?uality!roced*re: &- 1lean t$e surface of t$e specimen to free from oil and dust2- 2lace t$e specimen on t$e table D fix appropriate indenter3- 1$ec% t$e clarity of t$e specimen on t$e optical screen by adCusting t$e %nob- ;otate t$e indexing disc so as to bring t$e indenter over t$e specimen*- +eep pressing A4<!;<B button until AD)E99B lig$t glows/ i-e- desired load is applied on t$e specimen t$roug$ indentation5- )ait for a w$ile/ automatically load will be released7- Index indenter $ead to next position so t$at obCective of optical system will be exactly over t$e specimen(- <$e indentation is now proCected on front focusing screen- Measure diagonal of impression in bot$ axes"- 1alculate =ic%ers $ardness number for t$e given specimen by using formula/ =3E = &-(* 2 8 D2 )$ere/ 2= 9oad in +gf/ D= Diagonal lengt$ in mm#es*lt: =ic%ers $ardness number of a given specimen = "pparat*s:

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

11

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Tab*lar %ol*mn: Diameter of t$e indenter

mm

T+pe o7 material

Trial ,o$

orce "pplied :!; 417

Indentati< on dia :d; mm

=&,

"vera1e =&,

T+pe o7 material

Trial ,o$

orce "pplied :!; 417

Indentati< on dia :d; mm

=&,

"vera1e =&,

T+pe o7 material

Trial ,o$

orce "pplied :!; 417

Indentati< on dia :d; mm

=&,

"vera1e =&,

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

12

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

5$ =#I,,)L &"#/,)SS T)ST

"im: <o determine t$e $ardness number of a given specimen&- 0rinnel $ardness testing mac$ine/ 2- 0rinnellBs microscopeTheor+: <$e 0rinnel $ardness test was one of t$e earliest accepted met$ods of measuring met$ods of measuring $ardness- ! tungsten carbide or $ardened steel ball & cm in diameter/ is pressed into a flat surface of t$e material by a standard load of *00/ &*00/ or 30000 +g/ and t$e load is maintained for * to &0 seconds to permit t$e full amount of plastic deformation to occur- <$e load and ball are t$en removed/ and t$e diameter of t$e resulting sp$erical indentation ,usually in t$e range of 2 to *mm. is measured using a special grid or traveling microscope- <$e 0rinnel $ardness number is e?ual to t$e load divided by t$e sp$erical surface area of t$e indentation w$en t$e units are expressed as %ilograms per s?uare millimeter0rinnel $ardness number ,03E. =

"pparat*s:

)$ere/ 2= 9oad applied in +gf/ D= Diameter of t$e steel ball ,mm. d= diameter of t$e indent ,mm. In actual practice/ t$e 0rinnel $ardness number is determined from tables t$at correlate t$e 0rinnel number wit$ t$e diameter of t$e indentation for t$e various loads<$e 0rinnel test measures t$e $ardness over a relatively large area and is indifferent to a small@scale variation in structure- In addition/ it is relatively simple and easy to conduct/ and is used extensively on iron and steels- >n t$e negative side/ t$e 0rinnel test $as t$e following limitationsL &- It cannot be used on very $ard or very soft materials2- <$e results may not be valid for t$in specimens- It is best if t$e t$ic%ness of t$e material is at least &0 times t$e dept$ of t$e indentation- 4ome standards specify t$e minimum $ardness for w$ic$ t$e tests on t$in specimens will be considered valid3- <$e test is not valid for case $ardened surfaces- <$e test must be conducted far enoug$ from t$e edge of t$e material t$at no edge bulging can occur*- <$e substantial indentation may be obCectionable on certain finis$ed partsDepartment of Mechanical Engineering SSE Mukka

13

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

5- <$e edge or rim of t$e indentation may not be clearly defined or may be difficult to see on materials of different colors-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

14

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

=rinnel &ardness Testin1 (achine

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

15

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

!roced*re: &- 2lace t$e specimen on t$e anvil so t$at its surface will be normal to t$e direction of t$e applied load2- )it$ t$e $and w$eel/ raise t$e anvil until t$e specimen Cust ma%es contact wit$ t$e ball3- 4elect t$e ball diameter ,indenter. depending upon t$e load and time of application of t$e load according to t$e material to be tested as given in t$e load test table- !pply t$e load gradually and maintain it for &* seconds*- ;elease t$e load and remove t$e specimen- Measure t$e diameter of impression ,indentation. left by t$e ball indenter5- Ma%e t$ree trials for eac$ specimen for calculating t$e $ardness number #es*lt: &- 3ardness number of a given specimen =

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

16

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

17

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

18

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

>$ ?,I9)#S"L T)STI,@ ("%&I,)

Theor+: "pplicabilit+: <$e M<E type Mniversal <esting Mac$ines serves for conducting tests in tension/ compression/ s$ear and transverse for metals and materials<$e testing mac$ine is operated $ydraulicallyH drive is performed by t$e $elp of electric motor/escription o7 the machine: <$e mac$ine comprises of t$ree main parts&- Mac$ine frame i-e-/ loading unit/ 2- 3ydraulic system/ 3- Electronic control panel<$e mac$ine frame consists of two cross $eads and a lower table- Middle cross $ead is adCusted by means of a geared motor<$e loading unit consists of robust base- <$e main $ydraulic cylinder is fitted in centre of t$e base- <$e lower table is connected to t$e main piston- <$e lower table is rigidly connected to t$e upper cross $eadIn tension test/ Caw loc%ing $andles are provided on middle and upper cross $ead to loc% t$e Caws in order to clamp t$e specimen w$ile t$e experiment is conducted- <$is arrangement ensures firm clamping of t$e specimen and easy ta%e out of t$e bro%en specimen<$e space between t$e lower table and middle cross $ead is used for compression/ s$ear and transverse tests- <$e space between t$e middle and t$e upper cross $ead is only used for tension test<wo valves on t$e control panel/ one at t$e left side and ot$er at t$e rig$t side are used to control t$e oil flow in t$e $ydraulic system-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

19

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

A1> A25

150

15

120 450 15

150

Observations and Tab*lations: &- <o find 9east 1ount of t$e =ernier 1aliperL =alue of one M-4-D,M. = Eo- of =-4-D,E. = 9east count = = 2- Diameter of t$e specimen before test ,di. = 3- Initial lengt$ of t$e specimen ,li. - Initial gauge lengt$ ,9i. *- Ginal gauge lengt$ ,9f. = 5- 9east 1ount of Extensometer = 7- Diameter of t$e specimen after test ,df. = Sl ,o$ )Btensometer #eadin1 in divisions " = "vera1e = =

mmM8E mmmmmmmmmmmmmm-

Load -,

/isplacement #eadin1 in mm

#emar-s

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

20

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

>a$ T),SIO, T)ST O, (IL/ ST))L

"imL &- <o study t$e be$avior of mild steel specimen under t$e action of gradually increased load2- <o determineL a. Nield stress/ b. Mltimate stress/ c. 0rea%ing stress/ d. 2ercentage elongation/ e. 2ercentage reduction in areaf. Modulus of Elasticity"pparat*s: &- Mniversal <esting Mac$ine/ 2- 6ripping Device/ 3- Extensometer/ - 4teel rule/ =ernier 1aliper/ punc$ and $ammer@rippin1 /evice: <o grip securely t$e round specimen/ t$e flat inner sides of t$e Caws $ave a =@s$aped groove- Depending upon t$e si:e of t$e specimen/ Caws wit$ appropriate =@ grooves in t$em are selected)Btensometer: <$e gauge lengt$ of t$e extensometer used is adCustable up to a maximum value of &20 mm- <$ere are pair of %nife edges at top and bottom w$ic$ are used to grip t$e specimen between gauge points- <$e top %nife edges are fixed w$ile t$e extension of t$e specimen causes t$e bottom %nife edges to move down- <$e movement of t$ese %nife edges are magnified by a lever and transmitted to two dial gauges ,one on eit$er side. by a rac% and pinion mec$anism- <$e least count of t$e extensometer is 0-0& mm and it can measure up to 3 mm- <wo springs/ one fixed at t$e bottom and t$e ot$er placed at t$e top will %eep t$e extensometer in position!roced*re: &- Measure t$e diameter of t$e specimen at different sections and find t$e average diameter using =ernier 1aliper2- Mar% gauge lengt$ by ma%ing two punc$ mar%s on t$e specimen and measure it3- Gix t$e specimen in between t$e middle and upper cross $ead of M<M- Gix t$e extensometer on t$e specimen suc$ t$at t$e %nife edges are bears against punc$ mar%s on t$e specimen*- !dCust t$e reading of dial gauge ! and 0 of t$e extensometer to :eroDepartment of Mechanical Engineering SSE Mukka

21

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

5- 4tart t$e M<M and apply t$e load gradually ,0y closing 91=/ open ;1= slowly.- <$e interval is so c$osen as to get at least eig$t readings before t$e yield point7- Eote down t$e extensometer and displacement readings at regular load increments-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

22

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

%alc*lations: &- Initial cross sectional area ,!i. = Odi2 8 = mm2mm2-

2- Ginal cross sectional area ,!f. = Odf2 8 = 3- 2ercentage reduction in area = P,!i @ !f. 8 !iQ x &00 = - 2ercentage Elongation = P,9f @ 9i. 89iQ x &00 = *- Nield 4tress

= Nield 9oad 8 Initial !rea =

= Gy 8 !i

%E8mm2

5- Mltimate 4tress

= Mltimate load 8 Initial !rea = Gu 8 !i = %E8mm2

7- 0rea%ing 4tress

= 0rea%ing load 8 Initial !rea = Gb 8 !i = %E8mm2

(- Modulus of Elasticity

= 4lope x P9i 8 !iQ I)$ere/ slope = DN8DR/ found out by t$e grap$J = %E8mm2

B Y
Y- Yield point U- Ultimate load B- Breaking load

Load in -,

)Btension in mm

Load in -, )Btensometer readin1 in divisions

23

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

(- !s t$e yield point is approac$ed t$e load reading remains constant wit$ slig$t variations and pointer of extensometer and displacement readings moves very rapidlyEote down t$e yield point reading and remove extensometer from t$e specimen"- Increase t$e load graduallyH note down t$e c$ange in lengt$ from t$e scale readings&0- !fter t$e maximum load reac$es/ t$e load reading stops and starts decreasing- Ginally specimen brea%s into two pieces- Eote down t$e maximum load and brea%ing load&&- ;emove t$e specimen from M<M and measure t$e final diameter at nec% and also measure final gauge lengt$&2- 2lot t$e grap$s of load v8s extensometer reading and load v8s displacement#es*lt: a. Nield stress b. Mltimate stress c. 0rea%ing stress d. 2ercentage Elongation e. 2ercentage reduction in area f. Modulus of Elasticity = = = = = = %E8mm2 %E8mm2 %E8mm2

%E8mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

24

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Observations 6 Tab*lations: &- 9east count of t$e vernier caliper = 2- Initial Diameter of t$e specimen ,di. = 3- Ginal Diameter of t$e specimen ,df. ,Diameter at t$e bulged portion. - Initial lengt$ of t$e specimen 9i *- Ginal lengt$ of t$e specimen 9f %alc*lations: &- Initial cross sectional area !i = Odi2 8 = 2- Ginal cross sectional area !f = Odf2 8 = = =

mmmmmmmmmm-

mm2

= mm2 3- 2ercentage decrease in lengt$ = I,9i @ 9f. 8 9iJ x &00 - 2ercentage increase in area *- 1ompressive stress = = I,!f @ !i. 8 !iJ x &00 = = Maximum 1ompressive load 8 Initial !rea = Gc 8 !i = %E 8 mm2 = 4lope x ,9i 8 !i. )$ere slope = Dy 8Dx/ found out by t$e grap$ = %E 8 mm2

5- Modulus of elasticity

Specimen:

Sl ,o$ & 2 3 @ @

Load in -,

/isplacement #eadin1 in mm

L
Department of Mechanical Engineering SSE Mukka

25

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

@ 3 3*

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

26

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

>b$ %O(!#)SSIO, T)ST O, %"ST I#O,

"im: &- <o study t$e be$avior of mild steel under compressive load2- <o determine compressive strengt$ and modulus of elasticity3- <o determine i. percentage reduction in lengt$/ ii. 2ercentage increase in area"pparat*s: &- Mniversal <esting mac$ine/ 2- =ernier 1aliperTheor+: It is similar to tension test/ except t$at t$e loading is in opposite direction i-e-/ compressive loads/ w$ic$ produces crus$ing action- It is used for testing brittle materials suc$ as stone/ cast iron/ glass etc-/ t$e results of t$is are so affected by t$e frictional force occurring at t$e ends of t$e specimenGor ductile material suc$ as mild steel or copper/ lateral destortion ta%es place/ due to t$e influence of friction at t$e load faces/ t$e cross section becomes greatest at t$e centre t$e specimen ta%ing up a barrel s$ape- Gailure finally occurs by crac%s appearing on t$e surface and spreading inwardsGor brittle material/ t$e be$avior is ?uite different from t$at of ductile materials- 0ut t$ere is difinite load at w$ic$ specimen brea%s- Material fail by s$earing along t$e planes inclined at *0# and 70# to t$e longitudinal axis!roced*re: &- Measure t$e initial lengt$ and diameter of t$e specimen2- 2lace t$e specimen on t$e lower compression plate/ w$ic$ is on t$e bottom table3- 4tart t$e M<M and apply t$e load gradually ,0y closing 91=/ open ;1= slowly.- Eote down t$e load and t$e displacement readings on t$e panel at specific increment of load*- <$e test is continued until t$e specimen get fractured/ note down t$e maximum load5- ;emove t$e specimen from M<M and measure t$e final diameter at t$e bulged region and lengt$ of t$e specimen7- Ma%e necessary calculations and plot t$e grap$ of load v8s displacement#es*lt: &- 2ercentage decrease in lengt$ 2- 2ercentage increase in area 3- 1ompressive stress - Modulus of elasticity = = = = %E 8 mm2 %E 8 mm2

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Specimen:
D l
0

Observations 6 Tab*lations: 4pan lengt$ 0readt$ of t$e specimen )idt$ of t$e specimen 9engt$ of t$e specimen Moment of Inertia 9 0 D l I = = = = = = mm mm mm mm mm

0ending Moment

)$ere/ ) =Maximum load applied in %E %E mm

=SSSSSSSSSSSSS

Maximum 0ending stress

f,s.

= x =
C =SSSSSSSSSSSSS %E8mm2

(od*l*s o7 )lasticit+ )e %now t$at/ =

D)E: i-e- E = , . x )$ere/ = slope of t$e

9oad deflection curve=SSSSSSSSSSSSS %E8 mm2 Specimen 1raph:

Load in -, 858 /isplacement in mm TT

Sl ,o$

Load in -,

/isplacement #eadin1 in mm
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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

& 2 3 @ @ &( &" 20

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

>c$ =),/I,@ T)ST O, (IL/ ST))L

"im: <o determine &- Modulus of elasticity &- Mniversal <esting Mac$ine/ 2- 4cale/ =ernier 1aliper!roced*re: &- <$e dimensions of t$e specimen are found out2- Moment of Inertia AIB about t$e neutral axis can be calculated3- <$e specimen is placed on t$e roller supports w$ic$ $ave been fixed on t$e bottom table of t$e M<M and span lengt$ s$ould be selected- <$en load is gradually increased and value of t$e central displacement is noted for t$e regular increments*- Eote down t$e maximum load5- Draw t$e grap$ of 9oad v8s deflection7- 1alculate maximum bending stress and modulus of elasticity using t$e formulae#es*lt: &- Modulus of elasticity for t$e given M4 sample = %E8mm2

"pparat*s:

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Specimen:
U d = A/2

Gauge length

3A

5A min

3A

Observations 6 Tab*lations &- 9east count of =ernier 1aliper 2- Diameter of t$e specimen D 3- ;adius of t$e specimen ; - 9engt$ of t$e specimen 9 %alc*lations: &- 2olar moment of Inertia J

= = = =

mmmmmm mm-

mm

2- Modulus of rigidity

w$ere/

is found out by t$e grap$-

= SSSSSSSSE 8 mm2 3- Maximum s$ear stress fracture = SSSSSSSSE 8 mm2 f,s. = )$ere/ <f = <or?ue w$ic$ cause

- <orsional yield strengt$ Specimen 1raph:

f,s.

)$ere/ <y = <or?ue at yield point-

= SSSSSSSSE 8 mm

TorF*e in -1 m

4lope=

4l Eo-

<or?ue in %g cm,<.

<or?ue in E mm,<.

!ngle of twist ,. in degree in radian

"n1le o7 t0ist in radians

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& 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering @ 30

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

7$ TO#SIO, T)ST O, (IL/ ST))L

"im: <o study t$e be$avior of mild steel under gradually increasing tor?ue and to find i. Modulus of rigidity/ ii. Maximum s$ear stress/ iii. <orsional yield strengt$"pparat*s: &- <orsion <esting Mac$ine/ 2- =ernier 1aliperTheor+: ! torsion test is generally performed to determine t$e modulus of rigidity/ torsional yield strengt$ and t$e maximum s$ear stress in torsionIn t$e testing mac$ine t$e ends of t$e specimen are $eld in suitable grips t$roug$ one of w$ic$ t$e tor?ue is appliedH ot$er is connected to t$e tor?ue arm/ by means of w$ic$ t$e tor?ue on t$e specimen is measured- <$e tor?ue arm is attac$ed to t$e indicating unit t$roug$ intermediate levers $oused in t$e cabinet- <$e levers are so arranged t$at t$e load indicator moves in cloc%wise direction/ irrespective of t$e direction of torsion in t$e specimen- <$e c$art is selected by means of a $and lever at t$e front of t$e cabinet/ identical face plates/ provided wit$ attac$ment $oles and a tenon slot are fitted to t$e straining spindle and tor?ue arm spindle<$e angular movement of t$e straining spindle and $older is indicated on a large diameter protractor and vernier/ w$ic$ record deflection down to & degree!roced*re: &- Measure t$e diameter of t$e bar and parallel lengt$ of t$e test piece2- ! straig$t line is drawn parallel to t$e axis of bar to study $ow specimen twist w$en subCected to tor?ue3- Insert t$e test piece in t$e grips of t$e mac$ine- 4elect a suitable scale on t$e mac$ine and adCust t$e initial tor?ue and angle of twist readings to :ero position5. !pply t$e tor?ue initially by $and up to &0 angle of twist and note t$e tor?ue and angle of twist- <$e angle of twist and tor?ue may be noted at an interval of &- Grom &0 to 20/ t$e readings may be noted at 2 intervals- !fter t$is/ t$e mac$ine may be operated electrically and t$e readings may be noted at an interval of * to &0/ w$ic$ever is convenient5- Eote down t$e yield point and continue noting t$ese readings until t$e specimen brea%s7- 2lot t$e grap$ of <or?ue v8s !ngle of twist and calculate value of modulus of rigidity/ rupture and yield stress#es*lt: i. Modulus of rigidity
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E 8 mm2
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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

ii. Maximum s$ear stress iii. <orsional yield strengt$

= =

E 8 mm2 E 8 mm2

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Observations 6 Tab*lations: 9east 1ount of t$e =ernier 1aliper Sin1le shear test on mild steel rod: Diameter of t$e specimen d !rea of cross section Gailure load Mltimate s$ear strengt$ /o*ble shear test on mild steel rod: Diameter of t$e specimen d !rea of cross section Gailure load Mltimate s$ear strengt$ !d ) = = Od2 8 = mm mm E !s ) = = Od2 8 = = ) 8 !s mm mm E E8mm2 = mm-

= ) 8 2 x !d E8mm2

Sin1le shear test

/o*ble shear test

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

G$ S&)"# T)ST O, (IL/ ST))L

"im: <o determine t$e ultimate s$ear strengt$ of t$e given mild steel sample in single s$ear and double s$ear"pparat*s: &- Mniversal <esting Mac$ine wit$ s$ear attac$ment/ 2- =ernier 1aliperTheor+: ! type of force w$ic$ causes or tends to cause two continuous parts of t$e body to slide relative to eac$ ot$er in a direction parallel to t$eir plane of contact is called s$ear force<$e stress re?uired to produce fracture in t$e plane of cross section acted on by t$e s$ear force is called s$ear strengt$- ! bar is usually s$eared in some device t$at clamps a portion of t$e specimen w$ile t$e remaining portion is subCected to a load by means of plane and single area/ t$en t$e material is said to be in single s$ear- If two areas resist t$e fracture/ t$en t$e matrerial is said to be in double s$ear!roced*re: &- Diameter of t$e specimen is measured by using a =ernier 1aliper2- <$e specimen is t$en placed in a suitable s$ear attac$ment and t$e assembly is placed at t$e lower table of M<M3- <$e load is increased gradually and ultimate load re?uired to cause fracture is recorded- Mltimate00 s$ear strengt$ is found out using t$e formulaE8mm2 E8mm2

#es*lt:

4$ear strengt$ of mild steel in single s$ear = In double s$ear =

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

T)%&,I%"L S!)%I I%"TIO,S: &- Diameter of t$e specimens ,pins. 2- Disc 3- <est trac% radius ; - Disc speed ,rpm. E *- Grictional force per pin 2 5- )ear measurement R 7- Drive (- Instrumentation L 3 to &0 mm L Diameter@ &00mm/ t$ic%ness@ 5 to ( mm L &0 to (0 !dCustable L max- (00 !dCustable L 0 to &00 L 0 to 2 mm ,9east count & micron. L !1 motor L Digital ;2M Indicator L 9oad cell/ 9=D< ,wear sensor. L Digital load indicator L Digital timer wit$ Minutes 8 1ount ' optionL 230 =/ *!/ *0 3: !/ !-1- @ 4ingle p$ase-

"- 4upply Observations and Tab*lations: a. Diameter of t$e specimen pin D b. 3ardness of t$e Material c. <rac% radius d. Duration of test e. 4peed f. Grictional force 3m ; < E 2

= = = = = = =

mm E8mm2 mm minutes ;2M E microns = &0@3 mm

g. 9oss in linear dimension ,wear.R %alc*lations: &- 4liding distance 2- 9inear wear rate 9 +

= 2O ;E< =SSSSSSSS =

mm-

3- 9oss in volume

= SSSSSSSS = ,O D2 8 . x R =SSSSSSSSSmm3

- )ear factor

= x

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

H$ 5)"# ST?/'
"imL &- <o study t$e wear D frictional be$avior of a given specimen2- <o determineL a. 4liding distance/ b. )ear factor"pparat*s: Theor+: )ear is t$e removal of discrete particles from t$e surface of metals as a result of mec$anical action- !lso wear can be defined as t$e progressive loss of substance from t$e operating surface of t$e body occurring as a result of relative motion at t$e surfaceT+pes o7 0ear: &- !d$esive wear/ 2- !brasive wear/ 3- Erosive wear/ - 4urface fatigue wear/ *- Gretting!roced*re: &- 4elect a pin si:e and material under test2- 2lace t$e specimen pin between t$e Caws and adCust t$e $eig$t of t$e pin wit$ respect to t$e wear disc using $eig$t adCustment bloc% after ensuring t$at t$e loading arm is parallel to t$e plane of t$e wear disc- <ig$ten t$e clamping screws on t$e adCustable Caw to clamp t$e specimen pin firmly- 4wivel t$e $eig$t adCustment bloc% away from loading arm3- 4et re?uired trac% radius by adCusting t$e traverse of t$e slider assembly-+eep test weig$t in t$e loading pan4. 4witc$ >E t$e controller- 9oosen 9=D< loc% screw- 0y adCusting t$e t$umb nut %eep t$e display reading wit$in *0/ set t$e )E!; display V0-0W by pressing XE;> pus$ button-

)ear D Griction monitor-

*- !lso set t$e G;I1<I>E!9 G>;1E display as V0-0W by pressing XE;> pus$ button5- 4elect t$e mode of operation ,<ime 8 count.7- !ctuate 4<!;< pus$ button on t$e controller front panel to commence t$e test(- 4et t$e re?uired ;2M by rotating t$e 4E< ;2M %nob in cloc%wise direction- Measured ;2M is displayed on t$e 42EED display"- <$e test stops automatically after t$e elapse of preset time8count&0- Eote down t$e corresponding wear D frictional force readings&&- 1alculate sliding distance D wear factor using formulae#es*lt: a. 4liding distance = mm
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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

b. )ear factor

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

Technical speci7ication: &- Maximum bending moment 2- 9oad ,!dCustable. 3- ;otating speed of t$e specimen - Motor Observations and %alc*lations: 0ending moment ,Mb. = %g cm w$ere/ 2= load applied/ 9= &0 cmEow/ 0ending stress = %g8cm2 L 200 %g cm L @ 0 %g L 200 ;2M L 323/ 0-* 32/ 2(00 ;2M

)$ere/ X= 4ection modulus

for circular cross section-

fb

w$ere/ d= 0-( cm

= Specimen:

%g8cm2

12,7 !" 1## !"

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

10$ "TI@?) T)ST

"im: <o conduct fatigue test on t$e given specimen-

"pparat*s: ;otary fatigue testing mac$ineTheor+: Gatigue can be defined as t$e failure of a material under varying loads/ well below t$e ultimate static load/ after a finite number of cycles of loading and unloading- <$is is a very fre?uent cause of failure of wor%ing parts of mac$ines and load bearing parts of aircraft structures/ roc%ets and missiles etc- subCect to respective loading!roced*re: &- 2repare t$e specimen as per I4 standard2- Gix t$e specimen to t$e specimen pulling out stud- Insert t$e specimen wit$ stud into t$e bore of 93 swiveling body and pus$ it furt$er till it inserts in t$e collect of ;3 swiveling body and rest against t$e specimen locater3- <ig$ten t$e specimen by rotating t$e clamping cum loosening ring wit$ t$e $elp of A1B spanner/ by pressing down t$e loc%ing rod into t$e slots of t$e loc%ing ring- ;epeat t$e procedure for ot$er side assembly*- 4elect t$e load re?uired depending upon t$e bending moment to be imposed/ by moving t$e loading weig$t and selecting proper additional weig$t5- 9oc% t$e loading weig$t by loc%ing screw/ use t$e pin and support w$ile moving t$e loading weig$t7- ;emove t$e pin from support before starting t$e motor(- ;eset t$e counter by pressing reset %nob- <$e motor will stop after t$e specimen fails and t$e counter will $ave recorded t$e number of revolutions completed by t$e specimen-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

11$ &)"T T#)"T(),T

"im: <o conduct annealing/ normali:ing/ $ardening and tempering of steel D to study t$eir ;oc%well $ardness"pparat*s: 3eating ,Muffle. furnace and ;oc%well $ardness testing mac$ineTheor+: 3eat treatment is an important operation in t$e manufacturing process of many mac$ine parts and tools- >nly by $eat treatment is to possible to impart t$e $ig$ mec$anical properties to steel re?uired for t$e normal operation of modern mac$inery and tools&eatin1 7*rnace: ! $eating furnace is a refractory lined c$amber in w$ic$ t$e metal parts are $eated to t$e re?uired temperature- Msually t$e furnace consists of a box li%e structure of steel s$ell/ door/ refractory lining/ $eating source/ temperature controls and temperature indicators"$ "nnealin1 o7 steelL !nnealing is one of t$e most important widely used operations in t$e $eat treatment of steel- <$e purpose of annealing is to obtain softness/ improve mac$inability/ increase or restore ductility and toug$ness/ relieve internal stresses/ reduce or eliminate structural in$omogenity/ refine grain si:e/ and to prepare steel for subse?uent $eat treatment<$ere are several types of annealingH Gull annealing consists in $eating $ypo eutectoid steel 30 to *0 1 above t$e critical point/ $olding it at t$is temperature/ and t$en slowly cooling ,depending on t$e composition.4low cooling is re?uired in annealing to enable t$e austenite to decompose at low degrees of super cooling3olding is followed by cooling wit$ t$e furnace for > to G ho*rs to G00<G50 % and t$en furt$er coolin1 in air- !fter $omogeni:ing/ castings undergo full annealing to refine t$eir structure=$ ,ormaliIin1 o7 steel: <$is process consists in $eating steel to a temperature from 40 to 50 % above critical point/ $olding at t$is temperature for a s$ort time/ and subse?uent coolin1 in air- Eormali:ing is used to eliminate coarse@ grained structures obtained in previous wor%ing ,rolling/ forging etc-./ to increase t$e strengt$ of medium carbon steels to a certain extent/ to improve t$e mac$inability of low carbon steels/ to improve t$e structure in welds/ to reduce internal stresses/ to eliminate t$e cementite networ% in $ypereutectoid steels etcEormali:ed carbon steel consists of pearlite and ferrite in $ypo eutectoid steels and of pearlite and cementite in $ypereutectoid steelsMore rapid cooling/ is used in normali:ing/ causes t$e austenite to decompose at lower temperatures- <$is increases t$e dispersity of t$e ferrous@ cementite mixture and increases t$e amount of eutectoid- <$erefore/ normali:ed steel $as a $ig$er strengt$ and is $arder t$an annealed steel1ooling in air employed in normali:ing alloy steels/ in w$ic$ t$e austenite is very stable/ results in austenite decomposition at $ig$ degrees of super cooling- It is even possible to obtain
Department of Mechanical Engineering SSE Mukka

42

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

a $ardened steel structure/ i-e-/ martensite/ in t$is case- !fter being normali:ed/ suc$ steels will be very $ard and must undergo $ig$ temperature tempering at **0@5*0 1 to enable t$em to be mac$inedIt is essential to note t$at two $eat treating operations/ normali:ing and $ig$ tempering/ re?uire less time t$an annealing- <$erefore/ t$ese two operations are often substituted for annealing in t$e treatment of alloy steelsEormali:ing is fre?uently applied as a final $eat treatment for items w$ic$ are to operate at relatively $ig$ stressesEormali:ing is extensively used for improving t$e properties of steel castings- Eormali:ed castings $ave a $ig$er yield point/ tensile strengt$/ and impact strengt$ t$an annealed castings<$e annealing and normali:ing temperature for carbon steel are given belowL

@rade o7 steel
30 1( 3* 1( 0 1( * 1(
%$ &ardenin1 o7 steel:

"nnealin1 temperat*re :%;

(*0@(70 ( 0@(50 (30@(*0 (20@( 0

,ormaliIin1 Temp$ :%;

(*0@"00 ( 0@("0 (30@((0 (20@(70

3ardening is a $eat treating process in w$ic$ steel is $eated to a temperat*re above the critical point/ $eld at t$is temperature and t$en rapidl+ cooled :F*enched; in 0ater, oil or molten salt baths$ <$e $ardening temperature of steel depends upon its c$emical composition and principally/ upon its carbon content- <$e $ardening temperature for carbon steels are given belowL

@rade o7 steel
2* 1( 30 1( 3* 1( 0 1( * 1(

&ardenin1 temperat*re : %;
(70@("0 (*0@(70 ( 0@(50 (30@(*0 (20@( 0

Effect of $ardening temperature upon $ardness for tool steel is given belowL

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

&ardenin1 Temperat*re : %; #oc-0ell :&#%;&ardness n*mber

7 0 750 7(0 (00 (20 ( 0 (50 ((0 "00 5* 5* 5* 5 53 52 52 5& 50

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

/$ Temperin1 o7 steel: <empering is t$e process of softening steel in order to ma%e it suitable for a given purpose<$e treatment follows immediately after $ardening and is very important in t$e $eat treatment of steel- <$e hardened steel is reheated to a certain temperat*re depending upon t$e results desired- <$e primary obCect of tempering is to release internal stresses set up during $ardening<empering not only reduces $ardness but also $as a decided effect on all ot$er p$ysical properties!t low tempering temperatures ,up to 200 or 2*01./ t$e $ardness c$anges only to a small extent- ! furt$er increase in t$e tempering temperature reduces t$e $ardness- <$e properties of steel after structural improvement/ i-e-/ $ardening followed by $ig$ tempering/ are always $ig$er t$an t$ose of annealed steel- <$is is due to t$e difference in structure of t$e ferrite@ cementite mixtureEffect of tempering on t$e magnitude of residual ,internal. stresses is t$e volume increase and t$e fact t$at t$e martensitic transformation does not ta%e place at t$e same time/ t$roug$out t$e cross@section of t$e part being $ardenedH inevitably lead to $ig$ internal stresses- 2urely t$ermal stresses/ due to non uniform cooling of surface and internal layers/ also appear!roced*re: &- 3eat t$e given steel specimen in a box type furnace until t$e specimen reac$es re?uired temperature2- +eep t$e specimen in t$e furnace up to t$e re?uired $olding temperature3- 1ool t$e specimen as per re?uired $eat treatment operation- Determine t$e $ardness of t$e specimen using ;oc%well $ardness@testing mac$ineObservations and res*lt: !- !nnealing temperature , 1. = 3olding time ,min. = ;oc%well $ardness ,3;0. = 0- Eormali:ing temperature ,1. = 3olding time ,min. = ;oc%well $ardness ,3;0. = 1- 3ardening temperature , 1. = 3olding time ,min. = ;oc%well $ardness ,3;1. =

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

D- <empering temperature ,1. = 3olding time ,min. = ;oc%well $ardness ,3;1. =

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

12$ (etallo1raph+ or microscop+

"im: 2repare a specimen for metallograp$ic examination of engineering materials and to study t$eir microstructure"pparat*s: 2olis$ing mac$ine/ emery papers/ etc$ing reagents and Metallurgical microscopeTheor+: It consists of microscopic study of t$e structural c$aracteristics of a metal or an alloy- It includes t$e study of t$e microstructure of metals/ t$e space arrangement of t$e atoms/ $eat treatment and examination by R@ raysS!)%I(), ("4I,@ =' !OLIS&I,@ !#O%)SS &- 2lace a raw metal in t$e centre of t$e cold setting dye2- Mix a little cold setting powder wit$ t$e li?uid to get a certain consistency and pour into t$e dye- )ait till t$e li?uid sets into a cylindrical structure3- Eow screw t$e lid of t$e dye onto t$e set structure and pus$ it out on t$e ot$er side- Eow t$e specimen is ready for polis$ing<$e above procedure is practiced in trial and error met$od till wet get expertise- Mse t$e specimen leveller to level t$e specimen madeI$ LI,IS&)#: 4witc$ on t$e linis$er and place t$e specimen on t$e belt till t$e raw metal is seen properly in t$e specimen and to a certain desired t$ic%nessII$ )()#' @#IT: Girstly we s$ould use emery gradually increasing t$e number ,&20/ 220/ 320/ 00/ 500. and t$en use GIEE EME;N ,&80/ 280/ 380/ 80. a. <ear different emery papers to t$e si:e of t$e cast iron bloc%s of t$e polis$ing stand and fix t$em by tig$tening t$e wing nutb. 4tart polis$ing unidirectional only from left to rig$t/ &* minutesc) Eow tilt t$e specimen &(0 and again polis$ it &* times unidirectional1ontinue for all t$e emery grits and fine emery- !s you finis$ polis$ing on 80 t$e polis$ing s$ould be so well done t$at it s$ould loo% li%e a mirrorIII$ /IS% !OLIS&I,@ ("%&I,): Eow apply some !luminium paste onto t$e duro clot$ and polis$ for 3 to minutes- !gain apply some alumina paste on valvette clot$ and polis$- )as$ wit$ water and wipe t$oroug$ly wit$ soft cotton clot$/ preferably use a specimen drierI9$ )T%&I,@ !#O%)SS: 2our some etc$ing agent according to t$e type re?uired onto a saucer and place t$e specimen in t$e compound for few minutes/ %eep c$ec%ing to see if t$e specimen $as been etc$ed- >nce etc$ed/ again was$ wit$ water and remove any moisture on it wit$ specimen drierI9$ Eow c$ec% t$e (icrostr*ct*re under t$e microscope and refer wit$ t$e reference material file-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

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47

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

(etall*r1ical (icroscope: It is t$e most important tool of t$e metallurgist from t$e scientific and tec$nical stand points- It is possible to determine t$e grain si:e and t$e si:e/ s$ape and distribution of various p$ases and inclusions w$ic$ $ave a great effect on t$e mec$anical properties of t$e metal- <$e microstructure will reveal t$e mec$anical and t$ermal treatment of t$e metal and it may be possible to predict its expected be$aviour under a given set of conditionsIn comparison wit$ biological type/ t$e metallurgical microscope differs in t$e manner by w$ic$ t$e specimen is illuminated- 4ince t$e metallograp$ic sample is opa?ue to lig$t/ t$e sample must be illuminated by reflected lig$t5or-in1 !rinciple: ! 3ori:ontal beam of lig$t from some lig$t source is reflected/ by means of a plane glass reflector/ downward t$roug$ t$e microscope obCective on to t$e surface of t$e specimen- 4ome of t$is incident lig$t reflected from t$e specimen surface will be magnified in passing t$roug$ t$e lower lens system/ t$e obCective and will continue upward t$roug$ t$e plane glass reflector and be magnified again by t$e upper lens system/ t$e eye piece- <$e initial magnifying power of t$e obCective and t$e eyepiece is usually engraved on t$e lens mount- )$en a particular combination of obCective and eye piece is used at t$e proper tube lengt$ t$e total magnification is e?ual to t$e product of t$e magnification of t$e obCective and t$e eye piece<$e maximum magnification obtained is about 57*x- <$e principal limitation is t$e wavelengt$ of visible lig$t/ w$ic$ limits t$e resolution of t$e fine details in t$e metallograp$ic specimen!roced*re: &- 2lace t$e metallurgical sample w$ic$ is to be tested on t$e table2- 4witc$ >E t$e microscope/ %eeping t$e &0x magnification obCective in t$e alignment3- Gocus t$e image using coarse focussing adCustment w$ere obCectives are parafocalised/ it does not need to t$e altered w$en c$anging t$e obCectives- Gine focussing is accomplis$ed by a double lever controls w$ic$ directly accurate upon t$e nose piece and obCectives wit$ $ig$ separated from coarse adCustment- <$e rig$t $and index mar%ed on rig$t side %nob for t$e micro metric adCustment will set at side intervals- <$e sample is firstly interstagated using t$e low magnification *x obCectives and broug$t t$em into t$e optical axis of $ig$er obCectives re?uired using revolving $ead of t$e obCective-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

48

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

13$ /') !),)T#",T T)STI,@

"im: <o conduct dye penetrant test for t$e given specimen-

"pparat*s: Dye penetrant/ developer and removerTheor+: It detects flaws t$at are open to t$e surface li%e crac%s/ seams/ lapsH lac% of bond/ porosity/ cold s$uts etc- It can be effectively used not only in t$e inspection of ferrous metals but especially useful for non@ ferrous metals products and or non@ porous/ non@ metallic materials suc$ as ceramics/ plastics and glass- <$e principle of li?uid penetrant test is t$at t$e li?uids used enter small openings suc$ as crac%s or porosities by capillary action- <$e rate and extent of t$is action is dependant upon suc$ properties as surface tension/ co$esion/ ad$esion and viscosity!roced*re: &- 1lean t$e surface of t$e component free of dust and dirt wit$ a piece of clot$2- 0rus$ t$e surface of t$e component to remove scale/ rust/ paint etc-/ by a soft wire brus$3- 4pray t$e remover to remove oil/ grease etc- !pply t$e Ydry penetrant ,by spraying one feet above from t$e specimen. ade?uately to cover t$e area to be tested- !llow 3 to * minutes or more for dye to penetrate into t$e crac%s*- )ipe off t$e excess penetrant on t$e surface wit$ a reg5- !gain spray t$e surface wit$ remover to remove t$e remnants of t$e red dye7- 4pray t$e developer evenly on t$e surface to give a t$in layer- <$is layer absorbs t$e penetrant from t$e crac%s and red spots or lines appear on t$e surface to give a visible indication of t$e flaws(- <$e crac% if any will be indicated wit$ t$e red dye absorbed by t$e w$ite absorbent-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

49

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

14$ ?LT#"SO,I% L"5 /)T)%TO#

"im: <o conduct ultrasonic flaw detecting test for t$e given specimenMltrasonic flaw detector-

"pparat*s:

Theor+: Mltrasonic inspection is employed to detect and locate defects suc$ as s$rin%age cavities/ internal bursts or crac%s/ porosity and large non@ metallic inclusions- )all t$ic%ness can be measured in close vessels or in cases w$ere suc$ measurements can not ot$erwise be made- Mltrasonic vibrations can be used to locate defects in ferrous and non ferrous obCects as well as in plastic and ceramics- Mltrasonic inspection for flaw detection ma%es use of acoustic waves wit$ fre?uencies in t$e range between 20 +3: and 20 M3:/ w$ic$ can be transmitted t$roug$ solids and get reflected by t$e sub surface defects- Mltrasonic waves form a basis for detection/ location and si:e estimation of defectsMltrasonic waves are usually generated by t$e 2ie:oelectric effect w$ic$ converts electrical energy to mec$anical energy- ! ?uart: crystal is used for t$e purpose<$e surface of casting to be inspected by ultrasonic is made fairly smoot$ by mac$iningMltrasonic inspection employs separate probes/ one for transmitting t$e waves and ot$er to receive t$em after passage t$roug$ t$e castings alternatively/ since t$e ultrasonic waves are transmitted as a series of intermittent pulses/ t$e same crystal may be employed bot$ as t$e transmitter and receiver- 0efore transmitting ultrasonic waves/ an oil film is provided between t$e probe and t$e casting surface!roced*re: &- Mltrasonic wave is introduced into t$e metal and t$e time interval between transmission of t$e outgoing and reception of t$e incoming signals is measured wit$ a cat$ode ray oscilloscope ,1;>.2- <$e time base of 1;> is so adCusted t$at t$e full widt$ of t$e trace represents t$e section being examined3- !s t$e wave is sent from t$e transmitter probe/ it stri%es t$e upper surface of t$e casting and ma%es a s$arp ,pea%. or pip ,ec$o. at t$e left $and side of t$e 1;> screenIf t$e casting is sound/ t$is wave will stri%e t$e bottom surface of t$e casting/ get reflected and indicated by a pip towards t$e rig$t $and end of 1;> screen- In case a defect exists in between t$e top and bottom casting surfaces/ most of t$e beam stri%ing t$is defect will get reflected from t$e defect/ reac$ t$e receiver probe and indicate a pip on t$e 1;> screen/ before t$e pip given by t$e waves stri%ing t$e far end of t$e casting and returning*- <$e distance of t$e defect from t$e surface can be determined wit$ $elp of a time distance scale/ w$ic$ can be c$anged as per convenience and one cycle of s?uare wave may indicate &mm to 2-* meters-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

50

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

15$ ("@,)TI% %#"%4 /)T)%TO#

"im: <o conduct magnetic crac% test for t$e given specimen-

"pparat*s: Magnetic crac% detectorTheor+: )$en a piece of metal is placed in a magnetic field and t$e lines of magnetic flux

get intersected by a discontinuity suc$ as a crac% or slag inclusion in a casting/ magnetic poles are induced on eit$er side of t$e discontinuity- <$e discontinuity causes an abrupt c$ange in t$e pat$ of magnetic flux flowing t$roug$ t$e casting normal to t$e discontinuity/ resulting a local flux lea%age field and interference wit$ t$e magnetic lines of force- <$is local flux disturbance can be detected by its effect upon magnetic particles w$ic$ are attracted to t$e region of discontinuity and pile up and bridge over t$e discontinuity! surface crac% is indicated by a line of fine particles following t$e crac% outline and a subsurface defect by a fu::y collection of t$e magnetic particles on t$e surface near t$e discontinuityMaximum sensitivity of indication is obtained w$en t$e discontinuity lies in a direction normal to t$e applied magnetic field and w$en t$e strengt$ of magnetic field is Cust enoug$ to saturate t$e section being inspected- Eon ferrous materials w$ic$ cannot be strongly magneti:ed cannot be inspected by t$is met$od!roced*re: &. Magneti:ing t$e component part2. !pplying magnetic particles on t$e component part3. 9ocating t$e defects-

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

51

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

9iva J*estions
&ardness Tests
&- Define $ardness2- )$at are t$e uses of $ardness testsZ 3- Mention t$e types of $ardness tests/ wit$ brief explanation- )$at are t$e advantages of ;oc%well test over 0rinnelBs testZ *- )$at are t$e advantages of =ic%ers $ardness over 0rinnelBs or any ot$er testsZ 5- 1lassify $ow to find $ardness of any material D $ow it depends on ot$er factorsZ 7- )$at is difference between $ardness and strengt$Z (- Explain significance of different $ardness numbers wit$ example"- Differentiate between $ardness and toug$ness&0- )$at is an indenter and indentationZ &&- )$at are types of $ardness measurementsZ &2- Derive t$e expression for finding $ardness incase of 0rinnel $ardness number&3- )$at are t$e different si:es of ball indenters in 03EZ & - )$at is t$e load ranges in different $ardness testing mac$inesZ

?niversal Testin1 (achine

&- )$at are t$e uses and different types of tests t$at can be performed on M<M and t$eir usesZ 2- )$at is strain $ardening D bousc$inger effectZ 3- )$at is fractureZ Eame different types- )$at is t$e significance of stress@ strain diagram D draw stress strain diagram for ductile and brittle materialZ *- )$at is strain energyZ 5- Differentiate between ductile D brittle material7- )$at is proof stressZ (- 6ive t$e broad classification of metals"- Define t$e following mec$anical properties of metalsL a. Malleability/ resilience/ ductility/ impact/ fatigue and bending strengt$/ stiffness/ elasticity/ plasticity D creep&0- Define t$e termsL a. 2roportional limit/ b. Elastic limit/ c. Nield point/ d. Mltimate tensile strengt$/ e. ;upture strengt$&&- Define stress and strain&2- Define 3oo%Bs law&3- Eame t$e important parts of M<M& - )$at is t$e purpose of using extensometer in tensile testZ &*- )$at type of failure occurs in brittle and ductile material during tension and compression testZ &5- )$at are t$e precautions are to be ta%en w$ile conducting t$e different tests in M<MZ &7- 3ow do you evaluate toug$ness in tensile testing in M<MZ
Department of Mechanical Engineering SSE Mukka

52

Metallography and Materials Testing Lab

&(- )$at is meant by deformationZ Eame different types of it&"- Explain single s$ear and double s$ear20- )$at is susceptibilityZ 2&- )$at is offset yield strengt$Z

Department of Mechanical Engineering

SSE Mukka

53