Maestra en Seguridad Telemtica

Mdulo: Fundamentos de Redes

Facilitador
Diego Avila Pesntez
Estudios: Ingeniero en Sistemas Informticos ( UC 1997) Maestra en Internetworking (U. de Chile 2002) Diplomado en Docencia Universitaria (2000) Maestra en Informtica Aplicada (ESPOCH 2003) Estudiante del Doctorado en Ingeniera en Sistemas e Informtica. UMNSM Certificaciones Internacionales: CCNA (Cisco Certified Netwok Associete) CCNP(Cisco Certified Network Proffesional)

Motivacin
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=itIy8jlVF6o

Evaluacin del Mdulo

Tareas/Labs Caso de estudio 50% 50%

Horario de jornadas: Viernes 17h00 - 22h00 Sbado 08h00 - 17h00

Agenda
Conceptos Generales, modelo OSI & TCP/IP

Conectividad en funcin de capas: Fsica, Enlace de datos, Red

Tecnologas de Redes LAN Direccionamiento IPv4, IPv6.

Objetivos del Mdulo

Revisar la tecnologa actual del entorno de redes que permita a los asistentes recordar definiciones y conceptos importantes como punto de partida a los laboratorios experimentales. Analizar los principios del Modelo de referencia OSI, TCP/IP, switching Ethernet, protocolos capa 3 que permitan comparar con las diferentes aplicaciones y su funcionamiento estratificado en capas.

Bibliografa
Isaacs, M. Internet User's Guide to Network Resource Tools: http://www.terena.nl/gnrt/. Estupenda gua sobre las herramientas y servicios de Internet. Imprescindible para cualquier usuario habitual u ocasional. McKeon, B. An Introduction to the OSI Reference Model: http://ntrg.cs.tcd.ie/undergrad/4ba2/ . Muy buen resumen del modelo OSI y de los protocolos OSI. Tambin habla de TCP/IP y ATM. Networking Essentials: http://www.labmice.net/networking/networkbasics.htm

Technology Guides for Communications & Networking: http://www.techguide.com/. Interesante recopilacin de guas tcnicas. Hay que registrarse para conseguirlas, pero es gratis. Home Page de Raj Jain: http://www.cis.ohio-state.edu/~jain/. Impresionante coleccin de materiales docentes sobre redes (presentaciones, ejercicios, etc.) Tutoriales de Network Magazine: http://www.networkmagazine.com/static/tutorial/index.html. Interesante recopilacin de artculos educativos sobre diversos temas relacionados con redes de computadores.

Bibliografa
Howe, D. Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing: http://wombat.doc.ic.ac.uk/. Recopilacin exhaustiva de trminos informticos. Malkin, G. (RFC1983). Internet Users' Glossary. Completo diccionario de trminos y abreviaturas del mundo Internet Tech Encyclopedia: http://www.techweb.com/encyclopedia/ Webopedia: http://webopedia.internet.com/ Whatis: http://whatis.com/

ANSI (American National Standards Institute): http://www.ansi.org/

ATM Forum: http://www.atmforum.com

Frame Relay Forum: http://www.frforum.com

IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers): http://www.ieee.org IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force): http://www.ietf.org

Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network (LAN) An individual network usually spans a single geographical area, providing services and applications to people within a common organizational structure, such as a single business, campus or region.
9

Wide Area Network (WAN)

T1, DS3, OC3 PPP, HDLC Frame Relay, ATM ISDN, POTS

Wide Area Networks (WANs) Leased connections through a telecommunications service provider network. Networks that connect LANs in geographically separated locations Telecommunications service provider (Carrier) interconnect the LANs at the different locations. Voice and data on separate networks or converged networks

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End devices

End devices or hosts: The source or destination of a message.

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Components of the Network

Devices (hardware) End devices, switch, router, firewall Media (wired, wireless) Cables, wireless mediums Services (software) Network applications, routing protocols, processes, algorithms

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Servers and Clients

Client Server

A host Client, Server, or both. Software determines the role. Servers provide information and services to clients e-mail or web pages Clients request information from the server.
13

Network Media

Network media: The medium over which the message travels. Cooper wires - electrical impulses. Fiber optics pulses of light Wireless electromagnetic waves.
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Network Media

Different media considerations (4): Distance it will carry signal Environment it works in Bandwidth (speed) Cost
15

Components of a Network

Topology Diagrams

New Network Trends

Some of the top trends include: Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) Online collaboration Video Cloud computing

Network Trends

Bring Your Own Device (BYOD)

The concept of any device, to any content, in anyway is a major global trend that requires significant changes to the way devices are used. This trend is known as Bring Your Own Device (BYOD).

Online Collaboration

Video Communication

Cloud Computing
Cloud computing offers the following potential benefits: Organizational flexibility Agility and rapid deployment Reduced cost of infrastructure Refocus of IT resources Creation of new business models

Data Centers
A data center is a facility used to house computer systems and associated components including: Redundant data communications connections High-speed virtual servers (sometimes referred to as server farms or server clusters) Redundant storage systems (typically uses SAN technology) Redundant or backup power supplies Environmental controls (e.g., air conditioning, fire suppression) Security devices

Networking Technologies for the Home

Technology Trends in the Home

Networking Technologies for the Home

Powerline Networking

Networking Technologies for the Home

Wireless Broadband

Network Security

Network Security

Security Threats
The most common external threats to networks include: Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses Spyware and adware Zero-day attacks, also called zero-hour attacks Hacker attacks Denial of service (DoS) attacks Data interception and theft Identity theft

Security Solutions
Network security components often include: Antivirus and antispyware Firewall filtering Dedicated firewall systems Access control lists (ACL) Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)

Protocol Suites and Standards

Early days proprietary network equipment and protocols. Now Industry standards Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Examples: 802.3 (Ethernet), 802.11 (WLAN) Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet standards RFCs (Request for Comments) Example: TCP, IP, HTTP, FTP
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Example: RFC 791 IPv4

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Protocols
Protocols
HTTP Header
Data

Frame Header

IP Header

App TCP Header Header

Frame Trailer

Protocol Rules that govern communications. Protocol suite - A group of inter-related protocols Example: TCP/IP

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Protocol and Reference Models

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is the most widely known internetwork reference model. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) released the OSI reference model in 1984, was the descriptive scheme they created.

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TCP/IP Model

TCP/IP Model and Protocol Suite is an open standard.

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Multiple protocols (encapsulated)

Protocols
HTTP Header
Data

Frame Header

IP Header

App TCP Header Header Data

Frame Trailer

Encapsulation Process of adding a header to the data or any previous set of headers. Decapsulation Process of removing a header.

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The Communication Process - Encapsulation

Data Link Header IP Header TCP Header HTTP Header

Data

Data Link Trailer

Server HTTP Data

Encapsulation Process of adding control information as it passes down through the layered model.

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The Communication Process - Decapsulation

Data Link Header IP Header TCP Header HTTP Header

Data

Data Link Trailer

Client

HTTP Data

Decapsulation Process of removing control information as it passes upwards through the layered model.

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The Communication Process

Protocol Data Unit (PDU) - The form that a piece of data takes at any layer. PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP suite. Data - Application layer PDU Segment - Transport Layer PDU Packet - Internetwork Layer PDU Frame - Network Access Layer PDU Bits - A PDU used when physically transmitting data over the medium 37

TAREA EN CLASE: ENCAPSULAMIENTO

Organizarse en equipos de 4 personas. Determinar la manera como pueden describir el proceso de encapsulamiento de datos. 10 min. para planificar la presentacin.

Warriors of the Net

To get an idea of many of the things we will be learning about

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TCP-IP Protocol

TCP-IP Protocol

Aplication Layer
HTTP (WWW)
We will examine HTTP in detail.

DHCP (IP address resolution)

FTP (file transfer)

DNS (domain name resolution)

SMTP (email)

SMB (file sharing)

Telnet (remote login)

P2P (file sharing)

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HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

HTTP HTTP Server
HTTP Client

HTTP

Implemented in: Client program Server program Web page (also called a html document) Web page consists of objects HTML file JPEG image JAVA applet Audio file

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HTTPS

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer) is a URL scheme used to indicate a secure HTTP connection. HTTPS is not a separate protocol combination of a normal HTTP interaction over an encrypted: Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) or Transport Layer Security (TLS) connection

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FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

FTP Client
FTP Server

FTP was developed to allow for file transfers between a client and a server. Used to push and pull files from a server running the FTP daemon (FTPd). RFC 959

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SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol

User agent SMTP Mail server SMTP Mail server User agent

POP3 IMAP

Internet mail involves: User agents Allows users to read, reply, compose, forward, save, etc., mail messages GUI user agents: Outlook, Eudora, Messenger Text user agents: mail, pine, elm Mail servers Stores user mail boxes, communicates with local user agents and other mail servers. SMTP Principle application layer protocol for Internet mail Sent over TCP 46 Mail access protocols: POP3, IMAP4, HTTP

Telnet
Telnet Telnet Server

Allows a user to remotely access another device (host, router, switch). Connection called a Virtual Terminal (VTY) session. Telnet clients: Putty Teraterm Hyperterm
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Telnet

Supports user authentication, Does not encrypt data. Secure Shell (SSH) protocol offers an alternate and secure method for server access. Stronger authentication Encrypts data

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DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

IP addresses and other information can be obtained: Statically Dynamically (DHCP)

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DNS Domain Name System

DNS allows users (software) to use domain names instead of IP addresses

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Transport Layer Protocols

UDP and TCP

UDP

TCP
0 16-bit Source Port Number 15 16 31 16-bit Destination Port Number 32-bit Sequence Number 32 bit Acknowledgement Number 4-bit Header Length 6-bit (Reserved)
U A P R S F R C S S Y I G K H T N N

16-bit Window Size

16-bit TCP Checksum

16-bit Urgent Pointer

Options (if any)

Data (if any)

UDP provides: Unreliable delivery No error checking No flow control No congestion control No ordered delivery

(No connection establishment)

TCP provides: Reliable delivery Error checking Flow control Congestion control Ordered delivery (Connection establishment)
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TCP Header
0 16-bit Source Port Number 15 16 31 16-bit Destination Port Number

32-bit Sequence Number

32 bit Acknowledgement Number 4-bit Header Length 6-bit (Reserved)

U A P R S F R C S S Y I G K H T N N

16-bit Window Size

16-bit TCP Checksum

16-bit Urgent Pointer

Options (if any)

Data (if any)

TCP provides reliable delivery on top of unreliable IP

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TCP Header
source port -- the number of the calling port destination port -- the number of the called port sequence number -- the number used to ensure correct sequencing of the arriving data acknowledgment number -- the next expected TCP octet HLEN -- the number of 32-bit words in the header reserved -- set to 0 code bits -- the control functions (e.g. setup and termination of a session) window -- the number of octets that the sender is willing to accept checksum -- the calculated checksum of the header and data fields urgent pointer -- indicates the end of the urgent data option -- one currently defined: maximum TCP segment size data -- upper-layer protocol data

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TCP: Connection Establishment

0 16-bit Source Port Number 15 16 31 16-bit Destination Port Number 32-bit Sequence Number

32 bit Acknowledgement Number 4-bit Header Length 6-bit (Reserved)

U A P R S F R C S S Y I G K H T N N

16-bit Window Size

16-bit TCP Checksum

16-bit Urgent Pointer

Options (if any)

Data (if any)

Three-way Handshake

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TCP: Connection Termination

1. When the client has no more data to send in the stream, it sends a segment with the FIN flag set. 2. The server sends an ACK to acknowledge the receipt of the FIN to terminate the session from client to server. 3. The server sends a FIN to the client, to terminate the server to client session. 4. The client responds with an ACK to acknowledge the FIN from the server.

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UDP
0 16-bit Source Port Number 15 16 16-bit Destination Port Number 31

16-bit UDP Length

16-bit UDP Checksum

Data (if any)

source port -- the number of the calling port destination port -- the number of the called port UDP length -- the length of the UDP header checksum -- the calculated checksum of the header and data fields data -- upper-layer protocol data

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UDP
0 16-bit Source Port Number 15 16 16-bit Destination Port Number 31 16-bit UDP Length 16-bit UDP Checksum

Client

Server

Time

Data (if any)

Why would an application developer choose UDP rather than TCP? Finer application-layer control TCP will continue to resend segments that are not acknowledged. Applications that use UDP can tolerate some data loss: Streaming video VoIP (Voice over IP) Application decides whether or not to resend entire file: TFTP

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Network Layer

IPv4
IPv6

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Network Layer
0 4-bit Version 4-bit Header Length 8-bit Type Of Service (TOS) 15 16 16-bit Total Length (in bytes) 3-bit Flags 31 16-bit Identification 13-bit Fragment Offset

8 bit Time To Live TTL

8-bit Protocol

16-bit Header Checksum

32-bit Source IP Address

32-bit Destination IP Address

Options (if any)

Data

Layer 3 uses four basic processes: Addressing Encapsulation Routing Decapsulation

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Assignment of IP Addresses
Regional Internet Registries (RIRs)

IP Header IPv4

Where I came from.

IP Destination Address 32-bit binary value that represents the packet destination Network layer host address. IP Source Address 32-bit binary value that represents the packet source Network layer host address.

Where I am going.

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IP Header IPv4
Sending hosts generates the value for TTL. Common operating system TTL values are: UNIX: 255 Linux: 64 or 255 depending upon vendor and version Microsoft Windows 95: 32 Microsoft Vista: 128 Protocol field enables the Network layer to pass the data to the appropriate upper-layer protocol. Example values are: 01 ICMP, 06 TCP, 17 UDP Type-of-Service is used to determine the priority of each packet. Enables Quality-of-Service (QoS) mechanism for high priority traffic. What types of traffic might a network administrator need to give priority to? Traffic that cannot accept any delays. VoIP, Streaming video

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Special Use IPv4 Addresses

Network and Broadcast addresses within each network the first and last addresses cannot be assigned to hosts Loopback address 127.0.0.1 a special address that hosts use to direct traffic to themselves (addresses 127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255 are reserved) Link-Local address 169.254.0.0 to 169.254.255.255 (169.254.0.0/16) addresses can be automatically assigned to the local host Experimental addresses 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.254 are listed as reserved

Public and Private IPv4 Addresses

Private address blocks are: Hosts that do not require access to the Internet can use private addresses 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8) 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12) 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16) Shared address space addresses: Not globally routable Intended only for use in service provider networks Address block is 100.64.0.0/10

Public and Private IPv4 Addresses

Private address blocks are: Hosts that do not require access to the Internet can use private addresses 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 (10.0.0.0/8) 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 (172.16.0.0/12) 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 (192.168.0.0/16)

Shared address space addresses: Not globally routable Intended only for use in service provider networks

Network/Subnets Address
172.16.10.0/24
172.16.10.100/24

172.16.20.0/24
172.16.20.77/24

172.16.30.0/24
172.16.30.39/24

172.16.40.0/24
172.16.40.123/24

172.16.10.55/24

172.16.20.96/24

172.16.30.10/24

172.16.40.51/24

172.16.1.1/24 172.16.10.3/24 172.16.20.103/24 172.16.30.111/24 172.16.40.29/24

172.16.10.1/24

172.16.20.1/24

172.16.30.1/24

172.16.40.1/24

Networks can be subdivided into subnets. This provides for several benefits which we will discuss later. Networks can be grouped based on factors that include: Geographic location, Purpose, Ownership

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Routing
Network 192.168.1.0/24 Network 192.168.2.0/24 192.168.1.254/24

C 192.168.2.0/24 is direction connected, FastEthernet0/1

Static routes Manually entered by the administrator Dynamic Routing protocols Routers automatically learn about remote networks Ex: RIP, EIGRP, OSPF, IS-IS, BGP

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IPv6 Addressing
128-bit hexadecimal format (0-9, A-F) Uses 16-bit hexadecimal number fields separated by colons (:) Every 4-hexadecimal digits are equivalent to 16-bits. Consists of 8 hextets/quartets which is the equivalent to 16bits per-hextet.

2001:0DB8:0001:5270:0127:00AB:CAFE:0E1F /64
- 2001 in hexadecimal is 0010 0000 0000 0001 in
binary

IPv6 Addressing Structure

The Site Prefix or Global Routing Prefix is the first 3 hextets or 48-bits of the address. It is assigned by the service provider. The Site Topology or Subnet ID Is the 4th hextet of the address. The Interface ID is the last 4 hextets or 64-bits of the address. It can be manually or dynamically assigned using the EUI-64 command. (Extended Unique Identifier)

IPv6 Addressing Structure

First 3 bits are fixed at 001 or 200::/12 (IANA Global Routing Number)

Bits 16-24 identifies the Regional Registry:

- AfriNIC, APNIC, LACNIC, RIPE NCC and ARIN

2001:0000::/23 IANA 2001:0200::/23 APNIC (Asia/Pacific Region) 2001:0400::/23 ARIN (North America Region) 2001:0600::/23 RIPE (Europe, Middle East and Central Asia)

IPv6 Addressing Structure

Remaining 8-bits up to /32 identifies the ISP.

The 3rd hextet represents the Site/Customer Identifier.

The 4th hextet represent the Site Topology/Subnet ID. - Allows 65,536 subnets with 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 (18 quintillion) for each subnet. - Not part of the host address field.

IPv6 Addressing Scheme and Subnets

The Interface ID are the remaining 64-bits of the address. Can be manually configured or dynamically by using the EUI-64 (Extended Unique Identifier). The EUI-64 command uses the device 48-bits MAC Address and convert it into 64-bits by adding FF:FE in the middle of the address. The first (network) and last (broadcast) address may be assigned to an interface. An interface may contain more than one IPv6 address. There are no broadcast addresses, multicast is used instead.

IPv6 Addressing Scheme and Subnets

IPv6 uses the same method as IPv4 to subnet their addresses. /127 gives you 2 addresses. /124 gives you 16 addresses /120 gives you 256 addresses The first address in a network consists of all 0's and the last address consists of all F's. Its recommended for simplicity and design purposes to use /64 everywhere. Using anything less than /64 could potentially break IPv6 features and cause increased design complexity.

Leading Zeroes and Double Colons (::)

Leading 0s (zeroes) in any 16-bit section can be omitted. Address before omission: 2001:0DB8:0001:5270:0127:00AB:CAFE:0E1F /64 Address after omission: 2001:DB8:1:5270:127:AB:CAFE:E1F /64 This rule applies only to leading 0s; if trailing 0s are omitted, the address would be vague.

Leading Zeroes and Double Colons (::)

A Double Colons or Compressing Zeroes can be used to shorten an IPv6 address when one or more hextets consist of all 0s.

Double Colons can only be used to compress a single contiguous 16bits blocks. You cannot use double colons to include part of a block.

Double Colons can only be used once in an address, if it's used more than once the address could be ambiguous

Data Link Layer

Data Link layer Connects the Network Layer with the Physical Layer Network Layer and above is software (IP, TCP, HTTP, etc.) Physical layer is implemented in hardware (converting bits to a transmission signal) Data Link layer is implemented in both: Software Hardware Data Link Layer prepares Network Layer packets for transmission across some form of media, be it copper, fiber, or the atmosphere.

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Data Link Sublayers

Data Link layer has two sublayers (sometimes): Logical Link Control (LLC) Software processes that provide services to the Network layer protocols. Frame information that identifies the Network layer protocol. Multiple Layer 3 protocols, (IP and IPX) can use the same network interface and media. Media Access Control (MAC) - Media access processes performed by the hardware. Provides Data Link layer addressing and framing of the data according to the protocol in use.

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Media Access Control

The media access control methods used by logical multi-access topologies are typically: CSMA/CD - Hubs CSMA/CA - Wireless Token passing Token Ring
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Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Describe the purpose of the Physical layer in the network and identify the basic elements that enable this layer to fulfill its function

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Describe the role of bits in representing a frame as it is transported across the local media

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Describe the role of signaling in the physical media

Physical Layer Protocols & Services

Identify hardware components associated with the Physical layer that are governed by standards

Characteristics & Uses of Network Media

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable

Advantages:

Less expensive than fiber It has been used for many years for many types of data communication, including cable television
Disadvantages:

More expensive and more difficult to install than twisted pair Needs more room in wiring ducts than twisted pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP and ScTP)

STP Shielded Twisted Pair ScTP Screened Twisted Pair

Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and twisting of wires. Each pair of wires is wrapped in metallic foil. The four pairs of wires are wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil. A new hybrid of UTP with traditional STP is Screened UTP (ScTP), also known as Foil Twisted Pair (FTP). ScTP is essentially UTP wrapped in a metallic foil shield, or screen.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP and ScTP)

Greater protection from all types of external and internal interference than UTP.

Reduces electrical noise within the cable such as pair to pair coupling and crosstalk. Reduces electronic noise from outside the cable, for example electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
More expensive and difficult to install than UTP. Needs to be grounded at both ends

Characteristics & Uses of Network Media

Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium used in a variety of networks.

TIA/EIA-568-B contains specifications governing cable performance.

RJ-45 connector

When communication occurs, the signal that is transmitted by the source needs to be understood by the destination.

Characteristics & Uses of Network Media

ST and SC Connectors

The type of connector most commonly used with multimode fiber is the Subscriber Connector (SC connector). On single-mode fiber, the Straight Tip (ST) connector is frequently used. LC (Little conector).

Fiber versus Copper

Implementation Issues
Bandwidth Supported Distance Immunity To EMI And RFI Immunity To Electrical Hazards Media And Connector Costs Installation Skills Required Safety Precautions

Copper Media
10 Mbps 10 Gbps Relatively short (1 100 meters) Low

Fibre Optic
10 Mbps 100 Gbps Relatively High (1 100,000 meters) High (Completely immune) High (Completely immune) Highest

Low

Lowest

Lowest

Highest

Lowest

Highest

Properties of Wireless Media

Wireless does have some areas of concern including: Coverage area Interference Security

Wireless Media

Types of Wireless Media

IEEE 802.11 standards Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi. Uses CSMA/CA Variations include: 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz 802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz 802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz

IEEE 802.15 standard Supports speeds up to 3 Mb/s Provides device pairing over distances from 1 to 100 meters. IEEE 802.16 standard Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.

Wireless Media

Wireless LAN
Cisco Linksys EA6500 802.11ac Wireless Router

Wireless Media

802.11 Wi-Fi Standards

Maximum Speed
54 Mbps

Standard 802.11a

Frequency
5 GHz

Backwards Compatible
No

802.11b
802.11g 802.11n 802.11ac 802.11ad

11 Mbps
54 Mbps 600 Mbps 1.3 Gbps (1300 Mbps) 7 Gbps (7000 Mbps)

2.4 GHz
2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 2.4 GHz and 5.5 GHz 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and 60 GHz

No
802.11b 802.11b/g

802.11b/g/n

802.11b/g/n/ac

How wireless LANs communicate

Since radio frequency (RF) is a shared medium, collisions can occur just as they do on wired shared medium. The major difference is that there is no method by which the source node is able to detect that a collision occurred. For that reason WLANs use Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). This is somewhat like Ethernet CSMA/CD.

Tarea Extraclase:
Realizar un mapa mental sobre caractersticas de cables: UTP/STP Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6A, Cat 7, Fibra ptica multimodo, Fibra ptica monomodo. Stack de protocolos que utiliza la aplicacin VoIP utilizando Wireshark. Simulacin de la red de Campus utilizando el Packet Tracer de Cisco.