LESSON NO.

1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Meaning of Nationalism Nationalism is the belief that nations will benefit from acting independently rather than collectively, emphasizing national rather than international goals. Meaning of Imperialism Imperialism means the policy of extending a nation's authority by territorial acquisition or by the establishment of economic and political hegemony over other nations. Nationalism and Imperialism Idealistic liberal democratic sentiments because of a narrow creed with limited ends. Nationalist groups became increasingly intolerant of each other and ever ready to go to war. After 1871 nationalist tension mounted in Europe in the area called Balkans. The Balkans was a region of geographical and ethnic variations. A large part of Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. The spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans and downfall of Ottoman Empire made this region very explosive. As the different Slavic nationalist struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkans became an area of conflict. There was intense rivalry among the European powers over trade and colonies. This led to a series of wars in the region and finally the First World War. Many countries in the world which had been colonized by the European powers in the 19th century began to oppose imperial domination. The anti-imperial movements developed nationalism and formed independent nation states. A New Conservatism after 1815 After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815 European Governments were driven by the spirit of conservatism. Conservatives believed in traditional institutions of state & society like the monarchy, the church, social hierarchies, property and the family be preserved. In 1815 representatives of the European powers of Britain, Russia, Prussia and Austria, who had collectively defeated Napoleon, met at Vienna to draw up a settlement for Europe. The treaty of Vienna of 1815. The Bourbon dynasty which had been deposed after the French revolution was restored to power. Conservative regimes set up in 1815 were autocratic. They did not tolerate criticism and sought to curb the activities. Most of them imposed censorship laws to control newspapers, books plays and songs and reflected ideas of liberty and freedom.

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

KEY WORDS Absolutist

Literally, a government or system of rule that has no restraints on the power exercised. In history, the term refers to a form of monarchical government that was centralized, militarized and repressive Utopian A vision of a society that is so ideal that it is unlikely to actually exist. The Charter of the Rights of Man The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, of August 1789 is a fundamental document of the French Revolution and in the history of human rights. It defines the individual and collective rights of all the estates of the realm as universal. Influenced by the doctrine of "natural right", the rights of man are held to be universal: valid at all times and in every place, pertaining to human nature itself. It became the basis for a nation of free individuals protected equally by law. Plebiscite A direct vote by which all the people of a region are asked to accept or reject a proposal. Nation-state a sovereign state of which most of the citizens or subjects are united also by factors which define a nation, such as language or common descent. The French Revolution the revolution that began in 1789, to overthrow the absolute monarchy of the Bourbons and the system ofaristocratic privileges, and ended with Napoleon's overthrow of the Directory and seizure of power in 1799. la patrie the fatherland le citoyen the citizen Despotism A government or political system in which the ruler exercises absolute power. The Civil Code Also known as The Napoleonic Code is the French civil cod, The Civil Code was established under Napolon I in 1804. The code forbade privileges based on birth, allowed freedom of religion, and specified that government jobs go to the most qualified. Suffrage The right to vote The July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, Second French Revolution or Trois Glorieuses in French, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Bourbon monarch, and the ascent of his cousin Louis-Philippe, Duke of Orlans, who himself, after 18 precarious years on the throne, would in turn be overthrown. The Greek War of Independence The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution, was a successful war of independence waged by the Greek revolutionaries between 1821 and 1832, with later assistance from Russia, the United Kingdom, France, and several other European powers against the Ottoman Empire, who were assisted by their vassals, the Eyalet of Egypt, and partly by the Beylik of Tunis. Romanticism Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

originated in Europe toward the end of the 18th century and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate period from 1800 to 1850.

Industrialisation

Young Italy

Young Europe

Giuseppe Mazzini

Feminist Otto von Bismarck

Count Cavour Giuseppe Garibaldi

Red Shirts

The Act of Union

Ethnic Allegory

The process in which a society or country (or world) transforms itself from a primarily agricultural society into one based on the manufacturing of goods and services. a political movement founded in 1831 by Giuseppe Mazzini. With a goal to create a united Italian republic through promoting a general insurrection in the Italian reactionary states and in the lands occupied by the Austrian Empire. Mazzini's belief was that a popular uprising would create a unified Italy. An international association formed in 1834 on the model of Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy. It was composed of the national societies of Young Italy, Young Poland, and Young Germany, which, independent in their own sphere, acted in common, through a central committee, for the furthering of the principles of liberty, equality, and humanity in Europe. nicknamed The Beating Heart of Italy, was an Italian politician, journalist and activist for the unification of Italy. His efforts helped bring about the independent and unified Italy Awareness of womens rights and interests based on the belief of the social, economic and political equality of the genders Prince of Bismarck, Duke of Lauenburg, known as Otto von Bismarck, was a conservative Prussian statesman who dominated German and European affairs from the 1860s until 1890. He was instrumental in the Unification of Germany. an Italian statesman and a leading figure in the movement toward Italian unification. Giuseppe Garibaldi was a French-born general and politician who played a large role in the history of Italy and the world. He is considered, with Camillo Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II and Giuseppe Mazzini, as one of Italy's "fathers of the fatherland". the name given to the volunteers who followed Giuseppe Garibaldi in southern Italy during his Mille expedition to southern Italy, but sometimes extended to other campaigns of his. The name derived from the colour of their shirts the Treaty of Union that had been agreed on 22 July 1706, joined the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of Scotland (previously separate states with separate legislatures, but with the same monarch) into a single, United Kingdom named "Great Britain". Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin or background that a community identifies with or claims. When an abstract idea (for instance, greed, envy, freedom,

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

liberty) is expressed through a person or a thing. An allegorical story has two meanings, one literal and one symbolic. The Balkan Peninsula, popularly referred to as the Balkans, is a geographical and cultural region of Southeast Europe. The region has its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch from the east of Bulgaria to the very east of Serbia.

The Balkans

TEXTUAL QUESTIONS

Solution of NCERT Exercise Write in brief Question: 1 - Write a note on: (a) Guiseppe Mazzini Answer: Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary. He was born in 1807. He became a member of the secret society of the Carbonari. When he was 24 years old, he was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria. After that, he founded two more underground societies; first Young Italy in Marseilles and then Young Europe in Berne. Mazzini believed that God had intended nations to be the natural units of mankind. So Italy had to be forged into a single unified republic instead of being a patchwork of small state kingdoms. Following in the footsteps of Mazzini, many secret societies were set up Germany, France, Switzerland and Poland. The Conservatives feared Mazzini. (b) Count Camillo de Cavour Answer: Count Camillo de Cavour was the leading figure in the movement towards unification of Italy. He was the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia. He was neither a revolutionary nor a democrat. He was like many other wealthy and educated members of the Italian elite. He too was more fluent in French than in Italian. He made a tactful diplomatic alliance with France and thus succeeded in defeating the Austrian forces in 1859. Apart from regular troops, many armed volunteers under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the fray. In 1860, they marched into South Italy and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. They succeeded in winning the support of the local peasants and drove out the Spanish rulers. Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy in 1861. Cavour became the first Prime Minister of the unified Italy. (c) The Greek war of independence Answer: The Greek war of independence mobilized the nationalist feelings among the educated elite across Europe. The struggle for independence among the Greeks began

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

in 1821. The nationalists in Greece got support from many Greeks who were living in exile. Moreover, they also got support from many West Europeans who sympathized with the ancient Greek culture. Poets and artists mobilized public opinion to support this struggle against the Muslim empire. It is important to note that Greece had been a part of the Ottoman Empire. Finally, the Treaty of Constantinople of 1832 recognized Greece as an independent nation. (d) Frankfurt parliament Answer: In German regions, there were a large number of political associations whose members were middle class professionals, businessmen and prosperous artisans. They came together in the city of Frankfurt and decided to vote for an all-German National Assembly. On18 May 1848, 831 elected representatives took out a festive procession to take part in the Frankfurt parliament which was convened in the Church of St. Paul. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation was to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Friedrich Wilhelm IV, King of Prussia was offered the crown on these terms. But he rejected the offer and joined other monarchs to oppose the elected assembly. (e) The role of women in nationalist struggles Answer: Women also participated in large numbers in the liberal movement. In spite of that, they were denied the voting rights during the election of the Assembly. When the Frankfurt parliament convened in the Church of St Paul, women were allowed only as observers to stand in the visitors gallery. Question: 2 - What steps did the French revolutionaries take to create a sense of collective identity among the French people? Answer: The French revolutionaries took many steps to create a sense of collective identity among the French people. They took the recourse to romanticism. Romanticism was a cultural movement which sought to develop a particular form of nationalist sentiment. Romantic artists usually criticized the glorification of reason and science. They focused on emotions, intuition and mystical feelings. They tried to create a sense of collective heritage, a common cultural past, as the basis of a nation. They focused on promoting the local culture to connect to the masses. Language also played an important role in developing nationalist sentiments. French was promoted as the main language in France to create a sense of single nation. In Poland, the Polish language was used to show rebellion to the Russian dominance. Question: 3 - Who were Marianne and Germania? What was the importance of the way in which they were portrayed? Answer: Marianne was the name given to the French nation; which was projected as the female figure. Similarly, Germania was the name given to the German motherland. Marianne is a popular Christian name for a woman. Her characteristics were drawn from

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

those of Liberty and Republic; the red cap, the tricolor, the cockade. Her statues were erected in public squares and her images were marked on coins and stamps; to persuade the people to identify with it. Germania wears a crown of oak leaves. The German oak stands for heroism. Question: 4 - Briefly trace the process of German unification. Answer: During the Vienna Congress in 1814, Germany was identified as a loose confederation of 39 states. This confederation was earlier set by Napoleon. In May 1848, various political associations convened the Frankfurt parliament. They drafted a constitution for a German nation. This German nation was to be headed by a monarchy subject to a parliament. Otto von Bismarck; the chief minister of Prussia, was the main architect of German unification. He took the help of the Prussian army and bureaucracy in his endeavour. Three wars were fought over seven years; with Austria, Denmark and France. The wars ended in Prussian victory and completed the process of unification. The Prussian king, William I was proclaimed the German Emperor in a ceremony held at Versailles in January 1871. Question: 5 - What changes did Napoleon introduce to make the administrative system more efficient in the territories ruled by him? Answer: Napoleon brought following changes to make an efficient administrative system:

The Civil Code of 1804; which is commonly known as the Napoleonic Code abolished all privileges based on birth. It also established equality before the law and secured the right to property. Even in those territories which came under his control; Napoleon began to introduce many reforms as he did in France. He simplified the administrative divisions in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy and Germany. He abolished the feudal system and peasants could be freed from serfdom and manorial dues. Guild restrictions were removed in towns. Transport and communication systems were improved.

Question: 6 - Explain what is meant by the 1848 revolution of the liberals. What were the political, social and economic ideas supported by the liberals? Answer: Ideas of national unity in early-nineteenth-century Europe were closely allied to the ideology of liberalism. For the new middle classes; freedom for the individual and equality of all before the law were the bases of idea of liberalism. Political & Social Perspective: From the political perspective, the idea of liberalism emphasized the concept of government by consent. Liberalism also meant an end of autocracy and clerical privileges. Further, it meant the need of a constitution and a

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

representative government. Inviolability of private property was also emphasized by the nineteenth century liberals. Economic Perspective: Economic liberalization was another hallmark of the Napoleonic Code. The emerging middle class was also in favour of economic liberalization. Multiple currencies, units of weight and measurement and tariff barriers worked as obstacles for economic activities. The new commercial class was demanding a unified economic territory so that there could be unhindered movement of goods, people and capital. Question: 7 - Choose three examples to show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe. Answer: In case of France, promoting a single language helped in creating a sense of common identity among people of France. In case of Poland, use of Polish language was a means to show resistance towards Russian domination. In Germany, the revolutionaries promoted the folk culture to create a sense of common identity among the people. These examples show the contribution of culture to the growth of nationalism in Europe. Question: 8 - Through a focus on any two countries, explain how nations developed over the nineteenth century. Answer: Italy became a nation because of efforts of Cavour. He made strategic alliances with France to defeat the Austrian forces. After several wars, the unification of Italy could become a possibility and it emerged as a nation state. Greece proclaimed independence from Ottoman Empire by citing its ancient culture which was entirely different from the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Many Greek who were in exile also supported this movement. These examples show that various factors were at work towards development of nation states over the nineteenth century. In most of the cases, a history of shared culture, repression of the poor at the hands of the powerful and the origin of liberalism were the catalyst which worked towards developing the sense of nationalism among people. Question: 9 - How was the history of nationalism in Britain unlike the rest of Europe? Answer: The evolution of nationalism in Britain was a different case compared to the rest of Europe. The British isles were divided into four main ethnic nationalities, viz. the English, the Scottish, the Welsh and the Irish. England was emerging as an economic powerhouse because of industrialization. Due to its financial muscle, England was able to dominate the other nationalities of the British Isles. This resulted in the formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in which England was the dominant partner and people of other ethnicities were subdued by the English culture. Question: 10 - Why did nationalist tensions emerge in the Balkans?

LESSON NO. 1 RISE OF NATIONALISM IN EUROPE

Answer: A large part of the Balkans was under the control of the Ottoman Empire. This was the period of disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the spread of the ideas of romantic nationalism in the Balkans. These developments made this region very explosive. All through the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire tried to strengthen itself through modernization and internal reforms. But it could not achieve much success. Its European subject nationalities broke away from its control one by one and declared independence. The Balkans used history and national identity to claim their right of independence. While the Slavic nationalities struggled to define their identity and independence, the Balkan area became an area of intense conflict. In the process, the Balkans also became the scene of big power rivalry.