Introduction to Tribology

What is What is What is What is

tribology? friction? wear? lubrication?

The goal of this project is to illustrate some of the concepts covered in this course and present them to a general audience. The field of Tribology is not well understood, nor is it even a recognizable scientific field to the general public. This project is designed to familiarize upper high-school and college students with the field of Tribology. This includes the general aspects of tribological study and the instruments and techniques used. By being able to better recognize an application of tribological research, the future of the field and study (of which there is great importance, to be shown in examples later) will be better ensured. In addition to informing students about the field of Tribology, this project will, by extension, introduce students to Engineering and some of its facets. As the number of graduating and practicing engineers in the US continues to decrease, this aspect of the project is very important.

What is tribology?

Tribology is the science and technology of friction, lubrication, and wear, derived from the Greek tribos meaning "rubbing". Formally, it is defined as the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion and all practices related thereto. Websters dictionary defines tribology as a study that deals with the design, friction, wear, and lubrication of interacting surfaces in relative motion (as in bearings or gears). The study of tribology is perhaps most commonly associated with bearing design. The term became more widely used following a British study in 1966 (The Jost Report) in which huge sums of money were reported to have been lost in the UK annually due to the consequences of friction and wear. Since then the term has diffused into the international engineering field and a number of specialists now claim to be tribologists.

What is friction?
Friction is the force that resists relative motion between two bodies in contact. Static friction occurs when the two objects are not moving relative to each other (like a desk on the ground). The coefficient of static friction is typically denoted as s. The initial force required to get an object moving is often dominated by static friction. Rolling friction occurs when two objects move relative to each

other and one "rolls" on the other (like a car's wheels on the ground). This is classified under static friction because the patch of the tire in contact with the ground, at any point while the tire spins, is stationary relative to the ground. Kinetic friction occurs when two objects are moving relative to each other and rub together (like a sled on the ground). The coefficient of kinetic friction is typically denoted as k, and is usually less than the coefficient of static friction. Sliding friction occurs when two objects are rubbing against each other. Putting a book flat on a desk and moving it around is an example of sliding friction. Fluid friction is the friction between a solid object as it moves through a liquid or gas medium. The drag of air on an airplane, or that of water on a swimmer, are two examples of fluid friction. Friction is important to keep us walking, driving, etc. Friction may also bad since it can cause damage to devices, and is a reason for wear. It is saif that half of all energy produced is spent to overcome some type of friction.

What is wear?
Wear is defined as the action of causing deterioration through use. In materials science, wear is considered to be the errosion of material from a solid surface by the action of

another solid. Adhesive wear also known as scoring, galling, or seizing occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one another under pressure. Surface projections, or asperities, are plastically deformed and eventually welded toghether by the high local pressure. As sliding continues, these bonds are broken, producing cavities on the surface, projections on the second surface, and, frequently, tiny, abrasive particles, all of which contribute to future wear of the surfaces.

Fatigue wear occurs when the material fails due to contact with a non-negligible load.

Abrasive wear occurs when material is removed through contact with hard particles. The particles may either be present at the surface of a second material, or exist as loose particles between two surfaces.

Corrosive wear is the deterioration of useful properties in a material due to reactions with its environment.

What is lubrication?
Lubrication refers to the action of rendering something smooth or slippery. Lubrication occurs when opposing surfaces are completely separated by a lubricant film. The applied load is carried by pressure generated within the fluid, and frictional resistance to motion arises entirley from the shearing of the viscous fluid. Hydrodynamic lubrication is a system of lubrication in which the shape and relative motion of the sliding surfaces causes the formation of a fluid film having sufficient pressure to separate the surfaces. Under hydrodynamic lubrication, which is also referred to as full film lubrication, moving engine

surfaces are actually separated by an oil film, eliminating all metal contact.

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is the lubrication that occurs between rolling bodies.

Boundary lubrication is the case where a complete fluid film does not develop between potentially rubbing surfaces; the film thickness may be reduced to permit momentary dry contact between wear surface high points or asperities, a condition characteristic of boundary lubrication. Boundary lubrication occurs whenever any of the essential factors that influence the formation of a full fluid film are missing. The most common examples of boundary lubrication include bearings, which normally operate with fluid film lubrication but experience boundary lubricating conditions during routine starting and stopping of equipment, gear teeth contacts and reciprocating equipment.

The Experimental Methodology of Tribology

This page deals with the methods used to test and analyze tribological experiments. There are several methods for tribological testing dating back to the 1500s when Leonardo da Vinci studied friction. Testing has evolved immensely and includes the use of elaborate machines that are used today, although earlier methods are still used to understand basic concepts and obtain general friction characteristics. In order to understand the mechanisms of friction and wear, several instruments are used to analyze surface properties and topographies. The major test methods and instruments are outlined in the following pages.

Test Methods Main Groups Machines

Analytical Instruments and Methods

da Vinci The following sketches were found in Leonardo da Vincis notebooks. The concept was that by hanging a weight over a pulley, a known constant force could be applied horizontally to a block until sliding occurred. The static friction coefficient was then calculated by:

Methods Used for Friction Testing

s = mweight / mblock.

(Marder, 2004)

Inclined Plane In this method, a block of mass, m, is placed on an inclined plane of angle, . By observing the angle at which the block begins to slide, the static coefficient of friction can be calculated with the use of this free body diagram and force balance.

Again, the friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of the force parallel to the direction of motion to the force normal to the direction of motion, N. At the inception of sliding,

Spring Scale This method involves pulling a mass, m, with a spring scale parallel to the surface. The static friction coefficient is calculated using the force required to start sliding while the kinetic friction coefficient uses the force required to maintain sliding. The forces are read from the spring scale and the coefficients are calculated.

g: acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2 Clamping In this method, only the static friction coefficient is calculated. An object is clamped between two surfaces using a known clamping force. The static friction coefficient is calculated using half of the force require to initiate movement because there are two mating surfaces. Machine Controlled The methods mentioned previously are mostly concerned with the static friction coefficient or the friction coefficient before wear occurs. With the use of

machines, controlled testing can be conducted to investigate running-in, evolution of the friction coefficient, scuffing/seizure characteristics, and wear rates. These machines are discussed here.

Machines Used for Friction and Wear Testing

Tribological characteristics are of interest at both the macro- and micro/nanoscale. For examples of each of these, see Real-life Examples of Tribology. For this reason, methods are needed to test on both scales. The two main methods of testing macro-scale properties are pin-on-disk testing and four ball testing. To investigate micro/nanoscale properties, nano-scratch has become widely used.

Analytical Instruments and Methods

Profilometry Many times it is necessary to measure the surface roughness

or topography in order to predict how a surface will perform in given conditions or to quantify wear resulting from experiments. This can be accomplished with profilometry. A profilometer has a stylus that traces the surface under study while the deflection is measured through a laser setup, as depicted below.

Tencor P-15 Profilometer A few of the tips used for the stylus are shown below for (a) contacting, and (b) tapping modes.

(a)

(b) It can be seen how the tip size will read the surface differently with different tips.

A Digital Instruments Nanoscope MultiMode AFM (atomic force microscope) is shown below. This device can perform the scans mentioned above; it can also perform nano-scratch and nano-indentation experiments.

Digital Instruments Nanoscope MultiMode AFM

Nano-indentation Nano-scratch

Nano-indentation
The hardness of a material is very useful in predicting how a material will perform while interacting with another and also in understanding why a material performed the way it did. Many times, especially in micro/nano-scale systems, it is beneficial to know the hardness near the surface as it is most likely different from the bulk of the material. This can be accomplished with nano-indentation which involves indenting a material with a diamond tip at a very low load and sensing the depth of the indentation. Images of indentations on a thin wire produced with a scanning electron microscope are shown below.

This is an image four consecutive indentations spaced 20 m apart. Note that a human hair is roughly 50-80 m in diameter. (Yu et al., 2004)

A closer look at an indentation (Yu et al., 2004) The hardness is determined by dividing the maximum load by the projected area of the indentation. Nano-indentation is also used to determine the elastic modulus of materials.

Nano-scratch

Another method of friction and wear testing is nanoscratch. The concept is simple: a diamond tip is brought into contact with a flat specimen, a constant or ramped load is applied while the sample moves, and the friction is measured. The residual wear can then be measured with an AFM. Typical loads are in the mN range, scratch lengths in 100s of m range, and depths can be as shallow as a few nm. Nano-scratch can also be used to measure hardness at very shallow depths which is particularly useful in areas where very thin (~50 nm) films or coatings are used such ashard disk drives. A representative image of a ramped load experiment is shown below.

(Zhang and Huan, 2004)

The Mathematical Methodology of Tribology

This page deals with the mathematical principles that underlie the major concepts of tribology. When two surfaces come into contact, the main considerations of tribologists lie with the nature of the surfaces involved and the forces that exist at their interface. Animations are used in the following pages to illustrate some of the concepts.

The Nanoscale Surface Roughness The Modeling of Adhesion Finite Element Analysis

Surface Roughness
It should be clearly understood that all surfaces have roughness, whether one can physically see it or not. Most of the surfaces that we consider to be smooth, such as the faces of a compact disc, have significant roughness when viewed at the right scale (micro- to nanoscale). Roughness is most commonly measured and described mathematically using the Root Mean Square, or RMS, value, which basically shows how the peaks and valleys are distributed above and below the profiles centerline.

However, since it is difficult to model two rough surfaces that come into contact, a composite RMS roughness is calculated, which is, essentially, an averaged value of the roughness of the two surfaces. The two contacting rough surfaces can, in this way, be simulated as one rough surface with a composite roughness that comes into contact with a flat surface (whose roughness is zero). Greenwood and

Williamson suggested that such as interface can be further simplified by simulating the peaks of the composite rough surface as spheres of an averaged radius R in contact with a flat surface, as in Hertzian theory.

The Modeling of Adhesion

Adhesion is a phenomenon that occurs when two surfaces come sufficiently close in contact. It can be observed in the nanoscale and is important in applications such as the headdisk interface in hard disks (HDI), or in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), where the involved structures are extremely tiny and their surfaces are relatively smooth. In cases where the roughness is large enough, adhesion is neglected. It is also neglected in cases where a liquid substance exists between the two surfaces, when capillary forces, which are much larger and more significant, are very likely to occur.

However, in the applications where it is needed, adhesion can be calculated using equations that were derived from physical principles (LJ potential). One, commonly used, set of equations for adhesion is known as the Improved DMT (IDMT) Adhesion Model. It has two components; one calculates the adhesive forcebefore contact occurs, while the other is used for cases whencontact has occurred. Other models are used, depending on the system parameters, such as the JKR and the Maugis-Dugdale models, which are both valid only for cases where contact has occurred. The DMT model considers that adhesion forces act only outside the contact area, while the JKR model, which is only valid where contact has occurred, considers that the adhesion forces only act within the contact area. An adhesion parameter is used to establish the appropriate adhesion model for each system.

The Modeling of Adhesion

Wherever there is interaction between two surfaces, the principles of tribology are in action. Without friction, you wouldnt be able to walk, ride a bike, drive a car, or even write with a pen or pencil. These are examples of places where friction is necessary or beneficial. However, in many cases friction is undesirable as it can cause wear or a loss of power which is where lubrication steps in. Some examples where friction occurs in everyday life are: Hard disk drives Automobile brakes Automobile engines Constant velocity joints.

Hard Disk Drives

How does a hard disk drive (HDD) work? A very basic explanation is that a recording head applies a magnetic field to a disk changing the bits of information on the disk as it rotates. The head can then read the information as it flies over these bits. Some of the components of a HDD are labeled below.

The spindle motor typically rotates the disk at 7200 RPM, and the suspension move across the disk to write on or read certain areas of the disk. The animation below shows how the suspension moves.

Click on the image to see animation. Tribology comes into play as a result of the interaction between the recording head and the disk. In order for HDD capacity to keep increasing, the distance between the head and disk (flying height) needs to be lower than 5 nm. At this distance adhesionplays a large role, and the head has a greater chance of contacting the disk, a very undesirable but inevitable occurrence in the presence of shock loading. In order for the head to maintain a certain distance above the disk, it is shaped in such a way that there is a pressure build beneath it, much like an airplane wing. Shown below is an illustration of a headdisk interface (HDI) and animation of the head response to roughness.

Illustration of the various components and dynamics at the HDI

Click on the image to see an animation of the head-disk interaction. The gold portion is the recording sensor. Note that the roughness and pitch movement of the slider are exaggerated. The flying height of a HDD is becoming smaller in order to achieve higher data densities. Currently, the maximum density is about 100 Gbit/in2, or about 3000 songs in one square inch, and the goal is to reach 1 Tbit/in2, or about 30,000 songs in one

square inch. There are many sizes of HDDs in production. The smallest HDD, a microdrive, has a 1 disk and is commonly used in digital cameras, MP3 players, and is gaining acceptance in cellular phones. To see a video showing the components and assembly of a microdrive click here.

Automobile Brakes
Another area where friction plays an important role is in the brakes of a car. Disc brakes are most commonly used and operate by applying pressure to each side of the rotating disk. Click on the image below to see an animation of a disc brake slowing down. The red color denotes the area of high friction and eventual wear.

Click on the image to see the animation.

Automobile Engines

This is an area where friction is highly undesirable. Any frictional force that occurs in an engine means that there is less power available to move the car. In this case, anywhere there are moving parts in contact, friction is alive and undesirable and is the reason oil is a necessity. Again, the red denotes areas of high friction.

Click on the image to see the animation.

Constant Velocity Joints

Constant velocity (CV) joints are used in automobiles where an independent suspension is used. They allow the suspension to travel up and down while maintaining the same rotational velocity at the wheel as at the input to the axle or driveshaft. The main area of friction is at the roller-housing interface which consists of an oscillating interaction. Other areas of friction include the needle-spider and needle-roller interfaces. To reduce friction and wear in these areas, specialized CV joint

grease is applied. Click on the image below for an animation. Again, the red denotes areas of high friction.

Click on the image to see the animation.