Chapter 11 : Natural vegetation and soil systems

The Ecosphere The biosphere consists of the terrestrial biosphere and the aquatic biosphere Together and consisting of all life on earth they are part of the ecosphere Energy and nutrients move through the ecosphere providing food for all living things These cycles are all powered by the energy of the sun The interaction of all living organisms contribute to the flow of the nutrients through the various cycles Figure 11.1 in the text shows the movement of chemicals through the great cycles of the earth The three cascading systems which influence the ecosphere are: The hydrological cycle is triggered by the sun. This cycle drives much of the weathering and transportation which drives the rock cycle The rock cycle. Powered by the earths interior and which is the basis for the creation of soil and soil systems The biochemical cycles. These cycles provide the nutrients which all life requires Of the biochemical cycles the four most important are 1. the carbon cycle (C) 2. the oxygen cycle (O) 3. the nitrogen cycle (N) 4. the phosphorus cycle (P) Oxygen The Free Oxygen in our atmosphere makes life on earth possible This is due to the process of photosynthesis where planets absorb carbon through respiration and exhale oxygen. Oxygen is not the only thing that the plants release into the atmosphere plants also release water vapor into the atmosphere This is transpiration Studies have revealed that about 10% of the moisture found in the atmosphere is released by plants through transpiration The remaining 90% is mainly supplied by evaporation from oceans, seas and other bodies of water (lakes, rivers, streams) Plants life in the oceans contribute a major part of the earth's oxygen As water evaporates from the oceans, that water contains oxygen molecules which are released into the atmosphere These processes all contribute to the breathable atmosphere that we enjoy on earth The Nutrient Cycle

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Carbon is the building block of life on earth Its ability to create long chains make it essential in the development of all life forms This makes the flow of carbon molecules through the system essential It also explains how so many complex organisms are able to evolve on earth The Carbon cycle is a complex series of processes through which all of the carbon atoms in existence rotate The same carbon atoms in your body today have been used in countless other molecules since time began The wood burned just a few decades ago could have produced carbon dioxide which through photosynthesis became part of a plant. When you eat the plant, the same carbon from the wood which was burnt can become part of you The carbon cycle is the great natural recycler of carbon atoms. Unfortunately, the extent of its importance is rarely stressed enough. Without the proper functioning of the carbon cycle, every aspect of life could be changed dramatically. We believe that it's vital to understand how the carbon cycle works in order to see the danger of it not working Therefore, let's look at a sample of carbon cycle and explore how carbon atoms move through our natural world Plants, animals, and soil interact to make up the basic cycle of nature In the carbon cycle, plants absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and use it, combined with water they get from the soil, to make the substances they need for growth. The process of photosynthesis incorporates the carbon atoms from carbon dioxide into sugars. Animals like rabbits eat the plants and use the carbon to build their own tissues Other animals, such as the fox, eat the rabbit and then use the carbon for their own needs These animals return carbon dioxide into the air when they breathe, and when they die, since the carbon is returned to the solid during decomposition The carbon atoms in soil may then be used in a new plant or small microorganisms Ultimately, the same carbon atom can move through many organisms

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and even end in the same place where it began. Herein lies the fascination of the carbon cycle life the same atoms can be recycled for millennia! All living things need oxygen They use this oxygen during the process of creating energy in living cells Just as water moves from the sky to the earth and back in the hydrologic cycle, oxygen is also cycled through the environment. Plants are able to use the energy of sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen in a process called photosynthesis. The largest reservoir of oxygen is the lithosphere Most of this oxygen is not on its own moving but part of chemical compounds such as silicates and oxides The atmosphere is actually the smallest source of oxygen on Earth comprising only 0.35% of the Earth's total oxygen In the biosphere the main cycles are respiration and photosynthesis Respiration is when animals and humans breathe consuming oxygen to be used in metabolic process and exhaling carbon dioxide Photosynthesis is the reverse of the process and is manly done by plants and plankton The Nitrogen cycle http://www.classzone.com/books/ml_science_share/vis_sim/em05_pg20_nitrogen/em05_pg20_n itrogen.swf Nitrogen in the air becomes a part of biological matter mostly through the actions of bacteria and algae in a process known as nitrogen fixation Legume plants such as clover, alfalfa, and soybeans form nodules on the root where nitrogen fixing bacteria take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonia, NH3 The ammonia is further converted by other bacteria first into nitrite ions, NO2-, and then into nitrate ions, NO3-. Plants utilize the nitrate ions as a nutrient or fertilizer for growth Nitrogen is incorporate in many amino acids which are further reacted to make proteins Lightening converts much of the nitrogen in the atmosphere by releasing it into a usable form. It is then converted and absorbed by plants. Animals that eat the plants use the nitrogen. When the animals die, the bacteria that decompose the body release the nitrogen back into the soil The cycle is complete Phosphorus (P) is another one of the essential elements that cycle through the ecosystem It is an element that is found in the ground and then taken up by plants and animals Phosphorus starts its existence or phosphate ions (PO4) in the rocks of the world When it rains, the phosphates and other minerals are removed from the rocks and distributed in soils and the water all over the planet

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 Plants on land take in the inorganic (compounds without carbon) phosphorus compounds from

the soil The phosphorus atoms are then incorporated into many organic compounds that are used in the cells Animals can get their phosphorus by eating plants or drinking water Algae and water plants are able to absorb the ions from the water Unlike carbon and nitrogen, the phosphorus cycle is not a true cycle. There is a great deal of phosphorus lost.

The Ecosphere

Trophic levels Trophic: "of or related to nutrition" Trophic levels are the feeding position in a food chain such as primary produces, herbivore, primary carnivore, etc. Green plants form the first trophic level, the producers Herbivores form the second trophic level, while carnivores form the third and even the fourth trophic levels. Food chain The feeding of one organism upon another in a sequence of food transfers is known as a food chain Another definition is the chain of transfer of energy (which typically comes from the sun) from one organism to another A simple food chain is like the following Rose plants - aphids- beetle- chameleon- hawk In this food chain, the rose plant is the primary producer The aphids are the primary consumers because they suck the juice from the rose plant The beetle is the primary carnivore because it eats the aphids The chameleon, a secondary carnivore, eats the beetle The hawk is the tertiary carnivore because it eats the secondary carnivore, the chameleon. The hawk eventually dies and its remains are broken down by decay-causing bacteria and fungi. So, tropical level refers to the position an animal has on a food chain Plants make their own usable form of glucose This is their essential food This makes plants autotrophic Any animal that must consume plants or other animals for food is a heterotrophic life form. Any ecosystem is any community of plants and animals that interact with one another. The law of diminishing return means that the further down the food chain one goes, the greater the number of species in that category Herbivores require vast amount of plant matter to supply them with sufficient food

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This is a tight balance Overuse of pesticides can upset this balance Pollution and other factors that can damage large numbers of any one species can have serious consequences down the line Human need to become stewards of the ecosystem since we are capable of the greatest damage.

Biomes Biomes are groups of ecosystems that have a dominant vegetation type This will influence the type of animal in the biome Biomes are unique communities of interrelated organisms that are found all over the world Geographers have classified different types of biomes Various factors will influence the development of a particular biome The amount of energy, the amount of precipitation and the geographic location can all influence the biome's development There are 5 main types of biomes There are 10 complex biomes
1. First, tundra Tundra, the "ice desert", "frozen prairie", the cold

plains of the Far north get their name from the Finnish word "tunturia", which means treeless land The tundra biome is the coldest of all terrestrial ecosystems, and also the most chaotic Still, the tundra is host to a surprising number of plants and animals, and presents a fascinating testament to nature's adaptability, and cruel beauty. There exists two main types of tundra biome The first is the arctic tundra This is the land found mostly above the treeline in North America and Europe/Asia. The second type of tundra biome is located at high altitudes Tundra then has the common elements of low to no precipitation, cold climate, and a distinct lack of heavy vegetation In fact, the most common vegetation is lichens, mosses, grasses and small bushes The harsh climate and lack of moisture prevent a more flourishing fauna. The arctic tundra occupies the earth's northern hemisphere, circling the North Pole all the way down to the evergreen forests of the boreal biomes The arctic tundra sees little rainfall, like the cold deserts of Russia.

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 The soil of the arctic tundra is poor in nutrients, which accounts for the low amount of

vegetation There is an under-layer of soil called permafrost which remains completely frozen at all times, allowing little room for deep rooting plants and trees. The plants that do survive the frozen landscapes are extremely resilient, and their roots are close to the surface of the hard soil, as to intake what little water falls upon the ground; most of the arctic tundra's plant life consists of shrubbery, lichen, moss, and flower Icy rivers flow through the tundra to the Arctic Ocean, and are home to trout, salmon and other freshwater fish. Sometimes rain fall produces small, temporary ponds, which serve as mating areas for flies and mosquitoes So it can be seen that there is a strong correlation between the climate and the vegetation Only plants and animals that are able to adapt to the environment will thrive This selection refines and defines the nature of the biome

2. The next biome is the Taiga or Boreal Forest

The word Taiga comes from the Russian language This is the biome that occurs for much of Canada and Russia The climate again tends to be very cold There are however, distinct seasons that bring a warmer period and a period of increased precipitation Taiga belongs to the broader category of forest biome Taiga has thick forests covering large expanses of land Forests represent a third of the earth's land, and are found in the four corners of the globe. The major attribute of the forest biome is its trees The Boreal or Taiga is the largest of the land biomes Because of the cold climates, plant life in the boreal forest is sturdy, consisting mainly of evergreens and other resilient vegetation Because the forests' canopy is dense, forest floor vegetation is thin Animal life in the boreal forest consists mainly of birds and mammals, such as deer, wolves, and various rodents, and very few reptiles Most of the boreal forests' creatures are well adapted to the cold climate, and hibernate during the long winters

3. Next are the Temperate Deciduous Forests Temperate means that it is located in an

area that has distinct seasons where the winters are not quite as harsh as in Taiga home to broad leaf trees, there forests give us sturdy hardwood trees and a variety of wildlife Temperate deciduous forest are a close relative of the Taiga biome but the

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increased precipitation allows the growth of a more varied fauna

The food chain in a temperate deciduous forest includes large predators and omnivores The abundance of food prevents too much competition and so the larger predators are mostly

solitary, nomadic beast

In addition to evergreens, trees in the temperate forest include maple, elm, oak, cedar and other

trees which shed their leaves in the fall

The temperate forest's soil is richer than most of the boreal forests' and features a larger

assortment of forest floor plan life; this is also due to the fact that the forests' canopy is thinner, allowing more light and hear to penetrate, permitting photosynthesis in the forest floor plants, and the survival of smaller, and cold blooded animals such as garter snakes, turtles and a few amphibians Again, several of the temperate forests' species hibernate, and/or burrow in the ground to pass the winter months Other forests which fall between the boreal and temperate classification include moist evergreen forests, moist evergreen and broad-leaf forests, dry evergreen forests, Mediterranean forests, temperate evergreen forests, and temperate broad-leaf forests.
4. Grasslands

There are three main types of the grassland biome Temperate grassland is found in the interior of the continents it can include the Steppe and Prairie biome Grassland are generally semi-arid areas with little or no trees, and are inhabited by grazing mammals, ground-nesting birds, insects, and a few species of reptiles. Grasslands are found around the world Prairies are generally humid and are densely covered in tall grass There are very few trees on prairies, most of them usually found on hill slopes or more humid near springs and rivulets The prairie soil is rich in nutrients and is ideal for the growth of plant life, which is why prairie regions have been exploited by farmers for centuries Grazing animals such as oxen and bison who fed on the prairie grass were also exploited by humans, with the bison being driven to near extinction by hunters The steppe grassland is usually found in areas of the world which are less prone to moisture steppe vegetation is well suited to this drier climate and the grass is generally shorter than the which is found on prairie grasslands Animal life on the steppe is comprised of grazing mammals such as the antelope, and a wide variety of burrowing mammals such as ground squirrels and ferrets Steppes are virtually semi-arid deserts in the making, and are highly threatened by overgrazing One of the most famous Steppe biomes is that of Asia/Mongolia. They became excellent horsemen as they needed fast transportation across the vast areas while hunting

5. Schlerophyll or Chaparral biomes are in areas of fairly consistent moisture and precipitation The chaparral biome is found in a little bit of most of the continents the west coast of the

United States, the west coast of South America, the Cape Town area of South Africa, the western tip of Australia and the coastal areas of the Mediterranean. Chaparral is sometimes called the smallest biome Lay of the land: The chaparral biome has many different types of terrain. Geography 12 Chapter 11 Natural Vegetation and Soil Systems Page 7 of 10 (KWP)

Some examples are flat plains, rocky hills and mountain slopes It is sometimes used in movies for the "Wild West" Chaparral is characterized as being very hot and dry As for the temperature, the winter is very mild and usually about 10*C Then there is the summer It is so hot and dry at 40 C that fires and droughts are very common. Chaparral is sometimes called the smallest biome Fortunately, the plants and animals are adapted to these conditions most of the plants have small hard leaves which hold moisture Some of these plants are poison oak, scrub oak, Yucca Wimple and other shrubs, trees and cacti. The animals are all mainly grassland and desert types adapted to hot, dry weather A few examples: coyotes, jack rabbits, mule deer, alligator lizards, horned toads, praying mantis, honey bee and ladybugs.

6. Desert can be arid or semi-arid

Arid deserts generally occur at low latitudes, and can be found in North-America, SouthAmerica, Africa and Southern-Asia. Seasons in the arid desert are generally dry and hot, with few occurrences of rain during the winter. The heat peaks to extremes during the daytime because there are no clouds to shield the earth from the sun's ray When it does rain, it is not uncommon for the rain to evaporate before hitting the ground. The soil is usually either sand or coarse, and rocky. Vegetation consists mainly of shrubs and small trees of which the leaves have evolved to retain water. Most desert life dorms have followed this train of evolution, with animals species being mostly active at night. The types of plants that have adopted to this harsh environment are the class called xerophytes These are plants that have adapted to going long periods of time without water They can store moisture Many have hard woody bark to prevent evaporation.
7. The rainforest biome is the most diverse.

The rainforest is the most ecologically rich of the world's biomes Rainforest occupy only 7.5% of the earth's land areas and are generally found at the equatorial level of the planet Daylight and the rainforest lasts for 12 hours, there is no winter, and the seasons can best be described as rainy or dry, with little change in temperature The rainforest is host to largest variety of life forms in all of nature, with thousands of different species of trees, plants, flowers, mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, insects, invertebrates and micro-organisms Many of the animas in the rainforest are highly adapted to their highly competitive and diverse environment, having developed camouflage or strong defenses, which are always heralded by colorful markings While the rainforest isn't ideally suited for human habitation, it has been the home of tribes such as the yanomano in South-America, and Pamagirri in Australia

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 Perhaps, they too have survived by adapting to their environment, but it is the so-called civilized world which poses the biggest threat to the rainforest, aggressive logging, and clear-cutting to make way for plantations have endangered the rain forest's animal and plant life, and brought an irreparable damage to the earth's atmosphere. Close to 80000 acres of rainforest are destroyed each year, and over 50000 species of life forms become extinct.
8. Highland or Alpine biome is found around the world

In a sense, a highland biome is similar to the change in latitude The further north one goes the less vegetation As one moves up a mountain, one finds the vegetation becomes more scarce Alpine biomes are found in the mountain regions all around the world They are usually at an altitude of about 10,000 feet or more The Alpine biome lies just below the snow line of a mountain As you go up a mountain, you will travel through many biomes In the North American Rocky mountains you begin in a desert biome As you climb you go through a deciduous forest biome, grassland biome, steppe biome, and taiga biome before you reach the cold Alpine biome. Because the severe climate of the Alpine biome, plants and animals have developed adaptations to those conditions There are only about 200 species of Alpine plants. At high altitudes there is very little CO2, which plants need to carry on photosynthesis Because of the cold and wind, most plants are small perennial groundcover plants which draw and reproduce slowly They protect themselves from the cold and wind by hugging the ground Taller plants or trees would soon get blown over and freeze. When plants die they don't decompose very quickly because of the cold. In the summer average temperatures range from 10 to 15 C In the winter the temperatures are below freezing The winter season can last from October to May The summer season may last from June to September The temperatures in the Alpine changes very rapidly This makes for poor solid conditions Most Alpine plants can grow in sandy and rock soil Plants have also adapted to the dry conditions of the Alpine biome Plant books and catalogs warn you about over watering Alpine plants Animals will also tend to have shorter legs, tails and ears, in order to reduce heat loss Alpine animals also have larger lungs, more blood cells and hemoglobin because of the increase of pressure and lack of oxygen at higher altitudes. Alpine animals have to deal with two types of problems: the cold and too much high UV wavelengths This is because there is less atmosphere to filter UV rays from the sun There are only warm blooded animals in this Alpine biome, although there are insects Alpine animals adapt to the cold by hibernating, migrating to lower, warmer areas, or insulating their bodies with layers of fat.

Soil
Soil is a natural body comprised of solids (minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases that

occurs on the land surface, occupies space, and is characterized by one or both of the following:

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horizons, or layers, that are distinguishable from the initial material as a result of additions, losses, transfers and transformations of energy and matter or the ability to support rooted plants in a natural environment. The mineral matter is the weathered rock developed from the parent material This is the residue that is carried by weathering and transportation by the water cycle It gets deposited along the journey in different ways which we will discuss later The size of parent material determines the texture of the soil

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