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Mam in unit 2 (pn junction & special purpose diodes) Previously I had sent total 15 pages in that first 10 pages I didnt count as numbers After those 10 papers only I had count as a numbers, so (1 to 5) & 10 papers I had already sent to you Next papers i.e. 6 to 30 you found in this doc and remaining papers I will send to you mam NOTE : consider page nos in the hard copy not in soft copy

Page no 6-10 Reverse bias:With reverse bias to p-n jnction ie. P-type connected to negative terminal and n-type is connected to a positive terminal, potential barrier at the junction is increased therefore, the junction resistance become very high and practically n current flows through the circuit. However, in practical,a very small current (of the order of A) flows in the circuit write reverse bias as shown in the reverse characteristic. This is called reverse saturation current(Is) and is due to the minority carriers. There are few free electrons in p-type material and a few holes in n-type material.These undesirable free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers. As shown in fig(26), to these minority carriers , the applied reverse bias apppeared as forward bias. Therefore a electron small current flows in the reverse direction.

If the reverse voltage is increased continuously, the kinetic energy of electrons (minority carriers) may become high enough to knock out electrons from the semiconductors atoms. At this stage breakdown of the resistance of the barriers region. This may destroy the junction permanently. The forward current through a pn junction is due to the majority carriers produced by the impurity. However, reverse current is due to the minority carriers produced due to breaking of some co-valent bonds at room temparture. DEFINITIONS:(i) Breakdown Voltage:-

Its is the minimum reverse voltage at which pn junction breaks down with sudden rise in reverse current. (ii) Knee Voltage:-

It is the forward voltage at which the current through the junction starts to increase rapidly

ESTIMATION IN THE OPERATING CONDITIONS OF PN JUNCTION Every pn junction has limiting values of maximium forward current, peak inverse voltage and maximum power rating. The pn junctions will give satisfactory if it is operated within these limiting values. However if these values are executed, the pn junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat. i) Maximum forward current:

It is the highest instantaneous forward current that a pnjunction can conduct without damage to the junction. ii) Peak Inverse Voltage:

It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied to the pnjunction without damage to the junction.

If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its PIV, the junction may be destroyed due to excessive heat. iii)Maximum Power Rating: It is the maximum power that be dissipated at the junction without damagins. The power dissipted at the junction is equal to the product of junction current and the voltage across the junction. DIODE: A diode is a one way device, offering a low resistance when forwardbiased, and behaving almost as an open switch when reverse biased. It is a two-terminal device. Some diodes are low-current devices for use in switching circuits. High current diodes are most often used as rectifies for ac to dc conversion. PN-JUNCTION DIODE: A pn-junction permits substantial current flow when forward biases, and block current when reverse biased. Thus, it can be used as a switch: ON when forward bias and OFF when reverse bias. A pn-junction provided with copper wire connecting leads becomes an electronic devices known as a diode as shown in fig(27).

The arrowhead indicates the conventional direction of current flow when the diode is forward biased. The p-side of the diode is always the positive terminal for forward bias and is termed the anode. The n-side, called the cathode, is the negative terminal when the device is forward biased. A pn-junction diode can be destroyed if a high level of forward current overheats the device. It can also be destroyed if a large reverse voltage causes the junction to breakdown. CHARACTERISTICS OF P-N JUNCTION: Forward And Reverse Characteristics: Typical forward and reverse characteristics for low-current silicon and germanium diode is shown in fig (29).

From the silicon diode characteristics in fig (29)(a), it is seen that the forward current(IF) remains very low (less than 100A) until the diode is forward bias voltage (VF)exceeds approximate l 0.7V. At VF levels greater than 0.7V, IF increases almost lineary. For a silicon diode, IR is normally less than 100nA, and it is almost completely independent of the reverse-bias voltage IR is largely a

minority charge carrier reverse saturation current. A small increases in IR can occur with increases reverse-bias voltage, as a result of minorit charge carriers leaking along the junction surface. For a diode with characteristics in fig29 (a), the reverse current is usually less than 1/10000 of the lowest normal forward current level. These, IF, and a reversebiased diode may be treated almost as an open switch. The characteristics of germanium diode are similar to those of a silicon diode but with some important differences (and hence source current I) will not change as the zenes is within its regulating range, The additional load current IZ. Conseque the output stays at constant value. Voltage drop across R=Ei-EO. Current throught R, I=IZ+IL Applying ohms law, we have R= TUNNEL DIODE: A tunnel diode (sometimes called an Esaki diode after its inventor, Leo Esaki) is a pn-junction that exhibits negative resistance between two values of forward voltage (ie, between peak-point voltage and valley-point voltage). A conventional diode exhibits positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse biased. However, if a semiconductor junction diode is heaviely doped with impurites, it exhibits negative resistance (ie current decreases as the voltage is increased )in certain regions in the forward direction. Such a diode is called Tunnel diode. The tunnel diode is basically a pn junction with heavy doping of p-type is n-type semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times a heavily as conventionl diode. This heavy doping results in a large number of majority carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, most are not used during the iniyal recombination that produces the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion layer is vey narrow. In

comparision with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is 100 times narrower. The operation of a tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect and hence the name. TUNNELING EFFECT: The heavy doping provides a large number of majority carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p and n sections. This causes many valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer to conduction band. Therefore it takes only a very small applied forward voltage to cause conduction. Page no 11-20

THE MOVEMENT OF VALENCE ELECTRONS FROM THE VALENCE ENERGY BAND TO THE CONDUCTION BAR WITH LITTLE OR NO APPLIED FORWARD VOLTAGE IS CALLED TUNNELING.VALENCE ELECTRONS SCEMTO TUNNEL THROUGH THE FORBIDDEN ENERGY BAND AS THE FORWARD VOLTAGE IS FIRST INCREASED,THE DIODE CURRENT RISES RAPIDLY DUE TO TUNNELI EFFECT.SOON THE TUNNELING EFFECT IS REDUCED AND CURRENT FLOW STARTS TO DEACREASE AS THE FORWARD VOLTAGE ACROSS THE DIODE IS INCREASED THE TUNNEL DIODE IS SAID TO HAVE ENTERED THE NEGATIVE RESISTANCE REGION.AS THE VOLTAGE IS FURTHER INCREASED, THE TUNNELING EFFECT PLAYS LESS PART UNTIL A VALLEY-POINT IS REACHED.FROM THIS POINT, THE TUNNEL DIODE BEHAVES AS ORDINARY DIODE, i.e; diode current increases with the increase in forward voltage. V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF TUNNEL DIODE:Fig(33) shows the V-I characteristics of a typical tunnel diode. (i)As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero, electrons from the n-region tunnel through the potential barrier to the pregion. As the forward voltage increases, the diode current also increases until the peak-point Preached the diode current has now reached peak

current Ip(=2.2mA)at about Peak-point voltageVp(=0.07v). Until now the diode has exhibited positive resistance.

Fig(33):VI characteristics of tunnel diode. ii)As the voltage is increased beyond Vp, the tunnelling action starts decreasing and the diode current decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley-point V is reached at valley-point voltage Vv(=0.7v). In the region between peak-point and valley point (ie; between points P and V), the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e; as the forward bias is increased,the current decreases.This suggests that tunnel diode , when operated in iii)When forward bias is increased beyond valley point voltage Vv(=0.7v) , the tunnel diode behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point V onwards, the diode current increases with the increases in forward volage i.e;the diode exhibits positive resistance once again. Fig(34) shows the symbols of tunnel diode it may be noted that a tunnel diode has a high reverse current but operation under this condition is not generally used.

TUNNEL DIDOE OSCILLATION: A tunnel diode is always operated in the negative resistance region. When operated in this region, it works very well as oscillator. Fig(i) shows a parallel resonant circuit. Note that Rp is the parallel equivalent of the series winding resistance of the coil. When the tank circuit is set into oscillations by applying voltage as shown in fig(ii), damped oscillation are produced. It is because energy is lost in the resistance Rp of the tank circuit,

If a tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit and biased at the centre of the negative resistance portion of its characteristics as shown in fig35(iii) , undamped oscillations are produced at the output .it is because the negative-resistance characteristic of the tunnel diode counter acts the positive-resistance characteristic of the tank circuit.The circuit in fig35(iii) is called tunnel diode oscillator (or) negative resistance oscillator. The

negative resistance oscillator has one major drawback. While the circuit works very well at high frequencies (upper mega hertz range), it cannot be used efficiently at low frequencies. Low-frequency oscillators generally use transistors.

VARACTOR DIDOE: A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitor under changing reverse bias is known as a varactor diode. When a pn junction is forward , depletion layer is created in the junction area. Since there is no charge carries within the depletion zone , the zone acts as an insulator.The p-type material with holes (considered as positive) as majority carriers and n-type material with electrons(-ve charge) as majority carriers acts as charged plates. Thus the diode may be considered as a capacitor with n-region &p-region forming oppositely charged plates and with depletion zone between them acting as a dielectric. A varactor diode is specially constructed to have high capacitance under reverse bias fig(i)&(ii) shows construction of varactor diode and symbol respectively.

The values of capacitance of varactor diodes are in the picofarad(10-12F) range. For normal operation , a varactor diode is always reverse biased. The capacitance of varactor diode is found as CT= Where Ct =Total capacitanceof the junction

When reverse voltage across a varactor diode is increased , the width Wd of the depletion layer increases. Therefore, the total junction capacitance Ct of the junction decreases. On the otherhand , if the reverse voltage across the diode is lowered, the width Wd of the depletion layer decreases. Consequently the total junction capacitance CT increases fig36(iii) shows the curve between reverse bias voltage VR across varactor diode and total junction capacitance CT. CT can be changed simply by changing the voltage VR. For this reason, a varactor diode is sometimes called voltage-controlled capacitor APPLICATION OF VARACTOR DIODE:The junction capacitance of varactor diode can be increased or decreased simply by changing the reverse bias on the diode. This makes the varactor diode ideal for use in circuits that require voltage-controlled tuning fig(37) shows the use of varactor diode in a tuned circuit. The capacitance of

the varactor is in parallel with the inductor. The varactor and the inductor form a parallel LC circuit. FOR NORMAL OPERATION, A VARACTOR DIODE IS ALWAYS OPERATED UNDER REVERSE BIAS. This condition is must by the circuit in fig(37).

The resistance RW in the circuit is the winding resistance of the inductor. This winding resistance is in series with the potentiometer R1. Thus R1 &RW form a voltage divider that is used to determine the amount of reverse bias across the varactor diode D1 and therefore its capacitance. By adjusting the setting of R1 , we can vary the diode capacitance. This, in turn, varies the resonant frequency of the LC circuit. The resonant frequency fr of the LC circuit is given by; Fffffffffffffffffff (formula)

If the amount of varactor reverse bias is decreased, the value of C of the varactor increases. The increase in C will cause to decrease. Thus, a decrease in reverse bias causes a decrease in resonant frequency and vice-versa SAHOTTKY DIODE:The schottky diode (also know as hot carrier diode ) has a metal to semiconductor junction instead of a pn-junction. This gives the devices a lower forward voltage drop and faster reverse recovery than a pn-junction diode fig(38)(i)&(ii) illustrates the basic structure and V-I characteristics of schottky diode

An n-type epitaxial layer is created on a low resistance n-type substrate and a metal film (the barier metal) is deposited on the epitaxial layer. Additional layers of metal are deposited on the outer surfaces for anode and cathode

connections. The type of metal used at the junction affects the device performance. The metal side of the junction has an abundance of free electrons, and there are no holes in either the metal or n-type material. Thus there are no minority charge carries and ther is virtually no deplection region. This means that when the junction is switched from forward bias to reverse bias, there are no charge carrier recombination consequently, the reverse recovery time is extremely small-in the order of picoseconds. The typical forward characteristic in fig38(ii) show a voltage drop(VF) ranging from 0.2V at a10mA forward current to about 0.4V at 1A. The reverse current is approximate 0.5mA at 25oC, which is substancially greater than for most pn-junction diodes. Another disadvantage is that the 50V typical reverse breakdown voltage is lower than for other types of diodes. The two important advantages of schotty diodes over pn-junction diodes are (i)the lower forward voltage drop (ii)much faster turn off times The graphic symbol of schottky diode is shown is fig38(iii)

Schottky diodes can be fabricated as high-current devices for use a rectifiers, and in this application the low forward voltage drop means that the (wasted) power dissipation in the device is lower than with p-n-junction rectifiers. Another application is as a catch diode in switching regulators. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE(LED):

A light-emitting diode(LED) is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased. LEDs are not made from silico or germanium but are made by using elements like gallium, phosphorous and arsenic. By varying the quantities of these elements it is possible to produce light of different wavelength with colours that include red, green, yellow and blue. When light-emitting diode (LED) is forward biased as shown in fig39(i), the electrons from the n-type material cross the pn junction and recombine with hoes in the p-type material. These free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than the holes in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. In germanium and silicon diodes, almost the entire is gives up in the form of heat and emitted high light is insignificant. However, in materials gallium, arsenide, the number of photons of light energy is sufficient to produce uite intense visible light. Fig39(ii) shows the schematic symbol of LED. The arrows are shown as pointing away from the diode, indicating that light is being emitted by the device when forward biased. Fig39(iii) shows the graph between radiated light and the forward current of the LED. It is clear from the graph that the intensity of radiated light is directly proportional to the forward current of LED.

LED VOLTAGE AND CURRENT: If forward voltage rating of most LEDs is from 1v to 3v and forward current ratings range from 20ma to 100ma. In order that current through the LED does not exceed the safe value, a resistor RS is connected in series

with it as shown in fig39(iv). The input voltage is VS and the voltage across LED is VD. Voltage across RS=VS-VD Circuit current,IF= ADVANTAGES OF LED: The light emitting diode (LED) IS A SOLID STATE LIGHT SOURCES. The advantages of LEDs are (i) Low voltage (ii) Longer life(more than 20 years) (iii) Fast on-off switching LEDs must not be used with a high-level of reverse bias. APPLICATIONS OF LEDs: The LED is a low-power device. The power rating of a LED is of the order of milliwatts (mW). The two most common applications for visible LEDs are (i) as a power indicator. (ii) seven-segment display. (i)As a power indicator: A LED can be used to indicate whether the power is on or not.Fig 39(v) shows the simple use of the LED as power indicator. When the switch S is closed, power is applied to the load. At the same time current also flows through thr LED which lights, indicating power is ON. The resistor RS in series with LED ensures that current rating of the LED is not exceeded.

IS USUALLY ABOUT 20A. However , LCDs require an ac voltage supply, in the form of either a sine wave or square wave. This is because a continuous direct current produce a plating of the cell electrodes that could damage the device. Repeated reversal the current prevents this problem. A typical LCD supply is a 3v to 8v peak to peak square-wave with a frequence of 60 Hz. Fig 40(iv0 shows the liquid crystal display using a square wave supply.

The backplane, which is common to alla of the cells, is supplied with a square wave with peak voltage Vp). Similar square waves applied to each of the outer terminals are either in phase or in antiphase with the back plane square wave. Those cells with waveforms in phase with the back plane waveform (cells e& f in fig40(iv) have no voltage developed across them. Since both terminals of the sedment are at the same potential, they are not energized. The cells with square waves in antiphase with the back plane input have a square wave with peak voltage 2 VP developed across them, and consequently, they are energised. Unlike LED displays, which are usually quite small, LCDs can be fabricated in almost any convenient size. The major advantage of LCDs is their low power consumption. The major disadvantage of the LCD is its decay time of 150ms (or more). This is very slow compared to the rise and fall times of LEDs. In fact, the human eye can sometimes observe the fading out of LCD segments switching off.The forward voltage of a germanium diode is typically 0.3v, compared to 0.7v of silicon. For a germanium device, the reverse saturation current at 25oC may be about 1A, which is much larger than the reverse current for a silicon diode. The reverse breakdown voltage for Germanium devices is likely to be substantially lower that for Silicon devices.

ZENER DIODE: A properly doped crystal diode which has a sharp breakdown voltage is known as a zener diode. A zener diode is a special type of diode that is designed to operate in the reverse breakdown region. When the reverse bias on a crystal diode is increased, a critical voltage called breakdown voltage is reached wher the reverse current increases sharply to a high value. The breakdown region is the knee of the reverse characteristics as shown in fig(30). The breakdown or zener voltage depends upon the amount of doping. If the diode is heavily doped, depletion layer wil be then and consequently the breakdown of the junction will occur at a lower reverse voltage. On the other and, a lightly doped diode has a higher breakdown voltage. When a oridinary crystal iode is properly doped so that it has a sharp breakdown voltage, it is called a zener diode.

Vi char of zener diode The arrow head indicates conventional current direction Page no : 21 to 30 The following points may be noted about the zener diode: A zener is like an ordinary diode except that it is properly doped so as to have a sharp breakdown voltage. A zener diode is always connected in reverse i.e. it is always reversed bias. A zener diode has sharp breakdown voltage, called zener voltage Vz. When forward biased, its characteristics are those of ordinary diode. The zener is not immeadtly burnt just because it has entered the break down region. As long as external circuit connected to the diode, limits the diode current to less than burn out value, the diode will not burn out. Equivalent circuit of zener diode:-

The analysis of circuits using zener diode can be made quite easily by replacing the zener diode by its equivalent circuit. ON STATE:When reverse voltage across the zener diode is equal or more than break down voltage current increases very sharply. In this region the curve is almost vertical. It means that voltage across zener diode is constant at Vz. then though the current through it changes. Therefore, in the break down region, an ideal zener diode can be represented by a battery of voltage Vzas shown in figure. Under such conditions, the zener diode is said to be in the ON state.

OFF STATE:When the reverse voltage across the zener diode is less than the Vz but greater than 0v, the zener diode is in the Off state. Under such conditions, the zener diode can be represented by an open circuit as shown in figure. ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE STABILIZER:A zener diode can be used as a voltage regulator to provide a constant voltage from a source whose voltage may vary over sufficient range. The circuit arrangement is shown in figure. The zener diode of zener voltage Vz is reverse connected across the load Rl across which constant output is desired. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage function so as to maintain constant voltage across the load. The zener will maintain a constant voltage Vz (=E0) across the load as long as the input voltage does not fall below Vz.

When the circuit is properly designed, the load voltage E0remains essentially constant even though the input voltage Ei and load resistance Rl may vary over a wide range.

Suppose the input voltage increases, since the zener is in the break down region , the zener diode is equivalent to a battery Vz as shown in figure It is clear that output voltage remains constant at Vz(=E0). The excess voltage is dropped across the series resistance R. this will cause in the increase in the value of total current. The zener will conduct the increase of current in I will the load current remains constant. Hence, output voltageE0 remains constant irrespective of the change in the input voltage Vi. Now suppose that input voltage is constant but the load resistance Rl decreases. This will cause an increase in load current. The extra current cannot come from the source because dropping R will not change as the zener is within its regulating range. The additional load current will from a decrease in zener current Iz. Consequently the output voltage stays at a constant value. Voltage drop across R=Ei-E0. Current through R, I=Iz+IL Applying ohms law, we have R= (Ei-E0)/ (Iz+IL) TUNNEL DIODE:-

A tunnel diode is a pn-junction diode that exhibits negative resistance between two values of forward voltage A conventional diode exhibits positive resistance when it is forward biased or reverse biased. However, if a semiconductor junction diode is heavily doped with impurities, it exhibits negative resistance in certain regions in the forward direction. Such a diode is called tunnel diode The tunnel diode is basically a pn-junction with heavily doped p-type & ntype semiconductor materials. In fact, a tunnel diode is doped approximately 1000 times as heavily as the conventional diode. This heavy doping results in a large number of majority carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, most are not used during the initial recombination that produces the depletion layer. As a result, the depletion layer is very narrow. In comparison with conventional diode, the depletion layer of a tunnel diode is 100 times narrower. The operation of the tunnel diode depends upon the tunneling effect and hence the name. TUNNELING EFFECT:The heavily doping provides a large number of majority carriers. Because of the large number of carriers, there is much drift activity in p& n sections this causes many valence electrons to have their energy levels raised closer to conduction band. There depletion region it takes only a very small applied forward voltage to cause conduction. The movement of valance electrons from valance band to conduction band with little or no applied forward voltage is called tunneling. Valance electrons seems to tunnel through the forbidden energy band. As the forward voltage is first increased the diode current raises rapidly due to tunneling effect. Soon the tunneling effect is reduced and current flow starts to decrease as the forward voltage across the diode is increased the tunnel diode is said to have entered the negative resistance region. As the voltage is further increased, the tunneling effect plays less part until a valley-point is reached. From this point, the tunnel diode behaves as an ordinary diode, i.e. diode current will increases with the increase in the forward voltage.

V-I CHARECTERISTICS OF TUNNEL DIODE: As the forward voltage across the tunnel diode is increased from zero electrons from the n-region tunnel through the potential barrier to the p-region. As the forward voltage increases, the diode current also increases until the peak point is reached. The diode current has now reached peak current Ip(=2.2ma) at above peak point voltage Vp(=0.07v). Until now the diode exhibited positive resistance.

As the voltage is increased beyond Vp, the tunneling action starts decreasing and the diode current decreases as the forward voltage is increased until valley point V is reached at valley point voltage Vv(=0.7v). In the region between peak point and valley point, the diode exhibits negative resistance i.e, as the forward bias is increased, the current decreases. This suggests that tunnel diode, when operated in ee1 When forward bias is increased beyond valley point voltage Vv(=0.7), the tunnel diode behaves as a normal diode. In other words, from point v onwards, the diode current increases with the increase in forward voltage i.e., the diode exhibits positive resistance once again.

Above figure shows the symbols of tunnel diode. It may be noted that a tunnel diode has a high resistance current but operation under this condition is not generally used.

TUNNEL DIODE OSCILLATOR A tunnel diode is always operated in negative resistance region. When operated in this region, it works very well as oscillator. The above figure shows a parallel resonant circuit. Note that Rp is parallel equivalent of the series winding resistance of the coil. When the tank circuit is set into oscillations by applying voltage as shown in figure, damped oscillations are produced. It is because energy is lost in the resistance Rp of the tank circuit. If the tunnel diode is placed in series with the tank circuit and biased at center of the negative resistance position of its characteristics as shown in figure. Undimmed oscillators are produced at the output. It is because the negative resistance characteristics of the tunnel diode characteristics of the tank circuit. The circuit shown in the figure is called tunnel diode oscillator or negative resistance oscillator has one major drawback. While the circuit works very well at high frequencies,

it cannot be used efficiently at low frequencies. Low-frequency oscillators generally use transistors. VARACTOR DIODE: A junction diode which acts as a variable capacitors under changing reverse bias is known as a varactor diode. When a p-n junction is formed, depletion layer is created in the junction area. Since there is no charge carriers within the depletion zone, the zone acts as an insulator. The p-type material with wholes as majority carriers and n-type material with electrons as majority carriers acts as charged plates. Thus the diode may be considered as a capacitor with n-region & p-region forming oppositely charged plates and with depletion zone between them acting as a dielectric. A varactor diode is specially constructed to have high capacitance under reverse bias. The figure shows construction of varactor diode and symbol respectively. The values of capacitance of varactor diodes are in Pico farad (10-12fF) range. For normal operation, a varactor diode is always reversed biased.the capacitance of varactor diode is found as When reverse voltage across this diode is increased, the width of the depletion layer increases. Therefore, the total junction capacitance of the junction decreases. On the other hand, if the reverse voltage across the diode is lowered, the width of the depletion layer decreases. Consequently the total junction capacitance increases. Shows the curve between reverse bias voltage across varactor diode and total junction capacitance. Ct can be changed simply by changing the voltage. For this reason, a varactor diode is sometimes called as voltage-controlled capacitor APPLICATIONS:

The junction capacitance of varactor diode can be increased or decreased simply by changing the reverse bias on the diode. This makes the varactor diode ideal for use in circuits that require voltagecontrolled tuning. This shows the use of this diode in a tuned circuit. The capacitance of the varactor is in parallel with the inductor. The varactor and the inductor forms the parallel LC circuit. For normal operation, a varactor diode is always operated under reverse bias. This condition is meant by the circuit in figure The resistance in the circuit is the winding resistance of the inductor. This winding resistance is in series with the potentiometer. Thus R1&Rw form a voltage divider that is used to determine the amount of reverse bias across the varactor diode and therefore its capacitance. By adjusting the setting of r1, we can vary the diode capacitance. This in turn varies the resonant frequency of the lc circuit. The resonant frequency fr of the lc circuit is given by If the amount of varactor reverse bias is decreased, the value of c of the varactor increases. The increase in c will cause the resonant frequency of the circuit to decrease. Thus, a decrease in reverse bias causes a decrease in resonant frequency and vice versa SHOTTKY DIODE:This diode has a metal to semiconductor junction instead of pnjunction. This gives the device a lower forward voltage drop and faster reverse recovery than a pn junction diode. Above figure illustrates the basic structure and v-I characteristics of schottky diode. an n-type epitaxial layer is created on a low resistance n-type substrate and a metal film is deposited on the epitaxial layer. Additional layer of metal are deposited on the outer surface for anode and cathode connections. The type of metal used at the junction affects the device performance.

The metal used of the junction has an abundance of free electrons, and there are no holes in either the metal or the n-type material. Thus there is no minority charge carriers and there is virtually no depletion region. This means that when the junction is switched from forward to reverse bias, there are charge carriers recombination consequently, the recovery time is extremely small in the order of Pico second The typical forward characteristics in figure show a voltage drop ranging from 0.2v at a 10ma forward current to about 0.4v at 1a. The reverse current is approximate 0.5ma at 250c, which is substantially greater than for most pn-junction diodes. Another disadvantage is that the 50v typical reverse break down voltage is lower than for other types of diodes. Two important advantages of schottky diodes over pn-junction diodes are1) the lower forward voltage drop. 2) Much faster turn off time. The graphic symbol of schottky diode is shown in figure. This diode can be fabricated as high current devices for use as rectifiers, and in this application the low forward voltage drop means that the power dissipation in the device is lower than with pn-junction rectifiers. Another application is as a catch diode in switching regulators. LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: A light emitting diode is a diode that gives off visible light when forward biased. Led's are not made of silicon or germanium but are made by using elements like gallium, phosphorus and arsenic. By varying the quantities of these elements. It is possible to produce light of different wavelengths with colors that include red, green, yellow and blue. When light emitting diode is forward biased as shown in figure, the electrons from the n-type material cross the pn junction and recombine with the holes in the ptype material. These free electrons are in the conduction band and at a higher energy level than the holes

in the valence band. When recombination takes place, the recombined electrons release energy in the form of heat and light. In germanium and silicon diodes, almost the entire energy is given up in the form of heat and emitted light is insignificant. However, in materials like gallium, arsenide, the number of photons of light energy is sufficient to produce quite intense visible light. Figure shows the schematic symbol of LED. The arrows are shown as pointing away from the diode, indicating that light is being emitted by the device when forward biased. Above figure shows the graph between radiated light and the forward current of the LED. It is clear from the graph that the intensity of light radiated is directly proportional to the forward current of LED.