Thermal chimneys NAB Docklands, Vic (source: AIRAH)
Natural Ventilation Systems
This technical information sheet describes an approach
rather than a technology. It provides the basic
understanding for architects and engineers to be able
to design natural ventilation strategies with supporting
strategies such as solar chimneys.
Introduction
Natural Ventilation systems rely on natural driving forces, such
as wind and temperature difference between a building and its
environment, to drive the flow of fresh air through a building. Both
work on the principle of air moving from a high pressure to a low
pressure zone.
Natural ventilation systems are usually integrated into building
systems where there is some mechanical support; these are called
mixed mode or hybrid ventilation buildings. The main benefit of
some augmentation by mechanical systems is that there is less
unpredictability with indoor environment conditions, though it will
result in greater energy use.
Natural ventilation can be an appropriate choice when compared
to air conditioning in the temperate climate of Victoria, particularly
as the nights are cool and this can be used to pre-cool the building
(see CH2 for case study of natural ventilation used for night purge
www.ch2.com.au). It can save substantial amounts of energy
by decreasing or eliminating the need for mechanical cooling.
It may also improve the building’s indoor air quality. Buildings
with well-designed natural ventilation systems often provide very
comfortable and pleasant environments for the occupants.
There are two fundamental approaches to designing for natural
ventilation that will be effective in most Victorian situations:
> Cross ventilation which uses air-pressure
differentials caused by wind
> Stack ventilation which uses the increased
buoyancy of air as it warms up
Depending on the approach when using natural ventilation, a
conscious choice may need to be made by the building users
to have greater fluctuations in indoor thermal conditions. The
temperature will not always be predictable to plus or minus half
a degree, as the use of external air will, if it is not tempered using
mechanical systems, mean that temperature and humidity vary.
Suitability
Most suited to:
> Buildings with a narrow plan or atria with floor plate
width of 15m or less
> Sites with minimal external air and noise pollution
(though still possible if they are present)
> Open plan layouts
Not suited to:
> Buildings with a deep floor plan
> Buildings that require precise temperature and humidity control
> Buildings with individual offices or small spaces
> Buildings with continual heat loads above 35–40 W/m2
> Locations with poor air quality
 > The main savings are due to cooling energy
Benefits
reduction (roughly equivalent to an economy
cycle), not needing to run HVAC fans and
increased occupant satisfaction.
> A Sydney study showed a 25 – 33% reduction
of energy use in a naturally ventilated mixed
mode building with high occupant comfort
satisfaction scores > Reference 8 .
> International studies in similar climatic regions
using natural ventilation only (not mixed
mode), show capital costs savings in the
region of 10 – 15% > Reference 3 and energy
costs that are 40% lower than air-conditioned
equivalents > Reference 2 .
> Increased fresh air supply to a space may
result in higher thermal comfort levels and
increased productivity.
> Natural ventilation systems may have
an increased robustness, flexibility and
adaptability.
Cross ventilation
Wind driven ventilation
Cross ventilation depends on two continuously
changing factors: wind availability and wind
direction. Consequently, it is a somewhat
unreliable source for providing air flow and
thermal comfort.
In cross ventilation the wind creates a high
pressure zone where it impacts the building and
a low pressure zone on the leeward side, drawing
air through the building > Figure 1 . Pressure is
highest near the centre of the windward wall
diminishing to the edges as the wind finds
other ways to move around the building so air
intakes are preferable near the centre or the high
pressure zones.
To determine the amount of natural ventilation that
you will obtain from an opening, in a given space,
standard formulas are used. A very worthwhile
but technical reference is the CIBSE guideline
– Natural Ventilation in Non-Domestic Buildings
AM 10 > Reference 2 provides standard formulas
to determine the amount of ventilation from an
opening in a given space as it is affected by
internal fit-out and distances.
High pressure zone
Windward side
Leeward side
Low
pressure
zone
> Figure 1 Pressure effect from wind > Reference 1
The flow through a building is related to the
size of the openings (both inlets and outlets),
restrictions along the flow path, furnishings and
the distance between openings.
Basic principles for sizing and placing
openings are:
> The area of the opening at intake must be
equal to or 25% smaller than the area of
opening for exhaust.
> Air flow will take the line of least resistance so
follow the flow line to check for dead spots
(areas where fresh air does not go).
> Consider security, privacy and noise transfer.
Technical considerations
Wind driven ventilation
> Driving pressure under natural ventilation is very
low, around 10 Pa > Reference 6 .
> Design openings so that there is a minimal
chance of occupants feeling drafts –
> Reference 3 recommends 0.8 m/s with winter
rates as low as 0.15 m/s.
> Air change rate should provide adequate fresh
air, levels stipulated by AS1668.2 1991 are
10 l/s per person, projects such as CH2 provide
22.5 l/s per person (mechanically aided).
> Use Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
modelling to optimise performance and ensure
minimisation of potential dead spots.
> When modelling natural ventilation, take
into account other buildings around it as
they will affect the effectiveness of the wind
hitting the building to create the pressure
differentials needed.
Again, > Reference 2 is an excellent source of the
calculations needed to effective design the natural
ventilation system. See pages 51– 52.
Design issues to consider
with cross ventilation
Using cross ventilation will have a strong influence
on building aesthetics and site planning. To
maximize the effectiveness of openings, narrow
buildings with open plans and well placed
openings work best (particularly if the longest
faces of the building are perpendicular to the
typical wind direction). Furthermore, single-loaded
corridors (rooms only on one side of a corridor)
will provide better airflow than double-loaded
ones as it makes it easier to provide openings on
opposite walls. Building elements like fins, wing
walls, parapets and balconies may be designed
to enhance wind speeds and should be an
integral part of cross-ventilation design though
caution needs to be taken that they do not cause
turbulence and block air flow > Reference 1 .
Below are some considerations that should be
made when designing for cross ventilation:
> Will work well if the room is up to 5 times the
width of the ceiling height > Figure 2 .
> If cross ventilation is not possible placing
windows on adjacent walls, at 90 degrees to
each other, will work but limit room size to
4.5 m x 4.5 m.
> In a standard office, partitions should not be
higher than 1200mm, but this will depend on
opening sizes.

x x
> Figure 2 Cross ventilation rule of thumb – effective for up to five times the ceiling height
> Partitions should not obstruct air path. Design
spaces so that they are parallel to main
ventilation path > Figure 3 .
> Place high emission equipment such as printers
in separate mechanically ventilated rooms on
the east or west facades as these are the areas
of highest heat load from the sun with least
benefit from windows.
> Figure 3 For effective cross ventilation ensure
partitions are designed to minimise resistance
Integration with windows
The apertures for cross ventilation can also
serve as windows for views and daylighting.
All architectural elements intended to enhance
one strategy should also work for the other.
However, an orientation that works for ventilation
(the windward side) may not be ideal for
daylighting for which north-and south-facing are
best. In Victoria, windows ideally should take
advantage of the cool south westerly winds in
summer. Prioritise the needs of the space based
on function and climate > Reference 1 .
Summary of considerations:
> Openings should not be obstructed.
> Openings should be staggered and the
maximum vertical distance apart possible to
increase pressure differences – this will depend
on ceiling height but research shows 1.5 m or
more is best.
x
x x x
> Elements such as overhangs can help or
hinder air flow and should be carefully
integrated into CFD modelling.
> Openings should be fully operable by
occupants if a manual operational strategy
is chosen. This requires easy access to
opening mechanisms as well as training and
appropriate information to work well.
> Provide inlet openings on the windward side
(pressure zone) and outlets on the leeward
side (suction zone).
> The inlet location affects airflow patterns far
more significantly than outlet location. Inlet
location should be a higher priority
(if faced with a choice) as a high inlet
will direct air toward the ceiling and may
bypass the occupied level.
> Ensure windows have effective seals to avoid
unwanted infiltration.
> Orient the building and openings to maximize
exposure to prevailing winds.
> Consider designing cross-ventilation openings
that are secure enough to be left open at
night, so that natural ventilation can provide
additional night time cooling benefits.
> Concentrate ventilation openings in spaces
most likely to require cooling.
> Minimize solar gain use shading devices
like overhangs, awnings and fins to control
solar gain.
> Awning windows work for air intakes, hopper
windows for outflow. Double hung windows
are ideal for single sided ventilation because
they provide high and low openings in the one
unit. Casement windows are suitable to catch
breezes when the prevailing wind direction is
consistent.
> Window insect screens decrease the flow rate
of slow breezes more than stronger breezes
(60% decrease at 2.4 km/h, 28% decrease at
9.7km/h) > Reference 4 .
> Only the clear opening area of a window can
be used to calculate capacity.
Integration with HVAC Case study – Single sided ventilation
Natural ventilation can replace air conditioning – State Emergency Services HQ
entirely or may be integrated with mechanical South Melbourne
systems in a hybrid/mixed mode. There are two
This building uses single sided natural ventilation
options with this approach. The first, such as
to all the open plan office areas. Air comes in
used at Reservoir Civic Centre where there was
via floor level attenuated grills and is expelled
a highly climatically controlled sound studio, is
through high level attenuated louvers. Being near
to divide the building into separate zones for
a busy roadway the air is drawn through a system
natural ventilation and mechanical ventilation.
to minimise air and noise pollution. The natural
The second is to have a system that switches to
ventilation system is integrated with the nearby
natural ventilation when the weather conditions
tunnel controls so that air intake closes when
are favourable such as Kangan Batman Tafe.
tunnel venting occurs and wind directions are
Another option is a hybrid system, where natural unfavourable. Sophisticated design and integrated
ventilation is used when the weather is mild modelling was requires to ensure sufficient air
and the HVAC when external conditions are pressure could be achieved.
beyond comfort parameters. This can work with
a changeover system in which windows are
shut when the air conditioning is on. Carefully
designed changeover controls can be used
to automatically shut off the air conditioning Capital costs for a fully naturally ventilated building
Cost

if windows are open, if mistakes are made
in design this will lead to dissatisfaction
> Reference 1 .
Crucial for the use of natural ventilation is that it is
designed to work on still days, regardless of wind
direction. This will require modelling and potentially
the use of mechanical systems such as fans.
Site considerations:
> Use good site planning, landscaping and
planting strategies to cool the incoming air.
A body of water or fountain on the windward
side will precool the incoming air through
evaporative cooling. Tall deciduous trees on the
windward side will lower the temperature of the
inflow and shade the openings though careful
choice of species must be made to minimise
such as pollen infiltration.
> Avoid locating heat retaining ground surface
treatments on the windward side such as large
asphalt parking lots.
Limitations
may be 10–15% lower than air-conditioned
equivalents > Reference 3 .
Costs for cross ventilation are low to moderate.
Buildings that use natural ventilation may have
higher initial costs because operable windows
typically cost 5% to 10% more than fixed glazing,
but the savings from not using air conditioning will
offset this added cost. Hybrid systems will be more
expensive because of the higher cost for operable
windows and interlocking controls for the HVAC
system. Costs vary greatly depending on installation
of HVAC system – key criteria that determine cost
are the complexity of the system and if it is manually
or automatic controlled. This cost can vary between
$50–$150 per square metre (2006/7 prices).
The benefits of natural ventilation are threatened

by poor management and operation. Problems

Design issues to consider with associated with building openings are:
single sided ventilation > Safety – people may fall out
Using single sided ventilation is less effective
> Security and fire
than cross ventilation and will need careful
design and modelling to work effectively. The > Outdoor Noise
summary below outlines the general issues that
> Internal Acoustics
should be considered:
> Insects, odours, dust and air pollution
> Will work effectively at a distance into the room
which is two times the ceiling height. > Fluctuation of internal temperature
> If openings are designed to be around 1.5 m
apart vertically then the effective distance will
be 2.5 times ceiling height.
> The openable component needs to be 1/20 of
the floor area.
 In stack ventilation, air movement is created by cool
Stack driven ventilation
air being drawn into the space low down to replace
warmer air that naturally rises as it is warmed and is
then exhausted at the top see > Figure 4 .
To obtain cooling, the incoming air must be cooler
than the ambient internal temperature. The cool air
may be drawn from a shaded or landscaped space
or from over a body of water, a thermally massive
labyrinth or other source of cooling. Stack ventilation
works best in spaces with high ceilings and where
cross ventilation is not feasible.
Solar Chimney
Solar chimneys are a method of enhancing stack
ventilation. Additional height and well designed air
passages increase the air pressure differential. Chimneys
should be constructed to capture solar radiation to
increase the heat of the air at the top and increase
the difference in temperature between incoming and
out-flowing air. The increase in natural convection that
occurs from these measures enhances the draw of air
through the building > Figure 5 > Figure 6 .
Outlet
Low pressure zone
Inlet
High pressure zone
> Figure 4 Pressure effect from stack ventilation, make sure
height difference between openings is maximised > Reference 1
Thermal mass
Exhaust air
Fresh air
> Figure 5 Cross section of Victoria Barracks, Sydney, showing air flow
path of cross flow natural ventilation incorporating a solar chimney.
Design considerations with
Stack ventilation
The design considerations with the integration of
stack ventilation are similar to those for wind driven
ventilation discussed above. The most important issue
is ensuring that the pressure within the stack remains
high, so that air is always travelling upwards and out
and therefore drawing fresh air in.
The main points to consider when designing
stack ventilation are:
> Effective across a width of 5 times the vertical
distance from inlet to exhaust.
> Chimneys can be used as the exhaust point if the
temperature inside can be kept warmer than the
ambient internal building temperature.
> Design chimneys to minimise pressure drops
to allow movement of air, for example through
techniques discussed below.
> The function of solar chimneys is improved by
techniques to increase the air temperatures at the
top of the chimney such as glass panels and dark
coloured surfaces to capture solar radiation
> The exhaust must be placed on the leeward side
to take advantage of negative wind pressures to
draw the air out and not block flow with positive
pressure. It may require operable vents on all faces
to respond to different wind directions.
> The function of solar chimneys is improved by
shaping the roof to aid air flow over it, in the
manner of an aerofoil, to increase the negative
pressure on the exhaust side.
> Design of chimney to ensure that pressure remains
low (i.e. air inside is warmer than outside) to
maintain correct flow direction in cool weather, for
example use glass or dark heat-absorbing material
near the top of the chimney.
> In unpredictable climatic areas fans could be used,
these could be run by solar panels on the solar
chimney. Caution needs to be used when using fans
that they do not interfere with natural air flow.
Rotating turbine
High
temperatures
increase
updraft
Insulation
Damper
Replacement air
Metal absorber drawn from cool
with black side of house
selective coating
> Figure 6 Thermal chimney > Reference 4
 Rules of thumb
Controlling ventilation
Manual or occupant:
> Occupants only affect the control of their own space
with minimal effect on the whole ventilation strategy.
> The BMS lets user know when to open and
close windows.
> Building users are trained.
> Controls are intuitive and accessible.
> Any night cooling is automatically controlled to
avoid over cooling and to restrict operation to
unoccupied times.
Automatic:
> In heating mode, ventilation rate should be controlled
by CO2 levels or occupancy sensors.
> In cooling mode, ventilation rate should be controlled by
internal temperatures and some anticipatory control to
increase ventilation rate before temperatures rise.
> Include night cooling strategies if temperatures are
high at the end of the day.
References and Tools
> Reference 1 Hawaii Commercial Building Guidelines
for Energy Efficiency www.archenergy.com/library/
general//chapter2_nat_vent_030604.pdf
> Reference 2 Natural Ventilation in Non-Domestic
Buildings CIBSE AM 10 – 1997 and 2005
> Reference 3Making natural ventilation work, Andrew
Martin and Jason Fitzsimmons, BSRIA GN 7/2000.
> Reference 4 Passive Solar Guidelines (Residential)
www.greenbuilder.com/sourcebook/PassSolGuide3.html
> Reference 5 Gage S. A., Hunt G.R. and Linden P.F.
(2001) Top down ventilation and cooling. Journal of
Architectural and Planning Research 18:4, p.286.
> Reference 6 Chilengwe N. and Sharples S. (2003) Low
and High Pressure Experimental Analysis of Ventilators
for Natural Ventilation in Buildings. International Journal
of Ventilation 2:2, pp. 149-158.
> Reference 7 Heiselberg P (2002) Principles of Hybrid
Ventilation. Hybrid Ventilation Centre, Aalborg University.
http://hybvent.civil.auc.dk/puplications/report/
Principles%20of%20H%20V.pdf
> Reference 8 Rowe, D. (1996) Mixed mode climate

Mixed mode > Reference 8 : control AIRAH Vol 50, Issue 12.
> Planning for mixed mode control systems needs to be
carefully undertaken.
> Ensure sufficient commissioning over all seasons to
allow for tuning.

Operational considerations:
> If manual operation is required, train occupants so
that they understand how the system works.
> The mechanisms for operable inlets and outlets
should be well maintained and clean.
> Periodically clean windowsills, panes, fins and louvres
to ensure healthy air intake for the space.
> Careful consideration needs to be taken of how the
system will function in winter, ensure that the system is
not creating heat when the windows are open.

Sustainability Victoria
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50 Lonsdale Street Melbourne 3000
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E > info@sustainability.vic.gov.au
W > www.sustainability.vic.gov.au