Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Erin Armstrong, Elizabeth Degnall, Ricardo Obasare and Emily Scott- Solomon Worcester Polytechnic Institute 12/16/2010
An Interactive Qualifying Project Submitted to the Faculty of WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science By: Erin Armstrong Elizabeth Degnall Ricardo Obasare Emily Scott-Solomon
Report Submitted To: Sr. Konrad Sauter and Sra. Lily Sevilla Berlitz Language Company
Abstract
The town of Smara, Costa Rica has experienced sedimentation which affects mangroves in the Mala Noche Estuary. Our project goal, sponsored by Seor Konrad Sauter, was to provide a foundation for future restoration. This was accomplished by assessing the environmental problems and identifying remediation methods. Our results demonstrated a need for physical restoration methods and community education on the importance of mangroves. Returning the estuary to a healthy state requires a long-term plan which instills strong individual environmental concern.
ii
Acknowledgements
Our team would like to first thank our sponsors, Sr. Konrad Sauter and Sra. Lily Sevilla for all their help and support throughout the duration of our project. Without them, the idea for this project would not exist. Additionally, we would like to thank our professors, Dr. Jennifer Rudolph, Dr. Stanley Selkow and Dr. Ingrid Shockey for pushing us to do our best and for their continual support throughout the process. For their willingness to share their knowledge and expertise on mangroves, estuaries and sedimentation, we would like to extend our thanks to Dr. Jeffery Crooks and Dr. Jos Antonio Vargas. We also appreciate the time spent by Berit Funke, Sara Arrand, members of ASADA of Smara and the director of the Liceo Rural Smara School in giving us a better understanding of the specific problems facing Smara. Additionally, we would like to thank Ligia Umaa, Alexander Gonzalz and Dr. Bernando Aguilar of Fundacin Neotropica for sharing their expertise on important topics to consider for future restoration projects. We are very grateful to these individuals for their contributions, which greatly assisted us in shaping the direction of our project. For their kindness and hospitality while we were in Smara, we would like to thank Sr. Konrad Sauter and his family, Berit Funke, Sara Arrand, Alvaro Teran, Elena, Bejos and Luba. Their kindness and willingness helped to make our fieldwork successful and our stay more comfortable. Finally, we would like to extend our thanks to everyone at Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) and the Costa Rica Project Site that made this experience possible.
iii
Executive Summary
Recently, the industrialization of countries throughout the world has fueled an ongoing conflict between environmental protection and rapid development. In Smara, Costa Rica, the surrounding communities engage in practices that greatly harm the nearby Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves. This damage stems, in part, from this strong drive to develop, which threatens not only the health of the local estuarine environments, but also the people of Smara.
According to local residents, this sedimentation is recent, appearing within the last five-ten years. We hypothesized that the gravel sediment results mainly from construction debris and that the clay sediment is a consequence of the teak plantation upstream of the Mala Noche River. Because the sediment has appeared at such a rapid rate, and has caused a great deal of damage to the estuary and mangroves, there is a need for remediation before the situation becomes irreversible.
to properly receive water and nutrients. We also determined that mangroves require a certain level of natural sediment from which to extract nutrients. However, a healthy level of sedimentation is between 0.5 and 1 cm/yr. Anything above this rate is considered to be in excess (Ellison, 1999). We used these definitions to establish a base line with which to compare the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves. Through the initial assessment and problem assessment, we determined that there were many factors affecting the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves. Despite this wide range of issues, we focused upon the impacts of clay and gravel sedimentation on the estuary. In our initial visits onsite, we documented gravel sediment in the estuary and on the surrounding beach. Through observation and interviews, we hypothesized that this sediment was dumped in the river as construction debris. Similarly, we also documented a large amount of clay sediment in the mouth of the river, and about 30 meters upstream. After further inspecting the area and conducting interviews, we determined that the most likely source of the clay sediment was a teak planation upstream of the Mala Noche River, which covered several steep hillsides. Due to the elevated levels of gravel and clay sediment, much of the water in the river has taken alternate routes around the sediment banks, resulting in riverbank erosion. Additionally, because the excess sediment has inhibited water flow, many mangroves have died as a result of root burial. Finally, to exacerbate the situation, a private company diverted several of the streams that feed the Mala Noche River to provide a hotel with an artificial lake. The diverted water and high sediment levels have resulted in a destroyed estuary with minimal water flow.
Recommendations
In order to combat the clay and gravel sediment entering the Mala Noche River estuary, we recommend the employment of a combination of restoration techniques, including dredging, sediment basins and wetland restoration. Additionally, to address educational gaps in Smara concerning the importance of estuaries and mangroves, we recommend the development of environmental education programs. To ensure that there is proper exchange of salt and fresh water, the mouth of the river should be dredged. Similarly, we recommend that the large deposit of sediment 30 meters upstream of the mouth of the river also be dredged. If fresh and saltwater cannot be exchanged, the mangroves within the estuary will not have access to oxygen. Therefore, it is vital to remove the sediment blocking water flow at the mouth of vi
the estuary. In addition, the accumulation of sediment 30 meters upstream of the mouth of the river needs to be removed because it has forced the river to carve an alternate path, resulting in erosion of riverbanks. However, because dredging can have detrimental consequences to the surrounding ecosystems and to the only potable water source in the area, restoration teams must take great care when planning the dredging restoration process. To reduce the amount of gravel and clay sediment reaching the estuary, sediment basins should be installed. Additionally, to address fine clay sediment, we recommend simultaneous wetland restoration. Because sediment basins are ideal for gravel sediment and large chunks of clay, the installation of a sediment basin would greatly reduce the amount of sediment reaching the estuary. However, drawbacks to this method include the need to maintain the basin and the fact that it is only a short term measure. Coupling wetland restoration with the implementation of a sediment basin will help to increase water flow to the area, which in turn will help to flush out finer sediment. Again, in order to employ these methods, basin and wetland restoration experts should be consulted. We believe that in combination, dredging, sediment basins and wetland restoration will help to greatly reduce the amount of sediment reaching the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves. To educate the Smara community about the importance of the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves, we recommend the development of an environmental education plan that targets school children, educators and general community. To help accomplish this goal, we created an education supplement that summarizes possible education techniques. This supplement focuses mainly upon education of schoolchildren, with the principle that educating the towns youth will lead to further intergenerational (child to parent) and intercommunity learning. However, we also recognize that both educators and the community as a whole need to be educated if their mindset towards estuaries and mangroves is to change.
vii
Although we recognize that the steps taken in this project will not solve the deterioration of the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves, we hope to establish a framework for future studies. It is our hope that, through our recommendations and other future projects, the estuary will return to a healthy state, and the community will better understand the importance of their local ecosystems.
viii
Authorship Page
This report was a collaborative effort between all team members. We each contributed to the initial writing and final editing of all chapters within the paper, with each person specializing in certain subjects. Erin Armstrong focused upon mangroves, sedimentation, and the correlation between the two. Elizabeth Degnall concentrated on the laws surrounding environmental conservation and documents received onsite. Ricardo Obasare researched the mindset of the Costa Rican population and how their perceptions have affected the legal framework of environmental protection. Finally, Emily Scott-Solomon specialized in physical restoration methods and educational techniques.
ix
Table of Figures
Figure 2-1. Sediment Basin.13 Figure 3-1. Surveying Sediment..23 Figure 4-1. Mala Noche River Map.29 Figure 4-2. Wells in Aquifer30 Figure 4-3. Burn Pile32 Figure 4-4. Burning Trash Pile..33 Figure 4-5. Playa Smara..36 Figure 4-6. Clay and Gravel Sediment..37 Figure 4-7. Destruction of Hill...37 Figure 4-8. Clay Sediment.38 Figure 4-9. Diversion of the Mala Noche River38 Figure 4-10. Clay Sediment for Estuary and Hill39 Figure 4-11. Teak Leaf39 Figure 4-12. Understory Growth in the Teak Plantation.40 Figure 4-13. Diverting Water by Pipes41 Figure 4-14. Mangrove Mortality in Estuary42 Figure 4-15. Mala Noche River Banks..43 Figure B-1. Change in course of the Mala Noche River over a period of several year69
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. iii Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................. iv
Uses of the Mala Noche River Estuary ...................................................................................................................... iv A Three Pronged Approach to Evaluating the Situation...................................................................................... v A Need for Joint Restoration and Education............................................................................................................. v Recommendations............................................................................................................................................................. vi
Authorship Page ................................................................................................................................... ix Table of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... x Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter Two: Background and Literature Review .................................................................... 4
2.1: A Brief History of Eco-Tourism in Costa Rica ................................................................................................. 4 2.2: Environmental Problems Facing Smara, Costa Rica ................................................................................. 7 2.3: The Mala Noche River Estuary: What is an Estuary? .................................................................................. 8 2.3.1: Mangroves ............................................................................................................................................................ 8 2.3.2: Impact of Sedimentation ................................................................................................................................ 9 2.4: Sedimentation Remediation Techniques ....................................................................................................... 11 2.4.1 Sediment Basins ................................................................................................................................................ 12 2.4.2 Wetland Restoration........................................................................................................................................ 13 2.4.3 Dredging ............................................................................................................................................................... 14 2.5.1: Case Study: Developing a Successful Restoration Program through Community Involvement ................................................................................................................................................................... 16 2.5.2: Case Study: Using Community-Based Education to Save the Scarlet Macaw ......................... 17 2.5.3: Case Study: Long-Term Responses to Excess Sedimentation ....................................................... 18 2.6: Conclusion................................................................................................................................................................... 20
3.3: Community Outreach: An Educational Supplement .................................................................................. 24 3.4: Justification of Research Methods ..................................................................................................................... 25 3.5: Future Efforts in the Mala Noche River .......................................................................................................... 26
xii
For example, mangrove roots help to aerate soil and provide essential nutrients to other organisms by trapping nutrient-filled sediment with their roots (Ellison, 1999). Similarly, mangroves are so highly intertwined with the species around them that their survival can determine the survival of other ecosystems (Carmichael et al., 2009). Our research suggests that although natural levels of sedimentation are essential for the survival of mangroves, exposure to excess sedimentation buries their roots, potentially resulting in their death (Ellison, 1999). If mangroves die, it can be assumed that all species dependent upon them will be negatively affected. Therefore, to protect the vitality of estuarine environments containing mangroves, the mangroves need to be conserved. Although Costa Rican residents are environmentally conscious, our research suggests their priorities lie in providing for themselves and their families (Holl et al., 1995; K. Sauter, personal communication, October 27, 2010). These opposing priorities have led to the conflict between development and environmental conservation in the town of Smara. Although researchers have extensively studied the effects of sedimentation on mangroves, little is known about the specific situation in the Mala Noche River estuary. Therefore, our aim was to evaluate the situation, and determine if sedimentation was leading to a deterioration of the mangrove population. In addition, our research suggests that Costa Ricans are generally environmentally conscious, but only up to a certain point. This is further corroborated by Sr. Konrad Sauter who explained that the people of Smara are generally not aware of how the estuary, mangroves, and human community are interconnected. Through our study, we intended to develop an environmental education program for the community. This program focused on the connections between their actions and the mangrove forests survival. To address the many factors contributing to the decline of the Mala Noche mangrove forest, we aimed to lay the foundation for future restoration. We defined three major objectives to accomplish our goal: preforming an initial assessment of the situation, evaluating the specific problem causing the decline of the mangrove population, and developing an educational supplement, for the community, about the importance of the estuary and mangroves. In conducting our preliminary assessment, we gathered information from a variety of print and internet sources and conducted interviews with local and field experts to gain insight into both technical and contextual aspects of the situation. We also visually documented and observed the Mala Noche estuary to familiarize ourselves with the area. To focus on the specific environmental problem, we employed a combination of research, visual documentation, and interviews. These techniques allowed us to evaluate the pollution and sedimentation present in the Mala Noche River and to identify the possible sources in addition to its impact upon the community and environment. For 2
our final objective, we aimed to develop a framework for an environmental education program in the town of Smara. Through interviews with a local school teacher on the current educational curriculum, we gauged the level of interest in such a program. We also used research and interviews to determine the most suitable methods for environmental education in a rural setting. In the town of Smara, we encountered a struggle between rapid economic development and sustainable usage of the environment. The growth of industries within the town resulted in practices that harm the growth of mangroves within the Mala Noche River estuary. If these practices continue, the resulting sediment will severely impact the livelihood of ecosystems and ultimately affect the community itself. There is, therefore, a need to educate the community on the workings and importance of the estuary and also to initiate efforts that restore the estuary. For our project, we aimed to establish a foundation for future restoration efforts in Smara, Costa Rica. To accomplish our goal, we first improved our understanding of the situation in Smara. Once this was achieved, we identified the specific problems that have resulted from excess sedimentation and subsequently made recommendations on how to combat this issue through both remediation and education. We hope our findings and recommendations will move Smara closer to reducing the overall impact of development on the environment.
normal high tide line while the latter prohibits the exploitation or cutting of protected forests, mangroves, and reserves (Aguitar, & Ching, 2001). The laws designed by government agencies to preserve biodiversity in Costa Rica paved the way for an early expansion of what is now the countrys eco-tourism industry (Evans, 1999). According to Martha Honey (2008), ecotourism is defined as the practice, of low impact educational, and ecological and culturally sensitive travel that benefits local communities and the host country (p. 71). During the 1990s, the Costa Rican government made a conscious decision to invest in its eco-tourism sector. They correctly anticipated the advantages that lay in showcasing the natural environment of Costa Rica. This approach has been well-substantiated, as Costa Rica currently ranks 3rd in the world in terms of environmental practices based on the Environmental Protection Index. This index is an annual study that ranks countries based on several factors to determine a countrys overall environmental health (Emerson et al., 2010). Initially, this shift to focus on tourism led to a growth in domestic tourists; however, gradually, there grew a steady influx of tourists from North and Central America. An additional factor in this economic boom occurred when the then President, Oscar Arias Sanchez, received the Noble Prize for peace in 1987. This sealed Costa Ricas brand as a safe and stable tourism destination (Evans, 1999; Honey, 2008). The growth of tourism, although economically beneficial, began to overshadow environmental considerations. An interesting quote by Yanina Rovinski highlights the shift in the way the tourism industry advertised themselves: When Costa Ricans want to sell something, they paint it green (Evans, 1999, p. 218). This view is supported by the fact that by 1988, tourism had risen to become the 3rd largest industry in the country, and by 1993 it accounted for roughly 20 percent of the countrys foreign income (Evans, 1999; Honey, 2008). Due to this substantial growth in tourism, the Nicoya area, and Costa Rica as a whole, experienced an increase in the number of hotels built (Mata, 2004). Foreign investors built several hotels near coastlines without concern for the implications to the environment (Honey, 2008). The growth of tourism has often come at the cost of the environment despite its eco billing, and has impacted the health of natural features such as mangroves. According to Jorge Jimenez (2004), the land filling of mangroves in Smara, Conchal and Playa Grande is an example of this destructive process (p. 140). Although there are many laws that aim to directly prevent mangrove destruction (i.e. the Coastal-Maritime Law 1977, the Wildlife Law 1992 and the Environmental Law 1995), the pressure to develop often overshadows legislation if enforcement is inadequate (Jimenez, 2004). Significant data suggests that the laws concerning construction near coastal lines are not adequately enforced. Only 7% of the coasts in Costa Rica have plans to regulate environmental 5
conservation (Evans, 1999). There are several examples supporting the fact that some coastal hotel chains are not concerned about their impact on the environment (Evans, 1999). For example, Martha Honey, co-founder and co-director of the Center on Ecotourism and Sustainable Development in Washington D.C., points out several instances where hotel resorts have operated with little or no regard for the environment. These activities have tainted, to some extent, the image of Costa Rica. For instance, the governmental support for the Tambor Hotel culminated in Instituto Costarricense de Turismo (ICT) defacto head Luis Manuel Chacon receiving the 1993 Environmental Devil award. The construction of the Tambor Hotel was a highly destructive project, and was frowned upon by many environmentalists. This award was presented to Sr. Chacon to represent Costa Ricas supposed environmental hypocrisy (Honey, 2008). Similarly, Roxanna Salazar concludes that although Costa Rica is, without a doubt, focused on environmental issues, there needs to be a stronger push by the government to ensure compliance with the environmental laws. In her recommendations, she also added that citizens should play a greater role in the conservation process. Her stance emphasizes public education as essential if Costa Rica is to truly protect its environment. Additionally, she recommends that sanctions should be enforced if laws are not followed (Salazar, 2004). Although there have been several efforts to combat environmental problems from a governmental level, there needs to be a greater sense of individual responsibility. Chris Willis comments that Eco Tourism has helped to create the self-image of Costa Ricans, it is their selfidentity (Honey, 2010, p. 161). This means that the countrys focus on eco-tourism has become an integral part of how Costa Ricans view themselves. In a 1995 study entitled Knowledge and Perceptions in Costa Rica Regarding Environment, Population, and Biodiversity Issues, the authors look at Costa Ricans understanding of the environmental issues around them. In this survey, they asked respondents to arrange in order, from a list, the major problems facing the country; the environment ranked 7th; only 22% of the respondents cited the environment as one of the top 3 problems. When asked about specific environmental issues, many respondents recited deforestation, garbage and air pollution as amongst their major concerns. When asked about the major reasons causing these problems, lack of environmental education, industry, and attitude of population ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd, respectively. Furthermore, respondents indicated that they thought environmental problems were a larger issue outside of Costa Rica (Holl et al., 1995). Although this data is not all-inclusive, it does suggest that while Costa Ricans do demonstrate awareness of environmental issues, they do not think that the environment is a cause for major concern. 6
2.3.1: Mangroves Mangroves forests, also known as mangal, are commonly found throughout tropical regions of the world, often in tidal areas such as estuaries (Ellison, 1999). On the Costa Rican Pacific coast, mangroves of the Nicoya Peninsula comprise more than 75 percent of the biomass that exists there (Mata & Vargas, 2004). In Costa Rica, mangrove forests can be found on both Pacific and Caribbean coasts and constitute 7% of the countrys forest cover (Jimenez, 2004). As of the early 1990s, the approximate surface area of mangroves worldwide was estimated to be 100,000 km2 to 240,000 km2. However, because most mangroves are located in developing countries, such as Costa Rica, where statistics are difficult to acquire, these numbers may be inaccurate (Dodd & Ong, 2008; United States of America State Department, 2009). Peter J. Mumby, a marine ecologist, estimated that there has been a global loss of approximately 35% of all mangrove forests over the past two decades. This environmental loss exceeds even that of the tropical rainforests and the coral reefs separately, bringing into question why more publicity has not been given to this ecosystem (Mumby et al., 2004). Mangroves are highly interconnected and affect a broad range of ecosystems. Therefore, it is understandable that disturbances to mangroves will consequently affect both ecosystems around them and species dependent upon them (Carmichael et al., 2009). Mangrove forests provide a unique ecosystem that helps to support fish, birds and other wildlife. In fact, the mangal of the 8
Nicoya Peninsula supports more than 50 species of crab, 124 species of mollusks and 125 species of fish. The diversity of this ecosystem helps to sustain the livelihood of over 200,000 people in the area who are dependent on fishing (Jimenez, 2004). In addition to the support that mangal provide to species in an estuarine ecosystem, they also offer other beneficial functions. For example, this ecosystem supports the surrounding environments by significantly reducing coastal erosion (Ellison, 2000). This is because mangroves aerial roots have a natural affinity for sediment binding. Similarly, mangroves trees roots help to slow the velocity of the water, allowing for better settling of sediment (Ellison, 1999). This trapped sediment, when at natural levels, can provide necessary nutrients to the organisms in the local ecosystem.
2.3.2: Impact of Sedimentation Sedimentation is the accumulation of sediment (clay, gravel, silt, sand etc.) in a river, lake or other marine environment. Generally, unnatural sedimentation has a negative effect on the health of mangrove trees. Unnatural sedimentation in estuaries typically comes from construction sites and agricultural runoff (Chou, Ong, & Todd, 2010). On average, mangrove forests worldwide retain a natural level of sedimentation at a rate of 0.5 to 1 cm per year. Anything above this rate is considered to be an unnatural rate of sedimentation (Ellison, 1999). Sedimentation becomes harmful to mangroves when portions of their roots become buried. When this occurs, there is less gaseous exchange between the roots and the water that surrounds them, thereby lessening the ability of the trees to respire and preventing an important physiological process. In addition, excess sediment prevents adequate light from reaching the mangrove roots (Chou et al., 2010). As stated by J.C. Ellison (1999), there are numerous accounts of sedimentation as a result of human disturbance causing problems in mangroves, but generally few quantitative details (p. 421). The lack of quantitative details reflects a gap in the current knowledge on how sedimentation affects mangroves. Moreover, the accumulation of sediment harms mangroves if it impedes the tidal system on which they depend for vital nutrients. Without the tide bringing in nutrients and removing harmful excess sediment, the health of the mangrove forests declines. A.M. Ellison (2000), a Harvard University professor specializing in wetland ecology, finds that when sedimentation obstructs the tidal flow of an estuarine environment, restor[ing] tidal fluctuations and flushing to impounded costal systems where mangroves could subsequently flourish, presents the most reasonable option (p. 225). He explains that planting mangroves in an area with a hampered tidal system will not be successful because they are dependent upon tidal flow to survive. 9
While the effect of sedimentation on mangroves is of grave concern, the effect of sedimentation on the surrounding ecosystems is also extremely important. Because sedimentation affects all organisms differently, it can greatly alter ecosystems by killing off some species while allowing others to thrive. In fact, sedimentation often results in the introduction of invasive species that are able to flourish in the newly introduced environment (Chou et al., 2010). Similarly, sedimentation can eliminate certain native species in an area entirely. Ollivier & Welsh describe how road construction in California caused a large outflow of quick, accidental sedimentation in a nearby stream, which subsequently affected the local lizard and amphibian populations (1998). Not surprisingly, the populations of the three types of lizards studied (Tailed Frogs, Pacific Giant Salamanders and Southern Torrent Salamanders) were considerably lower in rivers that were affected by the sedimentation than in rivers in the area that were not affected (Ollivier & Welsh, 1998). If mangrove forests are destroyed, the goods and services available to the local communities are also reduced (Claudet & Fraschetti, 2010, pg. 2196). The phrase goods and services here refers to the economic benefits that eco-tourism brings a community. Interestingly, as development fuels the destruction of mangrove forests, this destruction, in some ways, alters development in the long run (Claudet & Fraschetti, 2010). Mangrove forests are a significant draw for ecotourism; if they are destroyed to build new hotels, some speculate that this may deter tourists from visiting these hotels in the future (Ellison, 2000). Therefore, a challenge exists when trying to achieve both conservation efforts and economic development. In conclusion, the livelihood of mangroves is interconnected with the survival of the estuarine ecosystem of which they are part. Because mangroves are significantly affected by excess sedimentation, sedimentation could ultimately result in the deterioration of an estuary. This would lead to various consequences for the local community, such as a decrease in the fish populations that use the estuary as a nursery and a potentially contaminated aquifer. For these reasons, it is important to determine if the sediment in Smara, Costa Rica is damaging the local estuary. If it is, it will be important to develop a plan for restoration.
10
11
location of the restoration project, which ensures the project complies with governmental organizations; and finally, a high level of communication existing between all parties involved in the restoration project (FISRWG, 1998). Our project will aim to follow this structure so as to create a successful restoration plan. Each restoration project has unique concerns and therefore, the same remediation method cannot be used in every project. In our case, the main concern being addressed is sedimentation. A variety of methods are available for rectifying excess sedimentation in aquatic ecosystems. Upon the recommendation of Dr. Jeffery Crooks, the research coordinator of the Tijuana River restoration project in California, we explored sediment basins, wetland construction, and dredging, which are all methods to reduce sediment (personal communication, October 7, 2010). 2.4.1 Sediment Basins
Figure 2-1. Sediment Basin. Diagram for the design of a sediment basin for a stream during restoration (Adams et al., 1999). A sediment basin is a temporary drainage way, which branches off a stream or river to reduce the inflow of sediment and pollution (as seen in Figure 2-1). When reduction of erosion at its source is unfeasible, sediment basins provide the next best alternative for stream and river rehabilitation (Rutherfurd et al., 2000). While construction sites usually employ sediment basins to reduce runoff, they can also be used at the outlets of disturbed watersheds between 5 and 75 acres. Excavation or construction of embankments to create sediment basins occurs in areas that will intercept a large amount of runoff. In addition, the basin should be located in a low, flat area that can be easily accessed for general maintenance such as sediment removal. A dike, temporary 12
channel, or pipe diverts part of the water flow to the basin (CASQA, 2003). Next, a barrier or a dam within the basin captures sediment before the drainage way re-merges with the body of water (FISRWG, 1998). A properly designed basin can trap 70-80 % of sediment when combined with diversion dikes. However, the design has to include features to hold sediment overflow during heavy rainfall (CASQA, 2003). Furthermore, a basin requires enough area to meet the restoration projects needs. As a general assumption, a basin needs a volume of 3,600 cubic feet (102 cubic meters) for every acre contributing to the elevated levels of erosion (CASQA, 2003). An example of how large some basins can get, researchers trying to restore the Tijauna River estuary, in California, use sediment basins with a volume of 60,000 cubic yards (J. Crooks, personal communication, December 7, 2010). While sediment basins reduce the inflow of sediment into water systems, they have several flaws. Sediment basins are efficient at collecting sand and gravel, but less successful at filtering silt, clay, and finer sediments from the water (FISRWG, 1998; CASQA, 2003). However, they provide a means for filtering trash out of water systems. For continued use, these basins require dredging or other means of emptying. Otherwise, when the basin completely fills with sediment, vegetation can be reintroduced to the area (FISRWG, 1998). Sediment basins are also expensive to create and maintain (J. Crooks, personal communication, December 7, 2010). On average, basins with a volume of 50,000 cubic feet (1,416 cubic meters) or less cost about $1,200 per drainage acre. A basin greater than 50,000 cubic feet (1,416 cubic meters) costs about $600 per drainage acre on average (CASQA, 2003). In addition, sediment basins cannot control dissolved contaminants such as chemicals. However, a study by Maxted and Shaver suggests wetland construction can potentially reduce this problem (1999). When the point source erosion cannot be reduced, a sediment basin provides a temporary solution and time to resolve the problem. A sediment basin can last between 12 and 28 months when properly maintained (CASQA, 2003). sediment basins may be a viable option for future restoration efforts. 2.4.2 Wetland Restoration We also explored wetland construction as a viable option for restoration efforts. Wetland construction is a method that reintroduces native vegetation, soil, and native microorganisms to an area to improve water quality and reduce sedimentation. Decomposers, such as bacteria and fungi, break down organic matter into carbon dioxide and water while reducing oxygen levels. In turn, plants return oxygen to the aquatic system, restoring the necessary balance of oxygen levels within the ecosystem. In addition, plants can utilize excess nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus), reducing eutrophication (excess nutrients in the soil). There are two types of wetland construction: 13 In Smara,
subsurface flow systems and free water surface systems. In a subsurface flow system, water flows beneath the soil level through plant roots, gravel, sand, and crushed rock in order to improve water quality. A free water surface system not only improves water quality by simulating natural wetlands with water flowing above ground, but also creates wetland habitat, which can be used for public education and recreation. This method is generally used to reduce sedimentation flowing into a system from an upstream point, such as agriculture and settlements (EPA, 1993). During wetland reconstruction, a variety of factors must be considered. Characteristics defining different wetlands include: unique biotic conditions, type of hydrologic (water saturated) soil, and duration, flow, amount, and frequency of water (IWWR, 2003, p. 2). I n addition, water flow is especially important for restoring mangroves, which rely on the submersion of their roots in tidal waters. A design plan for wetland reconstruction or construction must consider these characteristics as well as the plant composition of similar wetlands in the area. For sites, which used to be wetlands, the factors preventing ecological succession must be determined, and, if necessary, addressed (Lewis, 2009). In addition, the project must also have set goals, such as the resources the wetland will provide. Generally, wetlands provide: fisheries, support for water fowl and other wildlife, high biological productivity, protection of biodiversity, erosion control, flood damage reduction, protection of water quality, recreation, and aesthetic appeal (IWWR, 2003). By combining wetland restoration (either mangrove or other native wetlands) with other restoration methods, sediment input into the Mala Noche River can be flushed with increased water flow. 2.4.3 Dredging Generally, most restoration projects and studies have indicated extraction or dredging as necessary for addressing sedimentation containing large particles. Before implementation of dredging, careful research and planning must be carried out on the area to determine land practices around the restoration site. This could bring environmental concerns from present or past land practices to light, such as landfill contamination, oil spills, chemical spills, or agricultural runoff (Nayar, Miller, Hunt, Goh, & Chou, 2007). Also, dredging disturbs the aquatic floor, which releases pollutants and nutrients that can pose health hazards to ecosystems and human populations (Loher & Wetz, 2003). Excess gravel extraction, however, can be less environmentally damaging than dredging of sand, silt, or fine sediment aquatic floors, since it releases fewer particles into the aquatic environment (J. Crooks, personal communication, October 7, 2010). In addition, not all the sediment needs to be removed. In 1993, massive flooding caused erosion in the Black River Creek in Australia, depositing sand and gravel downstream. Within a year of the event, most of the sand and gravel had been excavated, and the remainder had begun to naturally thin throughout the 14
stream (Erskine, 1996; Rutherfurd et al., 2000). Once the amount of sediment in the estuary and mangroves of the Mala Noche River is estimated, qualified personnel can establish a baseline for the minimum amount to be removed, if necessary. This would reduce the human impact on the environment during restoration.
15
minimal. As a result of this conclusion, the San Juan Bay Estuary Partnership focused upon developing the necessary outreach program that would include the community in restoration efforts (EPA, 2007). The findings and success of this study underline the importance of community involvement in restoration efforts. With respect to our project, several of the educational techniques employed in San Juan could be considered for use in Smara. Individuals in the community could perform basic evaluations of the estuary and ecosystems in the area to create a storehouse of information to be analyzed. This would permit a better understanding of the mangroves and estuarys dynamics. Furthermore, education concerning current gaps of knowledge in the community would improve future decisions regarding the estuarys use. 2.5.2: Case Study: Using Community-Based Education to Save the Scarlet Macaw Gack, Ray, Solorazano, and Vaughan conducted a study, which investigated the hypothesis that children retain and transfer conservation knowledge gained in the classroom to their parents (2003). This study, which took place in Costa Rica, focused upon children in an elementary school and monitored a one month education program on the conservation and natural history of the Scarlet Macaw. Tests were given as a means to rate the effectiveness of the program as well as the transfer of knowledge on both the intercommunity and intergenerational levels. A test was given to three groups the students, the parents of the students, and an unrelated group of adults (the control group). The test was given at three different time points: before the course, immediately following the end of the course, and 8 months after the course had ended. Both the students and parents showed a significant improvement between the first and second test and between the first and third test. This supports the hypothesis that children can transfer conservation principles to their parents, and that their parents can retain the information. There was no significant improvement for the control group between the first and second test. However, there was a marked improvement (29%) between the first and third test. It is theorized that this improvement may have come about as a result of the spread of knowledge from both the children and their parents to an outside, third party (their community) (Gack et al., 2003). There were several important conclusions drawn over the course of this study. Intergenerational learning or, the transfer of conservation principles between children and adults, is possible and likely, and allows for environmental education programs to continue focusing their attention upon child audiences. The focus upon children in environmental education has come about largely due to their greater interest in the subject and a more easily influenced mindset. Intercommunity learning, the transfer of conservation principles from children and their parents to 17
the community as a whole, has also shown some amount of success. It should be noted that this was a short-term case study, and that a long-term environmental program was concluded to be more effective in terms of the spread of knowledge. Additionally, it was recommended that programs aimed towards increasing community awareness through the local school children should employ frequent field trips with outdoor activities related to nature in order to actually observe what is taught in the classroom. This participation of the public allows for greater interest and understanding, as well as an increased retention and conveyance of the knowledge learned. It is important to note that future studies are necessary in order to determine whether such community participation allows for future practice and involvement in conservation efforts (Gack et al., 2003). For these reasons, in our project, we focused on educational programs that could be incorporated at the school level. 2.5.3: Case Study: Long-Term Responses to Excess Sedimentation In addition to the importance of community involvement in restoration and conservation efforts, the sustainability and feasibility of restoration methods are also highly significant. In Tijuana, Mexico, urbanization has resulted in high levels of sedimentation in a coastal salt marsh, which is located downstream from the site of development. Local restoration efforts for the past twenty years have striven to return the coastal salt marsh to its original state, previous to the rapid development upstream. To deter the effects of sedimentation, a three-pronged approach was taken. This approach included source control, interception of sediment before its entrance into the system, and increasing the ability of the system to deal with sediment. Generally, these approaches would be done in a stepwise manner to best combat the accumulation; however, the speed at which sediment accumulated in this particular system called for a more aggressive approach. Source control was difficult to manage due to the fact that the entrance of sediment and pollutants into the system was caused by development. This resulted in an ethical dilemma, once again, where human development threatened the conservation of the natural environment. As such, other methods were necessary to combat sedimentation. Basins were put in place around the salt marsh in order to collect the sediment before it entered the system. This method, although requiring ongoing maintenance, was found to be effective. Additionally, the ability of the environment to deal with sediment was increased by digging out buried salt marsh and by increasing the width of the river. The situation in Tijuana continues to develop, and sediments from local development continue to enter the system to this day (J. Crooks, personal communication, October 7, 2010). An interesting finding in this study is how the lack of community involvement has impacted restoration efforts. As stated before, the feasibility and sustainability of restoration efforts are 18
highly important to the success of a project. However, it is also important to note that there must be some balance between the methods employed and the amount of community involvement. In Tijuana, a lack of community support has resulted in a situation that has not been resolved, despite the fact that there have been ongoing restoration efforts for twenty years. The continually growing population and need for development upstream seem to be worsening the situation for the foreseeable future, and will require years of ongoing maintenance (J. Crooks, personal communication, October 7, 2010). It is clear, that if any noteworthy progress is to be made in terms of significant restoration to a damaged environment, the local community must be both involved and invested in the outcome of the efforts.
19
2.6: Conclusion
Costa Rica is one of many countries that struggle between a responsibility to the environment and its emergence in the world as a developed nation. As human activities intrude upon natural environments with increasing frequency, it seems as though this conflict is unavoidable. Smara, in particular, is one such case in which development continues although side effects from this practice may have immense consequences for the local environments. As it is currently, future restoration and prevention efforts will be unlikely to succeed without public involvement. We believe, therefore, that the local community must be made aware and interested in the problem in order to control this environmental destruction and limit its magnitude in the future.
20
21
and mangrove systems greatly aided us in the formation of a baseline for the health of these environments. To understand the on-going environmental situation, we consulted the aforementioned experts who provided both technical and contextual information on the excess sedimentation harming the Mala Noche River mangroves. This understanding allowed us to analyze our definition of a healthy estuary within the context of the Mala Noche River and its mangroves. We also interviewed a member of ASADA Smara, to gain a sociological perspective of the problem and additional factors to consider when developing our recommendations. (This member of ASADA has asked to remain anonymous due to his/her extensive familiarity with the problems facing Smara. Therefore, his/her exposure may lead to undue burdens in the community. However, his/her expertise in these environmental issues is considerable, and his/her credentials can be attested by Professors Jennifer Rudolph and Stanley Selkow.) We compiled the responses and data from these interviews to obtain a more comprehensive picture of the results to be used for analysis. Therefore, in addition to providing us with an understanding of the situation, our interviews also allowed us to make informed recommendations concerning the continuing process of assessment and restoration of the estuary. While on-site, visual observation of the mangroves and estuary allowed for first-hand understanding of their interconnection and the perception of them in the local community. To observe the interworking of the mangrove and estuary environments, we made two separate visits to the area. We also spent two days examining the mangroves and surrounding area in order to familiarize ourselves with the areas layout and to identify any additional problems. We documented any noticeable issues such as mangrove mortality using a digital camera and a notebook. Likewise, we interviewed residents in the community to acquaint ourselves with the perceptions concerning the Mala Noche River estuary and its mangroves. These actions provided a context for the situation and allowed us to gather general information on the area.
22
Figure 3-1. Surveying Sediment. Team members document sediment on the beach and near an unnamed river (photo by Stanley Selkow). 23
24
25
26
27
4.2: Initial assessment of the Mala Noche River and Key Observations on the Community
For a better understanding of our assessment of the Mala Noche River, we will begin with a description of the areas layout, followed by a synopsis on the community usage of the estuary and mangroves. The Mala Noche River is located in the province of Guanacaste, in the Nicoya territory. Figure 4-1 shows the current path the river takes in relation to Smara, El Torito, Matapalo, and an unnamed river, which once connected to the Mala Noche River estuary. The mouth of the Mala Noche River freely connects to a bay, open to the Pacific Ocean. This bay is surrounded on the left and right by Punta Smara and Punta Indio, respectively, the two farthest-reaching stretches of land on either side. From Figure 4-1, it is possible to see that the location of the estuarys mouth is such that any pollutants or sediments to enter the river woul d have a high chance of reaching the coral reef ecosystems within the bay, as well as the ecosystems on the Island of Chora. In addition to its interconnection with these nearby ecosystems, the Mala Noche River also has a huge impact on the aquifer of Smara. An aquifer is a natural underground storage of fresh water, which acquires its store of water from both superficial (above ground) and subterranean (below ground) waters. In this case, the Mala Noche River provides the majority of superficial water for the aquifer, which has an area of 2 km2. The Mala Noche River, in turn, receives its supply of water from the Mala Noche Basin, which measures approximately 24 km2. Although both these ecosystems are small, they are highly important, as they are the only source of potable water for the local communities (Arnez & Funke, 2008). Figure 4-2 shows the location of the five drilled wells in the region, of which, only two (GA-040 and GA-015) are used to provide potable water to the Smara and El Torito area (Martnez, 2006). The three other wells function to service private enterprises in the area (Arnez et al., 2005).
28
Figure 4-2
Figure 4-1. Mala Noche River Map. Map of area surrounding the Mala Noche River (river towards right) and proposed development projects in 2005. The unnamed river, as seen in the red box, once connected to the Mala Noche River. Additionally, Isla Chora can be seen in the bottom right corner of the map (Arnez et al., 2005). 29
Figure 4-2. Wells in Aquifer. The protected zone of the aquifer (green) and the five wells (blue dots) (Arnez & Funke, 2008).
4.2.1: Utilization of Resources in the Mala Noche Sector In Smara, the surrounding communities utilize the resources of the Mala Noche River and mangroves in many different ways. Although some of these practices are harmless, others have the capacity to cause a great deal of damage to the surrounding ecosystems. For this reason, it is important to assess both the positive and negative practices within the Mala Noche Sector, which includes the river, its springs, and the land in both the upper and middle part of the watershed. Additionally, despite the fact that outsiders see some of these practices as harmful, there is an
30
inherent difficulty in convincing local residents to change such customary practices. We, therefore, further examined the communitys perspective on the role of the estuary in order to understand the reasoning behind their actions. The communities in Smara and El Torito rely on the estuary as a source of fresh drinking water. We used interviews with local experts as well as past studies to gather relevant information on this topic. However, it is important to note that interviews have the potential for bias as both interviewers and interviewees may only paint a picture of the problem from their perspective. For the Mala Noche Sector, we learned that all of the potable water for the area comes from one aquifer, the Mala Noche aquifer, as mentioned previously. Therefore, the aquifer and in part, the Mala Noche River, determine the amount of people the region can safely sustain. In the low tourist season, two wells provide water to about 2000 people, while in the high season, these same wells provide for about 7000 people (Martnez, 2006). As the only potable water source, it is vital to protect the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves. In addition, any areas further upstream, whose health affects lower regions of the river, must be protected. Even though the mangroves are situated 300 m away from the public wells, they provide an important service. The balance of saltwater and freshwater near the aquifer depends upon the health of these mangroves as they function to prevent the intrusion of ocean water into the aquifer (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010; Australian Online Coastal Information, 2010). Damages to the mangroves and estuary, through harmful practices, could lead to a shortage or even complete loss of water to the people of Smara and El Torito. While the use of the aquifer as a source of potable water is benign in principle, there is a risk of overexploiting its resources. The aquifer can only support a finite population size due to its relatively small area of 2 km2 (Arnez & Funke, 2008). Excess demand placed on the aquifer could lead to a water shortage and potentially the entrance of saltwater. If salt water gets into the aquifer, the contamination is irreversible as it reduces the level of underground freshwater available to the community, risking the livelihood of the entire region (Arnez et al., 2005). Currently, in Smara, the drive for expansion and development has led to an increase in the towns population; this has placed a strain upon the Mala Noche aquifer. The situation has been amplified by the approval of projects and mega-development in the areas in and surrounding Smara and El Torito. El Torito, more so than Smara, has already felt the repercussions of these huge development projects in the form of insufficient water for its existing population. In a 2008 report, the well for El Torito produced about 2.3 liters/sec. in the summer, starting from the month of March. The report stated that this is an insufficient amount of water to supply a whole community 31
comfortably. Nevertheless, the ASADA in El Torito continues to grant permits to projects in the surrounding area. The number of hotels, cabins, and even condominiums is expected to increase, in spite of the strain this places on their water supply (Arnez et al., 2005; Arnez & Funke, 2008). The extraction of water from the Mala Noche aquifer has not been effectively controlled in past or recent years, and this situation has a critical impact on dependent communities (Arnez et al., 2005). The inability to control or regulate harmful community practices in Smara can lead to damage of the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves, endangering both the surrounding ecosystems and the aquifer. In recent years, the aquifer has experienced a great number of potential threats, with one of the most serious ones occurring on October 21, 2006, when the Mala Noche River poured over its normal path and reached within 100 m of Smaras well, threatening the lives of local inhabitants. Evidence to the cause of this event points toward human activities: upstream deforestation and development in areas critical to the stability of the aquifer (Arnez & Funke, 2008). Although some practices, such as use of the estuary for recreational purposes, are only minimally harmful, other practices such as waste disposal and burning are more harmful to estuarine health (Figure 4-3). The lack of clearly regulated waste disposal measures in Smara has resulted in community The usage of the estuary as an illegal dumpsite. effects of this practice are highly apparent through observation however, provided background on alone; interviews further these
practices. Because there Figure 4-3. Burn Pile. A trash pile, which will be burned, next to aquifer border and mangroves (photo by Ricardo Obasare). is no system in place for trash recollection in this area, it is common for trash to be buried or burned in regions near the Mala Noche Sector (Figure 4-3). Toxic substances 32
from these illegal dumpsites can enter the soil, eventually reaching the recharge zone of the aquifer (the area in which waters first enter the aquifer) (Arnez et al., 2005). Additionally, when the locals burn trash, the fires are often started directly underneath trees (Figure 4-4). The heat and smoke from these fires put great strain on the mangrove trees, and often kills them (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010). Toxic smoke from these trash burnings return to the ground with rain and enters superficial and waters subterranean
(Arnez et al., 2005). In the Mala Noche River itself, there is a high level of contamination from Matapalo and El Torito. This contamination comes in the form of household and industrial trash, including toxic and chemical solutions from construction Figure 4-4. Burning Trash Pile. A pile of debris along the beach road ablaze. This pile burned underneath a palm tree and next to a small mangrove (in front and towards the left side of the fire) (photo by Riccardo Obasare). sites. Additionally, cars and trucks are washed in or near the river and even receive oil changes, with excess
runoff often entering the river. Untreated sewage, another common pollutant, results largely from the fact that Smara does not have a treatment system for its sewage and wastewaters. The wastes from septic systems (in homes that possess this type of waste management technique) are washed out by groundwater during the rainy season and end up in the ocean, to which the estuary and mangrove are highly connected (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010). Without the proper studies, the exact impact of such high levels of pollution in Smara is unknown, although there have been apparent negative consequences for the surrounding ecosystems. Human development in and around the Mala Noche Sector has resulted in a marked decrease in environmental health. In Smara, the inhabitants often use the mangroves and other flora Other surrounding the Mala Noche River as building material. This results in the extraction of bark, trees, and leaves, although such actions are deemed illegal by various environmental laws. 33
materials, such as large stones and debris from the river bed, have also been removed from the natural environment for construction projects (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010). This is a huge disturbance to the benthic communities in the river bed, as well as to all other ecosystems in the area. In forests throughout the Mala Noche Sector, investors have been known to develop lots for the construction of grand villas, some with a value of millions of dollars. These developments can often encompass areas that span thousands of square meters. Without proper studies, the scale of the environmental impact these projects have is unknown. However, such large losses of forest tracts will mean a definite change in the micro- and macroclimate (climate on a local and global scale), thus having large consequences for water cycles (the way in which water is recycled and reused in an environment) (Arnez et al., 2005). Streets, roads, and plantations are other common types of development within the Mala Noche Sector. Several of these construction projects have taken place within the recharge zone of the Mala Noche aquifer. The heavy machinery often compacts the soil in these areas and causes a distortion of the ground that can result in erosion (Arnez et al., 2005). In the mangrove forests surrounding the Mala Noche River, specifically, squatters have made at least four separate attempts within the last ten years to create lots out of land that is protected by law (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010). In this type of development, the mangrove trees are clear cut and both drains and ditches are used to dry the soil, resulting in the destruction of entire ecosystems which depend on the moist soils of wetlands for survival. Regardless of the type of development, it is clear that human encroachment within the Mala Noche Sector has resulted in a disruption of water cycles and a huge disturbance in the natural interactions of ecosystems (Arnez et al., 2005). 4.2.2: Community Perspective Although certain community practices in Smara are harmful to the surrounding environment, it is often difficult to change customs which have become habitual. For this reason, we must consider the mindset behind these practices in order to better understand the perspective of the locals. Through interviews with local residents, we found that, in general, the inhabitants of Smara are unaware of the importance of the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves in their lives. An important note on this point is that we had a limited amount of time to study their perspective; so, we relied heavily on interviews to formulate our findings, which have the potential for bias. We found that, for the most part, inhabitants do not realize that some of their actions cause great harm to the environment, and that this can have repercussions upon their own lives. It is not widely known that the Mala Noche River contributes to the superficial waters that enter the aquifer. The 34
pollution of and general behavior towards the river reflects this lack of knowledge. There is also a lack of awareness concerning how the mangroves contribute to the protection of the aquifer, which results, in part, in continued destruction of these environments. Through our interviews, we also found that local residents view mangroves as visually unappealing and believe they occupy too much space. Many inhabitants also dislike wildlife at such a close proximity to their community, as they view them as dangerous. Additionally, some inhabitants are aware of the environmental problems in Smara, but are, understandably, more concerned with providing for their families. It is often easy to look at the situation from the perspective of an outsider and favor the conservation and restoration of an environment as more important than the involved community. However, in many cases, encroachment upon natural environments occurs as a result of necessity or of the desire of people to create a better life for themselves and for their family. Thus, although development can cause environmental damage, it also leads to monetary gain. Money is often the incentive in Smara for granting permits to projects even if there is not enough water, and it is not in the best interests of the community. This is also true for the development of lots, which are often located in areas which should be under governmental protection. Furthermore, many harmful practices, such as waste disposal and burning, have been done for generations, and take place in many different areas of Costa Rica. Many inhabitants, therefore, look upon these practices as traditions, rather than environmental mistreatment. For a truly sustainable solution to the environmental situation in Smara, all of these perspectives must be taken into account when trying to determine the best methods of remediation (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010).
35
36
Figure 4-6. Clay and Gravel Sediment. Clay and gravel sedimentation within the Mala Noche Rivers estuary (photo by Erin Armstrong).
We hypothesized that the gravel sediment on the beach came to its current location when gravel in the estuary washed out to the ocean, and currents returned it to the beach. Through our conversations with Sr. Konrad Sauter and a member of ASADA, we also theorized that the gravel sediment originally came from construction projects upstream of the Mala Noche River, which have been known to clear the tops of hills, dumping their excess building materials alongside and even in the river. The magnitude of the Figure 4-7. Destruction of Hill. To level the ground, a hilltop was removed during the construction of a hotel (Arnez & Funke, 2008). 37 damage done to the environment
in this type of construction is incalculable, especially given the large tracts of land cleared. Figure 47 shows the extent of damage in one such construction project. The second major type of sediment found in the Mala Noche River was clay. This sediment was identified by its consistency: when squeezed, the sediment would remain firm and it was possible to mold the sediment into different shapes, both characteristics of clay. The clay found in the Mala Noche Sector was localized mainly inside of the estuary. There were large deposits of clay both in the mouth of the river and approximately 30 meters upstream (as seen in Figure 4-8). This clay was present in much larger quantities than the gravel sediment. Figure 4-6 shows the Figure 4-8. Clay Sediment. A large amount of clay sediment located at the mouth of the Mala Noche River (photo by Emily Scott-Solomon). As Figure 4-9 shows, the huge amount of clay has caused the Mala Noche River to change its course in order to remain connected to the ocean. While it is true that estuaries are continually changing, the change in course of the Mala Noche River over the past few years has been heavily influenced by the amount of clay that has washed downstream. In addition, the river has begun to eat away at the banks, which has resulted in an enlargement of the river to nearly three times its original size. The eroded soil from the bank then contributes to banks of clay sediment, in comparison to the much smaller piles of gravel sediment.
Figure 4-9. Diversion of the Mala Noche River. The large amount the sediment input further decreasing water of gravel and clay sediment blocking the rivers mouth has flow. The enlargement of the river also diverted the river, causing it to erode the banks (photo by Erin Armstrong). 38
Figure 4-10. Clay Sediment from Estuary and Hill. Clay sediment found in the Mala Noche estuary (left) looked similar to clay soil in the teak plantation (right) (photos by Emily Scott-Solomon). reduces the land available to various terrestrial ecosystems within the Mala Noche Sector. Where the river was once curved, as seen in various governmental maps of the area, it is now mostly straight (see Appendix B). Through further visual observation and interviews, we determined that the most likely source of the clay sediment was from a teak plantation that is located farther upstream in the Mala Noche River. This hypothesis was corroborated by the fact that the soil found in the teak plantation was very similar to the clay sediment in the Mala Noche River estuary in that they both have a red coloration, and a similar texture when held. A comparison of the two samples of soil can be seen in Figure 4-10. Locals have informed us that this red clay is not native to the estuary, and began to gather at the mouth of the estuary around the time of the teak plantations formation. To further confirm that these two soil types are identical, qualified personnel need to run soil composition tests. Also, research suggests that teak Because teak trees have such plantations are a common source of soil erosion. large leaves, it is difficult for sunlight to reach the undergrowth (Figure 4-11 and Figure 4-12). Therefore, in a teak plantation, teak is often the only thing able Figure 4-11. Teak Leaf. Teak leaf taken from a tree growing next to the Mala Noche River estuary (photo by Emily Scott-Solomon). 39
to grow. As a result, there is little to no undergrowth to hold the soil in place (Young, 1989). When the rainy season comes, the soil is pulled down the mountain by rain into the rivers and deposited into the estuary. There is a similar effect when the teak is harvested since there is nothing to support the soil. This least three teak large plantation covers at hillsides. Additionally, in many areas of the teak plantation, the protected streams This zones and of rivers
have been violated. encroachment upon protected lands adds to the amount of sediment entering the Mala from Figure 4-12. Understory Growth in the Teak Plantation. In the teak plantation, very little to no vegetation grows in the understory. The plants covering the ground are small teak trees (photo by Erin Armstrong). Noche the River teak In many
plantation.
cases, the teak trees are planted right next to the banks of the river, and there is no
natural vegetation present to act as a barrier for some of the sediment. The exact impacts of the teak plantation have never been evaluated. However, the massive change in vegetation and encroachment upon protected areas has negatively affected water cycles and previously existing ecosystems. These negative effects can be seen in the loss of biodiversity within the area and the drying of springs and rivers, located within the basin, which has been occurring earlier each year. As of 2008, the Mala Noche River remains mostly dry between the months of February and May. Local inhabitants have said this is a new occurrence and that the river had never gone dry in years previous to the formation of the teak plantation (Arnez & Funke, 2008).
40
In addition to direct deposition of sediment, there are other factors that contribute to excess sediment retention in the Mala Noche River estuary. Upstream of the Mala Noche River, there are many new housing and hotel developments. One of these hotels has diverted water from more than 10 of the streams that feed the Mala Noche River estuary. This diversion of protected waters is illegal, and has taken place due to the hotels need to supply water for their artificial lake and fountain. The lake has no protective vegetation, and thus is in direct sunlight. This, in addition to the lakes fountain, causes a great deal of water to be lost through evaporation. find that Through interviews this diversion has and past studies, we were able to contributed to the drying of rivers and streams in the summer. We were able to obtain past evidence corroborating the fact that this water diversion has severely limited the available water in the Mala Noche River: once the pipes leading to the artificial lake were broken, the stream quickly filled with water. This evidence can be seen in Figure 4-13. To exacerbate the situation, the Figure 4-13. Diverting Water by Pipes. The diversion of water completely dried a spring (top), but after the pipe was opened, the stream began flowing normally within minutes (bottom) (ASADA, Smara, n.d.). 41 diverted waters are not returned to the Mala Noche River following their use in the artificial lake. Rather, they become a part of
a different watershed (an area where surface and subterranean waters converge and enter larger bodies of water), located in Carrillo Beach. Although we recognize the fact that increasing water could bring more sediment down the mountain, it is more likely that an increased water flow would help to flush out the sediment currently present in the estuary (J. Crooks, personal communication, October 7, 2010). Additionally, the sedimentation is only half of the problem in this situation. Without an adequate water flow in the estuary, the mangroves will die. This has already begun to take place, as evidenced by the several instances of dead mangroves alongside the Mala Noche River (Figure 4-14). Figure 4-14. Mangrove Mortality in Estuary. A mangrove near the mouth of the Mala Noche River shows signs of stress. Many of its branches are bare of leaves and many of the leaves are starting to yellow (photo by Emily ScottSolomon).
Furthermore, the amount of water that currently flows down the Mala Noche River is enough that sedimentation can continue to travel from the hillsides of the teak plantation to the mouth of the estuary. Therefore, although increasing the amount of water flow for the river will allow more sediment to pile up, not taking action against the diversion of waters will result in a situation in which there are no mangroves or estuary to protect for lack of water. 4.3.2: Impact on Outlying Ecosystems and the Community In addition to determining the level of sedimentation within the estuary, we also evaluated the negative impact of sedimentation on it. Upon initially viewing the Mala Noche River estuary, we noted that the estuary has almost completely disappeared. To have a functional estuary, the freshwater of the river must be able to mix with the saltwater of the ocean. Instead, the mouth of the Mala Noche River now, more or less, feeds directly into the ocean. The area in which the mixing of salt and freshwater took place was once about five feet deep at high tide, during the wet season. Currently, this area is much smaller in size and is now only a few inches deep at high tide. This drastic change, according to local inhabitants, occurred around the same time as the appearance of the large banks of clay and gravel sediment (Member of ASADA, personal communication, November 16, 2010). Additionally, we observed many dead mangroves on the banks of the Mala 42
Noche River. As seen in Figure 4-15, these dead mangroves were mostly localized to areas where the sedimentation was so extreme the river had eaten away at its banks and the water could no longer reach the roots of the trees. If the situation is not mitigated, the remaining Figure 4-15. Mala Noche River Banks. Erosion along the banks of the Mala Noche River and the resulting sedimentation (photo by Erin Armstrong). as an the mangrove sedimentation with a
member of ASADA, we discovered that the number of animal species in the area has dramatically dropped in the last ten years, with about 50% of the native fauna actually remaining in the area (Arnez & Funke, 2008). Such damage to the terrestrial environments in Smara has noticeably affected surrounding marine environments due to the inherent interconnection of these two ecosystems. In addition to terrestrial life, the sedimentation has impacted local marine life. Most apparent, is the effect sedimentation has had on the coral reefs located within Smaras bay. When making our initial assessments of the area, we noticed a great deal of bleached coral had washed up all along the shore. We were told that this amount of coral was indicative of a dying, or mostly dead, coral reef, and that this situation has continued to worsen over the past few years. Likely, the gravel sediment from upstream construction projects has played a role in the destruction of these coral reefs. When washed out of the estuary, the gravel entered into the bay where the coral reefs are located. It is likely that the currents allowed the gravel to collide with the reefs, causing an unknown amount of damage (Arnez et al., 2005). Without action, it is unlikely that these marine environments will be able to recover, thus adding to the deterioration of terrestrial environments with which they are interconnected.
43
Finally, because sedimentation also affects the surrounding community, we evaluated the negative impact of sedimentation on the areas of touristic development, the economy, and sustainable living. In terms of development, wetland environments and mangrove forests can be a strong draw for birdwatchers and other tourists. Therefore, if construction destroys these areas, tourism development itself may be halted. In terms of tourism, the continued damage to the coral reef is also destroying an ecosystem that could have held a potential touristic draw. This touristic draw, from the surrounding environments, is one of the largest sources of revenue for Smara. It is important for locals to realize that the destruction of environments such as the mangroves and estuary can have major consequences to their ocean and their beach, two sites which often draws tourists to the region. Additionally, estuaries and mangrove swamps are the nurseries for many marine species such as red snapper. If these areas were destroyed, fishermans hauls would be reduced, affecting both the community and its markets due to Smaras partial dependence on the fishing industry. In terms of sustainable living, mangroves play a vital role in protecting the coastline from storms and their aftereffects, namely, flooding. Mangroves are highly important regulators in flooding due to the fact that they act as sponges, absorbing excess water. Mangroves also function in the filtration of bacteria and other dangerous substances, thus protecting local marine life (Arnez et al., 2005). However, most importantly, if the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves are destroyed, Smara will be without a source of fresh drinking water. Therefore, to bring about a truly sustainable future for this community, damage to the environment must be both mitigated and prevented.
44
45
protection of the area. Although the children were initially receptive, they lost interest following the conclusion of the lessons. However, our research suggests this method, a participatory approach, provides the best educational outcome (NAAEE, 2010; GIMHRDD & NIC, n.d.). To develop more interest and further promote awareness, we have determined that other organizations such as the schools and municipality must be included in the education system. Additionally, the creation of workshops for adults, especially teachers, can help increase community involvement (Fundacin Neotropica, personal communication, November 23, 2010). Studies also show children, ages 8 and under, are more receptive of education programs when adults provide an environmental conscious role model (NAAEE, 2010). Environmental education programs need to employ a multitude of methods to address the different learning styles and maturity levels of each child. Younger children, specifically ages 3 to 6 years, must develop an appreciation for the natural world, which future education can build upon. Positive experiences with the environment such as visiting a nature preserve or planting a community garden can accomplish this. Explicitly teaching problems and threats facing the environment should be reserved for older children, 8 and over, who can begin to comprehend the interconnections between actions and consequences (NAAEE, 2010). Activities created for the environmental education curriculum should be a mix of structured and unstructured, facilitating critical thinking and maximizing learner participation (NAAEE, 2010; GIMHRDD & NIC, n.d.). One example, group discussion about a story or environmental scenario, allows students to share ideas while providing support for their opinions. This allows students to organize their own thoughts while incorporating new information from other sources such as teachers and other students. More appropriate for older students, problem solving and inquiry teaches children about a specific situation and allows them to analyze how their own actions might contribute to the environmental problem. It also allows them to propose practical solutions, which they or someone of higher authority can accomplish (GIMHRDD & NIC, n.d.). Games can also arouse interest and be employed in classrooms of all levels. These can range from a scavenger hunt where students identify different aspects of the environment such as animals and flora, to memory games such as matching animals to habitats or names (NAAEE, 2010; GIMHRDD & NIC, n.d.). By employing multiple methods for teaching, children will learn more from the environmental education curriculum. In addition to using multiple teaching styles, educators and adults, themselves, need to first understand environmental problems and interconnections within their own community. Workshops specializing in environmental education curriculums can facilitate such adult 46
understanding (Fundacin Neotropica, personal communication, November 23, 2010; NAAEE, 2010). To properly teach children, educators must be capable of relating the experiences of children to the environment in order to pose reflective questions for discussion. Additionally, they need to understand their own values and principles in relation to the environment. This will allow them to effectively moderate group discussions. Furthermore, workshops can help educators and school districts define goals for environmental education. Three goals that generally drive curriculums include: informing individuals on environmental issues, informing people on human decisions affecting the environment, and allowing for people to make informed decisions (NAAEE, 2010). The education of schoolchildren allows for intercommunity and intergenerational learning. As concluded by the Scarlet Macaw case study (see section 2.5.2), children can retain more knowledge about conservation, which they transfer to their parents. In turn, parents educate neighbors through casual discussion (Gack et al., 2003). Additionally, workshops for adults can facilitate cooperation between generations through their exposure to environmental issues within the community, which is important to early childhood education (NAAEE, 2010). By implementing environmental education in school systems, children can carry knowledge to adults, who may not have the opportunity to attend workshops. This can also increase enforcement of laws by having communities monitor the area and push government officials to follow legislation (Fundacin Neotropica, personal communication, November 23, 2010).
47
4.5: Conclusion
To conclude, we have determined that the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves cannot be considered healthy. This is due, in large part, to the excess gravel and clay sediment that has affected the area. Also, through interviews and research, we have determined that education is vital in the success of restoration projects. These findings helped us to make recommendations concerning how to proceed with restoration and education efforts.
48
5.1: Dredging
Clay sediment, which we believe is from a local teak plantation, and gravel sediment, which we believe is from local construction projects, has accumulated in the Mala Noche River estuary. This sediment has buried the roots of the mangroves within the estuary, inhibiting their ability to perform gaseous exchange. Similarly, this excess sediment restricts the salt and fresh water exchange at the mouth of the estuary. If this water exchange halts completely, the water within the estuary will become deoxygenated, and the remaining mangroves will die. We recommend that the mouth of the Mala Noche River be dredged once, in order to reestablish normal water exchange between the ocean and river. If sedimentation reaccumulates in the rivers mouth, future dredging will be required. In addition to the buildup of sediment at the mouth of the estuary, accrued sediment approximately 30 meters upstream of the mouth has forced the river to carve a new path around the growing sediment bank. This has resulted in erosion of river banks and widening of the river, which lessens total water per unit area. Because the total water per unit area has been reduced, there is less water flow per unit area to flush the excess sediment out of the estuary, which exacerbates the problem. We recommend that the sediment bank approximately 30 meters upstream of the river mouth be dredged, and the river banks in this section be reinforced to prevent further erosion. Dredging must be executed with caution due to the large impact it can have on surrounding ecosystems. It is important that only the minimal amount of sediment be removed to restore natural water flow. If too much sediment is removed, excess saltwater could enter the estuary, 49
threatening the aquifer and fresh drinking water for the area. Therefore, we recommend that dredging experts be consulted concerning exactly how much sediment should be removed to restore natural water flow. In addition, it must be noted that although restoration of natural water exchange will lessen the likelihood of the total loss of the estuary and mangroves, it will not return the estuary to its original state; it will instead allow a new ecosystem of estuarine species to thrive. This is the second best option comparative to the original state. Finally, although we recognize that the gravel sediment lining the beach near the mouth of the estuary is not aesthetically pleasing, it seems to have no direct effect on the health of the estuary. However, it is possible that it could affect other ecosystems, such as the nearby coral reef. Therefore, we recommend that the gravel sediment lining the beach near the mouth of the estuary be left alone. However, we also recommend that further studies be performed to determine if this excess sediment is affecting the coral reef, located off shore, or other marine communities. Because the survival of the Smara coral reef and the Mala Noche River estuary and mangroves are interconnected, it is important to consider the health of both.
enforcement of laws reduces the sources of erosion and sedimentation (Aguitar & Ching, 2001). Also, the construction of a sediment basin will potentially provide jobs to communities during the designing process and construction of the basin. The project will also provide future jobs to people who will monitor and maintain the basin. The basin will generally last 12 to 28 months, which will allow for the performance of other studies to determine more permanent solutions. Generally, detention or retention basins are constructed over sediment basins to provide a permanent solution following the initial 12 to 28 month period, if erosion continues (CASQA, 2003). Additionally, sediment basin experts need to be consulted to determine if a sediment basin is, indeed, an ideal short-term solution. In addition, studies on the topography of the Mala Noche River need to be performed to determine the best location of the sediment basin. The size of a sediment basin depends on the acreage contributing to the sedimentation in the Mala Noche Rivers estuary. Due to our limited time frame, we could not establish the amount of land contributing to sedimentation; therefore, future studies will need to determine the exact locations contributing the most sediment and the sizes of these areas. These studies will also provide data to ascertain the location of the sediment basin, which will maximize capture efficiency.
51
chances of the aquifer becoming contaminated. Restored wetlands can economically benefit local communities by providing opportunities for tourism and recreation as well. With the exception of our recommended restoration techniques, people need to allow the mangroves to recover naturally with minimal interference. The mangrove community surrounding the Mala Noche River estuary needs to continue to provide a habitat for wildlife. The mangroves help protect the estuary, which provides nurseries to economically important fish (Martin, 1994). In addition, the mangrove forest protects the aquifer, which provides water to the thousands of inhabitants of Smara and El Torito, from salinization by the ocean. While a variety of methods exist for mangrove restoration, mangroves will naturally recover given time and opportunity. At most, sediment needs to be removed to provide the opportunity, and mangrove seeds can be planted to shorten recovery time. Unfortunately, the mangrove ecosystems will not return to their pre-disturbance original state; however, the current environmental situation can improve if they are given the opportunity to repopulate. To reduce erosion, restoration efforts should also focus on reforestation of the native forests and wetlands in the protected areas surrounding rivers and waterways near the teak plantation. Teak plantations can prevent natural vegetation from colonizing the forest floor, which causes top soil and clay runoff. To decrease erosion, the restoration project should include reforestation of native trees and vegetation within 200 meters of the river at high tide, a zone already protected by law (Aguitar & Ching, 2001). Since we concentrated on mangrove ecosystems, we cannot recommend the types of vegetation this would encompass. Others will have to perform this study to determine the costs of such an endeavor.
5.4: Education
The success of future restorative and preventative measures in the Mala Noche River will depend upon local community involvement. Decisions pertaining to the environment should be made by the community as a whole, to allow them to become a part of a process which affects many aspects of their livelihood. This sort of decision-making can only come about when the community has a solid grasp of the situation and the implications of their actions on the environment. Currently, in Smara, there are a large number of policy makers and stakeholders who remain uninformed about the resources provided by the surrounding environments and the interrelation between their actions and the environment. 52
Therefore, we recommend the initiation of an environmental educational plan for the benefit of the local communities and future restoration efforts in the Mala Noche River. An education plan focusing on the importance of the environment in everyday life, will allow the community of Smara to become a part of the decision-making process in future restoration and prevention efforts. We have written an educational supplement, found in Appendix A, detailing an environmental education plan best suited for the schools in Smara. This supplement focuses mainly upon education of the schoolchildren, with the principle that the education of the towns youth will lead to further intergenerational (child to parent) and intercommunity learning. However, we have noted the necessity of educating the local school teachers and community through workshops and other relevant methods.
53
environments. Possible parties for partnership could include ASADA of Smara and Fundacin Neotropica. It is our recommendation that efforts to implement education and restoration methods be executed simultaneously, so as to mitigate immediate environmental damage while beginning the process of community involvement. We consider the implementation of both the educational curriculum and the restoration methods outlined in this project as necessary steps to educate future stakeholders and to address some of the environmental damage. It is necessary to combine these efforts due to their long-term nature. Should restoration be delayed, there may be irreversible damage done to the wetland and marine environments, leaving the community with nothing to protect. Governmental agencies should be consulted before necessary restoration efforts can begin. Additionally, experts in dredging, basins, and wetland restoration need to determine technical details. We recommend future projects address waste management issues and marine life conservation in Smara Beach. The scope of the environmental problems in Smara has spread to many far-reaching areas that we were not able to investigate. Our findings have indicated a clear need for new waste management practices within the Mala Noche Sector. We believe that it is important for a regulated waste management system to be set up in the town of Smara, so as to lessen the amount of pollution that threatens environments such as the mangroves and the Mala Noche River estuary. Additionally, we did not fully investigate the effect of sedimentation and pollution upon the marine life in Smaras bay. As the town is partially a fishing community, it is important to explore the impacts upon the coral reef and the existent fish population, in addition to possible methods of restoration for each. Due to the strong societal issues raised by the sedimentation affecting the town of Smara, any attempt at a solution will be a long-term process. Our aim for this project was to arrive at an assessment of the problem to provide necessary guidance and direction for future projects. To this end, we have made recommendations concerning possible physical methods of restoration, areas for future research and education programs. We have determined that it is possible for the Mala Noche River estuary to return to a healthy and productive state. However, for this to occur, there needs to be strong emphasis on education of stakeholders within the community. If the community
54
develops a strong environmental conscience, this will foster more individual concern for the environment and form the best defense against future attacks on its safety.
55
References
Aguitar, A., & Ching, E. W., Centro de Derecho Ambiental y de los Recursos Naturales, (2001). Manual de competencias ambientales municipales. San Jose, Costa Rica. Arnez, E. M., Castillo, A., Dibango, D., Esquivel, C., Funke, B., & Jimnez, J. P. (2005). Nuestra Agua: Tesoro Fragil. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Arnez, E. M., & Funke, B. F. (2008). El Recurso Hdrico de Smara: Estado Actual y Amenazas. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Australian Online Coastal Information, (2010). Saline Intrusion. Retrieved on 29 November 2010 from http://www.ozcoasts.org.au/indicators/saline_intrusion.jsp California Stormawater Quality Association (CASQA). (2003). Stormwater Best Management Practice (BMP) Handbook: Industrial and Commercial. Menlo Park, California: California Stormwater Quality Association. Available from:
http://www.cabmphandbooks.com/documents/Industrial/IndustrialCommercial.pdf Carmichael, J. T., Cafferty, D. P., Vayda, K. M., Lemone, K. A., & Shockey, I. K. (2009). Maintaining marine ecosystems. Unpublished manuscript, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA. Chou, L. M., Ong, X., Todd, P. A. (2010). Impacts of pollution on marine life in Southeast Asia. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(4), 1063-1082. doi: 10.1007/s10531-010-9778-0 Costa Rica Tourism Board (ICT). (2010). Retrieved 9/12, 2010, from http://www.microsites.visitcostarica.com/ Claudet, J., & Fraschetti, S. (2010). Human-driven impacts on marine habitats: A regional metaanalysis in the Mediterranean Sea. Biological Conservation, 143(9), 2195-2206. Doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.06.004 Dodd, R. S., & Ong, J. E. (2008). Future of mangrove ecosystems to 2025. Aquatic Ecosystems, 172187. Ellison, J. C. (1999). Impacts of sediment burial on mangroves. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 37(8-12), 420-426. doi:DOI: 10.1016/S0025-326X(98)00122-2 56
Ellison, A. M. (2000). Mangrove restoration: Do we know enough? Restoration Ecology, 8(3), 219229. doi:10.1046/j.1526-100x.2000.80033.x Emerson, J., Esty, D.C., Levy, M.A., Kim, C.H., Mara, V., de Sherbinin, A., Srebotnjak, T. (2010). 2010 environmental performance index. Retrieved from http://epi.yale.edu Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (1993). Constructed Wetland for Wastewater Treatment and Wildlife Habitat: 17 Case Studies. North Bainbridge Island, Washington: Environmental Protection Agency. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (June 2007). National Estuary Program Coastal Condition Report. Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/owow/oceans/nepccr/index.html Erskine, W. D., & Saynor, M. (1996). Effects of catastrophic floods on sediment yields in southeastern Australia. IAHS Publications-Series of Proceedings and Reports-Intern Assoc Hydrological Sciences, 236, 381-388. Evans, S. (1999). The green republic : A conservation history of Costa Rica (1st ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press. The Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (FISRWG) (U.S.). (1998, revised 2001). Federal Stream Corridor Restoration Handbook: Principles, Processes, and Practices. Washington, D.C.: the Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (15 Federal agencies of the United States Government). Gack, J., Ray, R., Solorazano, H., & Vaughan, C. (2003). The Effect of Environmental Education on Schoolchildren, Their Parents, and Community Members: A Study of Intergenerational and Intercommunity Learning. The Journal of Environmental Education, 34(3), 12-21. Government of India Ministry of Human Resource and Development Department (GIMHRDD) and National Informatics Centre (NIC). (n.d.). Environmental Education Methods and Approaches. Retrieved November 24, 2010, from http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/home.htm. Hidalgo, H. G. (2010). Water resources in Costa Rica: A strategic view. Costa Rican National Academy of Sciences). Retrieved from
57
http://www.hugohidalgoleon.com/files/papers/2010_Water_Resources_in_Costa_Rica%20A%20strategic%20view_version_draft.pdf Holl, K. D., Daily, G. C., & Ehrlich, P. R. (1995). Knowledge and perceptions in Costa Rica regarding environment, population, and biodiversity issues. Conservation Biology, 9(6), 1548-1558. Honey, M. (2008). Ecotourism and sustainable development: Who owns paradise? (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Island Press. The Interagency Workgroup on Wetland Restoration (IWWR). (2003). An Introduction and Users Guide to Wetland Restoration, Creation, and Enhancement. Washington, D.C.: IWWR (Environmental Protection Agency, Army Corps of Engineers, Fish and Wildlife Service, Natural Resources Conservation Services, and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). Jimnez, J. A. (2004). Mangrove forests under dry seasonal climates in Costa Rica. In Frankie, G. W., Mata, A., Bradleigh, S. (Eds.), Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest (pp. 136-143). Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Kennish, M. J., Livingston, R. J., Raffaelli, D., & Reise, K. (2008). Environmental future of estuaries. In Polunin, N. V. C. (Ed.), Aquatic Ecosystems: Trends and Global Prospects (pp. 188206). Cambridge University Press. Lewis III, R. R. (2009). Methods and Criteria for Successful Mangrove Forest Restoration. In Perillo, G. M. E., Wolanski, E., Cahoon, D. R., Brinson, M. M. (Eds.), Coastal Wetlands: An Integrated Ecosystem Approach (pp. 787-800). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science. Ley Sobre La Zona Maritimo Terrestre, (1977). Retrieved from http://www.mopt.go.cr/WebMOPTmgsit/documentos/Maritimo-Portuaria/L.6043.pdf Lohrer, A. M., & Wetz, J. J. (2003). Dredging-induced nutrient release from sediments to the water column in a southeastern saltmarsh tidal creek. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 46(9), 1156-1163. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12932497 Martin, Stella. (1994, July). Mangroves ii - the animals. Tropical Topics: An Interpretive Newsletter for the Tourism Industry, (21). Retrieved from http://www.derm.qld.gov.au/register/p00820ax.pdf 58
Martnez, A. A. (2006). Hidrogeologa del Acufero Mala Noche. Playa Smara: SENARA. Mata, A. (2004). Watershed ecology and conservation: Hydrological resources in the northwest of Costa Rica. Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest, 115. Mata, A., & Vargas, J. A. (2004). Where the dry forest feeds the sea: The gulf of the Nicoya estuary. In Frankie, G. W., Mata, A., Bradleigh, S. (Eds.), Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest (pp. 126-135). Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Maxted, J. R., and Shaver, E. (1999). The use of retention basins to mitigate stormwater impacts to aquatic life. In Environmental Protection Agency (Eds.), National Conference on Retrofit Opportunities for Water Resource Protection in Urban Environmental (pp. 6-15). Washington D.C.: Environmental Protection Agency. Mumby, P. J., Edwards, A. J., Arias-Gonzlez, J. E., Lindeman, K. C., Blackwell, P. G., Gall, A., et al. (2004). Mangroves enhance the biomass of coral reef fish communities in the Caribbean. Nature, 427(6974), 533-536. National Research Council (U.S.). (1992). Restoration of aquatic ecosystems: Science, technology, and public policy. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Nayar, S., Miller, D., Hunt, A., Goh, B. P. L., & Chou, L. (2007). Environmental effects of dredging on sediment nutrients, carbon and granulometry in a tropical estuary. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 127(1), 1-13. North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE). (2010). Early Childhood Environmental Education Programs: Guidelines for Excellence. Washington, D.C.: North American Association for Environmental Education. Ollivier, L. M., & Welsh Jr, H. H. (1998). Stream amphibians as indicators of ecosystem stress: A case study from Californias redwoods. Ecological Applications 8(4), 1118-1132. Palmer, M. A., Ambrose, R. F., & Poff, N. L. R. (1997). Ecological theory and community restoration ecology. Restoration Ecology, 5(4), 291-300. Rutherfurd, I., Jerie, K., & Marsh, N. (2000). A rehabilitation manual for Australian streams, volumes 1 and 2. Canberra: Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation. 59
Salazar, R. (2004). Environmental law of Costa Rica: Development and enforcement. In Frankie, G. W., Mata, A., Bradleigh, S. (Eds.), Biodiversity Conservation in Costa Rica: Learning the Lessons in a Seasonal Dry Forest (pp. 281-288). Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Snchez, J. P., & Bustamante, R. Q. (2010). The international comparative legal guide to: Environment law 2010 (pp. 84). London: Global Legal Group. The Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group (FISRWG) (U.S.). (1998, revised 2001). Federal Stream Corridor Restoration Handbook: Principles, Processes, and Practices (NEH653). United States of America State Department. (19 September 2009). Costa Rica Country Specific Information. Travel.state.gov. 09 October 2010. From http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1093.html Young, Anthony. (1989). Agroforestry For Soil Conservation. CAB International Council for Research in Agroforestry. United Kingdom: BPCC Wheatons Ltd, Exeter.
60
Figure Citations
Figure 2-1. Sediment Basin. Adams, C., Anderson, D., Dorrill, E., Melby, P., Cathcart, T., Pote, J., Stegall, T. (1999). Sediment Basin (In-Stream Flow Restoration) [image]. Water Related Best Management Practices in the Landscape (Project). Retrieved November 26, 2010 from: http://www.abe.msstate.edu/csd/NRCS-BMPs/stream.html. Figure 4-1. Mala Noche River Map. Arnez, E. M., Castillo, A., Dibango, D., Esquivel, C., Funke, B., & Jimnez, J. P. (2005). Nuestra Agua: Tesoro Fragil. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Figure 4-2. Wells in Aquifer. Arnez, E. M., & Funke, B. F. (2008). El Recurso Hdrico de Smara: Estado Actual y Amenazas. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Figure 4-6. Destruction of Hill. Arnez, E. M., & Funke, B. F. (2008). El Recurso Hdrico de Smara: Estado Actual y Amenazas. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Figure 4-12. Diverting Water by Pipes. ASADA, Smara. (n.d.). Hotel Spring Diversion Techniques on Hill Near Smara. Unpublished. Figure B-1. Change in course of the Mala Noche River over a period of several years. (Left Picture). Arnez, E. M., Castillo, A., Dibango, D., Esquivel, C., Funke, B., & Jimnez, J. P. (2005). Nuestra Agua: Tesoro Fragil. Playa Smara: ASADA Smara. Figure B-1. Change in course of the Mala Noche River over a period of several years. (Right Picture). Map of Smara, Costa Rica, retrieved 2007 from website www.maps.google.com.
61
Appendix A
EDUCATION CURRICULUM
Importance of Mangroves in Smara, Costa Rica 16th December 2010
62
Goals of Education:
1. 2. 3. 4. Increase awareness of environmental issues within Smara Increase community interest in maintaining natural environments Encourage community members to become more active in conservation of the environment 1 Allow community members to make more educated decisions on the mangroves and estuarys future
Conservation implies the continued use of an ecosystem in a sustainable manner. Preservation implies designating an area as protected and preventing human use of the environment.
63
A possible approach for implementing education programs for educators: Take a poll of educators to gauge interest level in a training program. For early stages, a focus group can gauge the level of environmental awareness amongst educators. Involve non-government organizations specializing in environmental education to develop and teach workshops. Training programs and workshops could start as an annual 2-3 day long period of classes and activities.
64
Possible steps for creation of education curriculum of children: Establish workshops for educators which teaches about environmental curriculums o Curriculum should highlight the benefits of the environment including mangroves Involve organizations experienced with child environmental education to organize activities and help design curriculum Engage children in small environmental projects o Planting native vegetation o Beach clean ups
65
Possible steps for implementing education curriculum for community: Create focus groups, which offer incentives for attendance (food, refreshments, etc.), to identify gaps in community members knowledge Take a poll of who may be interested in beginning restoration projects Involve organizations experienced with implementing community education to organize activities and meetings Hold town meetings (which may offer incentives for attendance) to present information Organize small restoration projects, initially twice a year, to increase community interest and activism.
66
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS:
Before implementation of the education plan begins, there are certain other issues that have to be considered. There needs to be an assessment of expected costs of implementing restoration methods. This includes the actual physical restoration methods and also the cost of material and labor that will be necessary for education. There are also certain organizations that should be kept in mind as possible resources when going about restoration:
1. 2. 3. 4.
In developing a plan, it will also be important to have an estimated timeline in mind. This timeline can be used to measure how well goals are being achieved. It is essential that early strategic planning be done to outline the approach that will be taken to reduce the damage done to the Mala Noche River Estuary.
67
REFERENCES
Mangrove Action Plan, N.D., Mangrove Curriculum retrieved on 30 November 2010 from http://mangroveactionproject.org/map-programs/education/mangrove-curriculum
North American Association for Environmental Education (NAAEE). (2010). Early Childhood Environmental Education Programs: Guidelines for Excellence. Washington, D.C.: North American Association for Environmental Education. Government of India Ministry of Human Resource and Development Department (GIMHRDD) and National Informatics Centre (NIC). (n.d.). Environmental Education Methods and Approaches. Retrieved November 24, 2010, from http://www.education.nic.in/cd50years/home.htm.
68
Appendix B
Figure B-1. Change in course of the Mala Noche River over a period of several years. This figure shows both a government map and satellite image of the Mala Noche River, side by side. The path of the Mala Noche River is highlighted in yellow on the right, while the same area has been outlined by a black box on the left. The lower part of the river (the boxed area in the left picture) was altered by direct human actions in order to claim part of the land for development. The satellite image, from 2007, is much more recent than the government map. Upon comparison of these two regions, it becomes evident that the Mala Noche River has drastically changed course over the last few years.
69