TOPIC T3: DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 1. What is dimensional analysis? 2. Dimensions 2.1 Dimensions and units 2.

2 Primary dimensions 2.3 Dimensions of derived quantities 2.4 Working out dimensions 2.5 Alternative choices for primary dimensions 3. Formal procedure for dimensional analysis 3.1 Dimensional homogeneity 3.2 Buckinghams Pi theorem 3.3 Applications 4. Physical modelling 4.1 Method 4.2 Froude-number scaling 4.3 Subtleties 5. Non-dimensional groups in fluid mechanics

AUTUMN 2004

References White (2002) Chapter 5 Hamill (2001) Chapter 10 Chadwick and Morfett (2004) Chapter 11 Massey (1998) Chapter 5

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David Apsley

1. WHAT IS DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS? Dimensional analysis is a means of simplifying a physical problem by appealing to dimensional homogeneity to reduce the number of relevant variables. It is particularly useful for: presenting and interpreting experimental data; attacking problems not amenable to a direct theoretical solution; checking equations; establishing the relative importance of particular physical phenomena; physical modelling.

Example. The drag force F per unit length on a long smooth cylinder is a function of air speed U, density , diameter D and viscosity . However, instead of having to draw hundreds of graphs portraying its variation with all combinations of these parameters, dimensional analysis tells us that the problem can be reduced to a single dimensionless relationship c D = f (Re) where cD is the drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number.

In this instance dimensional analysis has reduced the number of relevant variables from 5 to 2 and the experimental data to a single graph of cD against Re.

2. DIMENSIONS 2.1 Dimensions and Units

A dimension is the type of measure by which something is quantified. A unit is a means of fitting a numerical value to that quantity. SI units are preferred in scientific work.

2.2 Primary Dimensions

In fluid mechanics the primary or fundamental dimensions, together with their SI units are: mass M (kilogram, kg) length L (metre, m) time T (second, s) temperature (kelvin, K) In other areas of physics additional dimensions may be necessary. The complete set specified by the SI system consists of the above plus electric current I (ampere, A) luminous intensity C (candela, cd) amount of substance n (mole, mol)

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2.3 Dimensions of Derived Quantities

Dimensions of common derived fluid-mechanical quantities are given in the following table. Quantity Area Geometry Volume Second moment of area Velocity Angle Kinematics Angular velocity Quantity of flow Mass flow rate Force Moment, torque Dynamics Energy, work, heat Power Pressure, stress Density Viscosity Kinematic viscosity Fluid properties Surface tension Thermal conductivity Specific heat Bulk modulus Symbol(s) A V I U Dimensions L2 L3 L4 LT1 none T1 L3T1 MT1 MLT2 ML2T2 ML2T2 ML2T3 ML1T2 ML3 ML1T1 L2T1 MT2 MLT3 1 L2T2 1 ML1T2

Q m F T E, W P p,

k cp, cv K

2.4 Working Out Dimensions

In the following, [ ] means dimensions of. Example: Use the definition = dU to determine the dimensions of viscosity. dy

From the definition, = Hence, [ ]= MLT 2 /L2 LT 1 /L = ML1T 1 dU/dy = force / area velocity / length

Alternatively, dimensions may be deduced indirectly from any known formula involving that quantity.

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Example: Since Re =

UL

is known to be dimensionless, the dimensions of

must be the

same as those of UL; i.e. [ ] = [ UL] = (ML3 )(LT 1 )(L) = ML1T 1

2.5 Alternative Choices For Primary Dimensions

The choice of primary dimensions is not unique. It is not uncommon and it may sometimes be more convenient to choose force F as a primary dimension rather than mass, and have a {FLT } system rather than {MLT }. Example: Find the dimensions of in the {FLT } rather than {MLT } systems.

Answer: [ ] = FL2T

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3. FORMAL PROCEDURE FOR DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 3.1 Dimensional Homogeneity The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity

All additive terms in a physical equation must have the same dimensions.

Examples: s = ut + 1 at 2 2
p+
1 2

all terms have the dimensions of length (L) all terms have the dimensions of pressure (ML1T2)
all terms have the dimensions of head or length (L)

V 2 + gz = p 0

p V2 + +z=H g 2g

Dimensional homogeneity is also a useful tool for checking formulae. For this reason it is useful when analysing a physical problem to retain algebraic symbols for as long as possible and only substitute numbers right at the end. Note, however, that dimensional analysis cannot determine numerical factors; e.g. it cannot distinguish between at2 and at2 in the first formula above. Dimensional homogeneity is the basis of the formal dimensional analysis that follows.

3.2 Buckinghams Pi Theorem

Experienced practitioners can do dimensional analysis by inspection. However, the formal tool which they are unconsciously using is Buckinghams Pi Theorem1:
Buckinghams Pi Theorem

(1) If a problem involves n relevant variables and m independent dimensions then it can be reduced to a relationship between n m non-dimensional parameters ( 1, ..., n-m). (2) These non-dimensional s can be constructed as follows. (i) Choose m dimensionally-distinct variables to act as scales. In fluid mechanics it is common to choose a geometric quantity (e.g. a length), a kinematic quantity (e.g. a velocity) and a property of the fluid (e.g. density). (ii) For each of the n m remaining variable construct a non-dimensional of the form = (variable)( scale1 ) a ( scale2 ) b ( scale3 ) c where a, b, c, ... are chosen so as to make each non-dimensional.
1

Buckingham, E., 1914. The use of

comes from its use as the mathematical symbol for a product.

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3.3 Applications

Example. Obtain an expression in non-dimensional form for the pressure gradient in a horizontal pipe of circular cross-section. Show how this relates to the familiar expression for frictional head loss.

Step 1. Identify the relevant variables. dp/dx, , V, D, ks, Step 2. Write down dimensions. [ force / area] MLT 2 L2 = [dp/dx] = length L 3 [ ] = ML [V] = LT1 [D] = L [ks] = L [ ] = ML1T1

= ML2 T 2

Step 3. Establish the number of independent dimensions and non-dimensional groups. Number of relevant variables: n=6 Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T) Number of non-dimensional groups ( s): n m = 3 Step 4. Choose m (= 3) dimensionally-independent scaling variables. e.g. geometric (D), kinematic (V), property of fluid ( ). For convenience we repeat their dimensions: [D] = L [V] = LT1 [ ] = ML3 Step 5. Create the s by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables dp/dx, ks and . dp a b c D V 1 = dx Considering the dimensions of both sides: M 0 L0 T 0 = (ML2 T 2 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c Equate powers of primary dimensions. Since M only appears in [ ] and T only appears in [V] it is advantageous to do these first. M: 0=1+c c = 1 T: 0 = 2 b b = 2 L: 0 = 2 + a + b 3c a = 2 b + 3c = 1 Hence, dp D dp x DV 2 1 = d2 (Check: OK ratio of two pressures) 1 = dx V

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ks D

(by inspection, since ks is a length)

= D aV b c In terms of dimensions: M 0 L0 T 0 = (ML1T 1 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c Equating exponents: M: 0=1+c c = 1 T: 0 = 1 b b = 1 L: 0 = 1 + a + b 3c a = 1 b + 3c = 1 Hence,
3

VD

(Check: OK this is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number)

Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional relationship. 1 = function of { 2 , 3} or dp D dx = function of { k s , } D VD V2

(*)

Step 7. Rearrange (if required) for convenience. We are free to replace any of the s by a power of that , or by a product with the other s, provided we retain the same number of independent dimensionless groups. In this case we recognise that 3 is the reciprocal of the Reynolds number, so it looks 1 = Re as the third non-dimensional group. We can also write better to use 3 = ( 3) hf dp the pressure gradient in terms of head loss: = g . With these two modifications dx L the non-dimensional relationship (*) then becomes gh f D k = function of { s , Re} 2 D LV or hf k V2 = function of { s , Re} D L 2 gD (The factor of can be absorbed into the non-specified function.) This can immediately be identified with the Darcy-Weisbach equation hf V2 = 4f L 2 gD where the friction factor f is a function of relative roughness ks/D and Reynolds number Re.

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Example. The drag force on a body in a fluid flow is a function of the body size (expressed via a characteristic length L) and the fluid velocity V, density and viscosity . Perform a dimensional analysis to reduce this to a single functional dependence c D = f (Re) where cD is a drag coefficient and Re is the Reynolds number. What additional non-dimensional groups might appear in practice?

Notes. (a) Dimensional analysis simply says that there is a relationship; it doesnt (except in the case of a single , which must, therefore, be constant) say what the relationship is. For the specific relationship one must appeal to theory or, more commonly, experimental data. (b) If 1, 2, 3, ... are suitable non-dimensional groups then we are liberty to replace some or all of them by any powers or products with the other s, provided that we retain the same number of independent non-dimensional groups; e.g. ( 1)1, ( 2)2, 1( 3)2. (c) It is extremely common in fluid mechanics to find (often after the rearrangement mentioned in (b)) certain combinations which can be recognised as key parameters such as the Reynolds number ( Re = UL/ ) or Froude number ( Fr = U/ gL ).

(d) Often the hardest part of the dimensional analysis is determining which are the relevant variables. For example, surface tension is always present in free-surface flows, but can be neglected if the Weber number We = U2L/ is large. Similarly, compressibility can be ignored if the Mach number (Ma = U/c) is small; i.e. velocity is much less than the speed of sound. (e) Although three primary dimensions (M,L,T) may appear when the variables are listed, they do not do so independently. The following example illustrates a case where M and T always appear in the combination MT2, hence giving only one independent dimension.

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Example. The tip deflection of a cantilever beam is a function of tip load W, beam length l, second moment of area I and Youngs modulus E. Perform a dimensional analysis of this problem.

Step 1. Identify the relevant variables. , W, l, I, E. Step 2. Write down dimensions. [ ]=L [W] = MLT2 [l] = L [I] = L4 [E] = ML1T2 Step 3. Establish the number of independent dimensions and non-dimensional groups. Number of relevant variables: n=5 Number of independent dimensions: m = 2 (L and MT2) Number of non-dimensional groups ( s): n m = 3 Step 4. Choose m (= 2) dimensionally-independent scaling variables. e.g. geometric (l), property of the material (E). [l] = L [E] = ML1T2 Step 5. Create the s by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables , I and W. By inspection these are readily seen to be
1

l I = 4 l W = 2 El

Step 6. Set out the non-dimensional relationship. 1 = f ( 2, 3) or I W = f( 4 , 2 ) l l El This is as far as dimensional analysis wil get us. Detailed theory shows that, for small elastic deflections,
1 W I = 4 2 l 3 El l
1

or = 1 Wl 3 3 EI

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4. PHYSICAL MODELLING 4.1 Method

If a dimensional analysis indicates that a problem is described by a functional relationship between non-dimensional parameters 1, 2, 3, ... then full similarity requires that these parameters be the same at both full scale (prototype) and model scale. i.e. ( 1 )m = ( 1) p
(
2 m

) =( etc.

)p

For a multi-parameter problem it is often not possible to achieve full similarity. As we shall see, it is rare to be able to achieve full Reynolds-number scaling when other dimensionless parameters are also involved. For hydraulic modelling of flows with a free surface the most important requirement is Froude-number scaling. It is common to distinguish three levels of similarity. Geometric similarity the ratio of all corresponding lengths in model and prototype are the same (i.e. they have the same shape). Kinematic similarity the ratio of all corresponding lengths and times (and hence the ratios of all corresponding velocities) in model and prototype are the same. Dynamic similarity the ratio of all forces in model and prototype are the same; e.g. Re = (inertial force) / (viscous force) is the same in both. Geometric similarity is almost always assumed. However, in some applications notably river modelling it is necessary to distort vertical scales to prevent undue influence of, for example, surface tension or bed roughness.

Example. A prototype gate valve which will control the flow in a pipe system conveying paraffin is to be studied in a model. List the significant variables on which the pressure drop across the valve would depend. Perform dimensional analysis to obtain the relevant nondimensional groups. A 1/5 scale model is built to determine the pressure drop across the valve with water as the working fluid. (a) For a particular opening, when the velocity of paraffin in the prototype is 3.0 m s1 what should be the velocity of water in the model for dynamic similarity? What is the scale ratio of the quantity of flow? Find the pressure drop in the prototype if it is 60 kPa in the model.

(b) (c)

(The density and viscosity of paraffin are 800 kg m3 and 0.002 kg m1 s1 respectively. Take the kinematic viscosity of water as 1.12106 m2 s1).

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The pressure drop is expected to depend upon the gate opening h, the overall depth H, the velocity V, density and viscosity . List the relevant variables: p, h, H, V, , Write down dimensions: [ p] = ML1T2 [h] = L [H] = L [V] = LT1 [ ] = ML3 [ ] = ML1T1 Number of variables: n = 6 Number of independent dimensions: m = 3 (M, L and T) Number of non-dimensional groups: n m = 3 Choose scaling variables. Geometric (H), kinematic (V), property of fluid ( ). [H] = L [V] = LT1 [ ] = ML3 Form dimensionless groups by non-dimensionalising the remaining variables p, h and . a b c 1 = pH V M 0 L0 T 0 = (ML1T 2 )(L) a (LT 1 ) b (ML3 ) c Equating exponents: M: 0=1+c c = 1 T: 0 = 2 b b = 2 L: 0 = 1 + a + b 3c a = 1 + 3c b = 0 p 2 1 = 1 = pV V2

h H

(obvious, since h is a length)

= H aV b c (probably obvious, but here goes anyway ...) M: 0=1+0+0+c c = 1 T: 0 = 1 + 0 b + 0 b = 1 L: 0 = 1 +a + b 3c a = 1 + 3c b = 1

3

= D 1V 1

VD

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Recognition of the Reynolds number suggests that we replace VD 1 = 3 = ( 3) Hence, dimensional analysis yields 1 = function of { 2 , 3} i.e. p h VD = f( , ) 2 H V

by

(a) Dynamic similarity requires that all non-dimensional groups be the same in model and prototype; i.e. p p = 1 = 2 V p V2 m
2

h H

=
p

h H =

automatic if shape is same (geometric similarity)

m

3 =

VD
p

VD
m

From the last, we have a velocity scale ratio V p ( / ) p Dm 0.002 / 800 1 = = = 0.4464 Vm ( / ) m D p 1.12 10 6 5 Hence, Vp 3 .0 = Vm = m s 1 0.4464 0.4464 1 = 6.72 m s

(b) The scale ratio of the quantity of flow is Q p (velocity area) p Vp Dp = = Qm (velocity area) m Vm Dm
= 11.2 (c) Finally, for the pressure drop,
1

= 0.4464 5 2

p V2

=
p

p V2

( p) p
m

( p) m

p m

Vp Vm

800 0.4464 2 1000

= 0.1594

Hence,

p p = 0.1594 p m = 9.57 kPa

= 0.1594 60 kPa

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4.2 Froude-Number Scaling

The most important parameter to preserve in hydraulic modelling of free-surface flows driven by gravity is the Froude number, Fr = U/(gL). Preserving this parameter between model (m) and prototype (p) dictates the scaling of other variables in terms of the length scale ratio. Velocity
( Fr ) m = ( Fr ) p

U gL
m

U gL Lm Lp
p

Um = Up

Thus, the velocity ratio is the square root of the length-scale ratio.

Quantity of flow
5/ 2

Q ~ velocity area Time t ~ length velocity

Qm L = m Qp Lp

tm = tp

Lm Lp

Hence the quantity of flow scales as the length-scale ratio to the 5/2 power, whilst the time-scale ratio is the square root of the length-scale ratio. For example, at 1:100 scale, a fullscale tidal period of 12.4 hours becomes 1.24 hours.

Example. The force exerted on a bridge pier in a river is to be tested in a 1:10 scale model using water as the working fluid. In the prototype the depth of water is 2.0 m, the velocity of flow is 1.5 m s1 and the width of the river is 20 m.
(a) List the variables affecting the force on the pier and perform dimensional analysis. Can you satisfy all the conditions for complete similarity? What is the most important parameter to choose for dynamic similarity? What are the depth, velocity and quantity of flow in the model?

(b)

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4.3 Subtleties

Incomplete Similarity (Scale Effects) For problems involving more than one non-dimensional parameter it can be difficult to achieve full similarity. This is particularly a problem with the Reynolds number Re = UL/ because either: using the same working fluid in the model would require a velocity ratio inversely proportional to the length-scale ratio and hence impractically large velocities in the scale model. a velocity scale fixed by, for example, Froude-number scaling means that the only way to maintain Reynolds-number similarity is to adjust the kinematic viscosity. In practice, Reynolds-number similarity becomes unimportant if flows in both model and prototype are fully turbulent and momentum transport by molecular viscosity is much less than that by turbulent eddies. In some cases this may mean deliberately triggering transition to turbulence in boundary layers (for example by the use of tripping wires or roughness strips).

Surface effects Full geometric similarity requires that not only the main dimensions of objects but also the surface roughness and, for mobile beds, the sediment size be in proportion. This would put impossible requirements on the surface finish or grain size. In practice, it is sufficient that the surface be aerodynamically rough: u h/ 5 , where u = ( w/ ) is the friction velocity and h a typical height of surface irregularities. This imposes a minimum velocity in model tests.

Other Fluid Phenomena When scaled down in size, fluid phenomena which were negligible at full scale may become important in small-scale models. A common example is surface tension.

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5. NON-DIMENSIONAL GROUPS IN FLUID MECHANICS

Dynamic similarity requires that the ratio of all forces be the same. The ratio of different forces produces many of the key non-dimensional parameters in fluid mechanics. (Note that inertial force means mass acceleration it is usually one of the two forces in the ratio.) Reynolds number Re = Froude number Weber number Rossby number Mach number Fr = We =
Ro =

UL U gL U 2L
U L

inertial force viscous force

1/ 2

(viscous flows) (free-surface flows) (surface tension) (rotating flows)

1/ 2

inertial force = gravitational force inertial force surface tension inertial force = Coriolis force

U Ma = c

inertial force = compressibility force

(compressible flows)

These groups occur regularly when dimensional analysis is applied to fluid-dynamical problems. They can be derived by considering forces on a small volume of fluid. They can also be derived by non-dimensionalising the differential equations of fluid flow (see White, Chapter 5), or the online notes for the 4th-year module Computational Hydraulics).

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