T 1

Hydraulics 2 T1-1 David Apsley
TOPIC T1: MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY AUTUMN 2004

0. Revision of basic concepts
0.1 Notation
0.2 Dimensionless parameters
0.3 Definitions
0.4 Basic principles of fluid mechanics
0.5 Physical constants
0.6 Properties of common fluids

1. Continuity (conservation of mass)
1.1 Mass and volume fluxes
1.2 Flows with variable velocity
1.3 Time-dependent flow

2. Forces and momentum
2.1 Control-volume formulation of the momentum principle
2.2 Fluid forces
2.3 Laminar and turbulent flow
2.4 Boundary layers and flow separation
2.5 Drag and lift coefficients
2.6 Calculation of momentum flux
2.7 Forces on immersed bodies
2.8 Differential equation of motion (optional)

3. Energy and flow measurement
3.1 Bernoullis equation
3.2 Fluid head
3.3 Static and stagnation pressure
3.4 Flow measurement
3.5 Tank emptying

References

Hamill (2001) Chapters 1, 2, 4, 5, 7
Massey (1998) Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4
White (2002) Chapters 1, 2, 3
Chadwick and Morfett (2004) Chapters 1, 2, 3

0. REVISION OF BASIC CONCEPTS

0.1 Notation

Geometry
x (x, y, z) or (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) position; (z is usually vertical)
t time
Field Variables
u (u, v, w) or (u
1
, u
2
, u
3
) velocity
p pressure
p p
atm
is called the gauge pressure
p
*
= p + gz is the piezometric pressure
T temperature
Fluid Properties
density
dynamic (or absolute) viscosity
/ kinematic viscosity
g specific weight (weight per unit volume)
s.g. /
ref
specific gravity (or relative density);
ref = water (for liquids) or air (for gases)
surface tension (force per unit length)
K bulk modulus (pressure change divided by volumetric strain)
c speed of sound

0.2 Dimensionless Parameters

Re
UL UL
Reynolds number
1
(viscous flow)

gL
U
Fr Froude number
2
(open-channel hydraulics)
c
U
Ma Mach number
3
(compressible flow)
We
2
L U
Weber number
4
(surface tension)
U
fL
= St Strouhal
5
number (vortex shedding; f = shedding frequency)

Here, U is a representative velocity scale and L is a representative length scale. There are
many other important dimensionless combinations (see Topic T3: Dimensional Analysis),
but these are the main ones that concern us in this course.

1
Osborne Reynolds (1842-1912), Anglo-Irish mathematician; appointed first Professor of Engineering at Owens
College (became the University of Manchester).
2
William Froude (1810-1879), British naval architect; developed scaling laws for the model testing of ships.
3
Ernst Mach (1838-1916), Austrian physicist and philosopher.
4
Moritz Weber (1871-1951), developed modern dimensional analysis; actually named the Re and Fr numbers.
5
Vincenz Strouhal (1850-1922), Czech physicist; investigated the singing of wires.

0.3 Definitions

A fluid is a substance that continuously deforms under a shearing force, no matter how small.

Fluids may be liquids (definite volume; free surface) or gases (expand to fill any container).

Fluid motion will be treated by continuum mechanics, not individual molecules. Note,
however, that it is inter-molecular forces that give rise to viscosity.

Hydrostatics is the study of fluids at rest. Hydrodynamics is the study of fluids in motion.

Hydraulics is the study of the flow of liquids (usually water). Aerodynamics is the study of
the flow of gases (usually air).

All fluids are compressible to some degree, but their flow can be approximated as
incompressible (that is, pressure changes dont give rise to density changes) for velocities
much less than the speed of sound ( 1480 m s
1
in water, 340 m s
1
in air).

An ideal fluid is one with no viscosity. It doesnt exist, but it can be a good approximation.

Real flows may be laminar (adjacent layers slide smoothly over each other) or turbulent
(subject to random fluctuations about a mean flow):
turbulence is the natural state at high Reynolds number;
the vast majority of civil-engineering and environmental flows are fully turbulent.

Transition to turbulence is dependent on a number of factors, including the roughness of
surfaces and the magnitude of fluctuations in the free stream. However, the primary
determinant is the Reynolds number. Typical critical Reynolds numbers for transition are:
pipe flow: Re
D
2300;
circular cylinder: Re
D
310
5
;
flat plate: Re
x
510
5
310
6
.
The critical values depend on the velocity and length scale used to define the Reynolds
number (which should be stated). Why are the last two values so much larger than the first?

0.4 Basic Principles of Fluid Mechanics

Hydrostatics

In stationary fluids, pressure forces balance weight.

Hydrostatic Equation
z g p = or g
z
p
d
d
= (1)

The same equation holds in a moving fluid if there is no acceleration in the vertical. The
hydrostatic equation can also be written
constant gz p = +
The LHS is called the piezometric pressure p*. It represents the combined effect of pressure

and weight. For incompressible flows without free surfaces, gravitational forces can be
eliminated from the flow equations by working with the piezometric pressure.

Thermodynamics

For compressible fluids thermodynamics and heat input are important and one requires, in
addition, an equation of state; e.g.

Ideal Gas Law
p = RT (2)

The gas constant R is a constant for any particular gas and is given by R = R
0
/ m, where R
0
is
the universal gas constant and m is the molar mass. For dry air, R = 287 J kg
1
K
1
.

T is the absolute temperature in Kelvin:
15 . 273 ) C ( ) K ( + = T T (3)

Fluid Dynamics

Mass (continuity equation):
Mass is neither created nor destroyed

Momentum (Navier-Stokes equation)
Force = rate of change of momentum

Energy
Change in energy = heat supplied + work done

The Energy Equation

For incompressible fluids the energy equation it is a purely mechanical equation and can be
derived directly from the Momentum Principle.

Bernoullis Equation

Steady incompressible flow without losses:
streamline a along constant
2
2
1
= + + U gz
p

More generally, in steady incompressible flow,
losses fluid on done work ) (
2
2
1
= + + U gz
p
(4)

Here, ( ) means change in and the RHS of (4) represents the energy (per unit mass) input
by pumps or removed by turbines or friction. Bernoullis equation is more convenient than
the momentum equation when one is only interested in the difference between flow quantities
at two points on a streamline and not details of the flow at intermediate points or fluid forces.

For compressible fluids the energy equation also involves thermodynamic effects. The energy
per unit mass is supplemented by the internal energy e and (4) becomes
losses done work supplied heat ) (
2
2
1
+ = + + + U gz
p
e (5)
The quantity / p e + is called enthalpy. This is an equation for mechanical engineers: it will
not be considered further here.

0.5 Physical Constants

Gravitational acceleration: g = 9.81 m s
2
(at British latitudes)
Universal gas constant: R
0
= 8314 J kg
1
K
1

Standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.): 273.15 K (0 C) and
1.0132510
5
Pa (= 1.01325 bar = 1 atmosphere)

0.6 Properties of Common Fluids
Properties are given at 1 atmosphere and 20 C unless otherwise specified.

Air
Density: = 1.20 kg m
3
( = 1.29 kg m
3
at s.t.p)
Specific weight: = 11.8 N m
3

Dynamic viscosity: = 1.8010
5
kg m
1
s
1
(or Pa s)
Kinematic viscosity: = 1.5010
5
m
2
s
1
Specific heat capacity at constant volume: c
v
= 718 J kg
1
K
1
Specific heat capacity at constant pressure: c
p
= 1005 J kg
1
K
1

Gas constant: R = 287 J kg
1
K
1

Speed of sound: c = 343 m s
1

Water
Density: = 998 kg m
3
( = 1000 kg m
3
at 0 C)
Specific weight: = 9790 N m
3

Dynamic viscosity: = 1.00310
3
kg m
1
s
1
(or Pa s)
Kinematic viscosity: = 1.00510
6
m
2
s
1
Surface tension: = 0.0728 N m
1
Speed of sound: c = 1482 m s
1

Mercury
Density: = 13550 kg m
3

Ethanol
Density: = 789 kg m
3

Fluid properties especially viscosity change significantly with temperature

Water Air
T (C) (kg m
3
) (Pa s) (m
2
s
1
) (kg m
3
) (Pa s) (m
2
s
1
)
0 1000 1.78810
3
1.78810
6
1.29 1.7110
5
1.3310
5
20 998 1.00310
3
1.00510
6
1.20 1.8010
5
1.5010
5

50 988 0.54810
3
0.55510
6
1.09 1.9510
5
1.7910
5

100 958 0.28310
3
0.29510
6
0.946 2.1710
5
2.3010
5

The viscosity of gases may be approximated by Sutherlands law:
|
.
|
\
|
+
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
S T
S T
T
T
0
2 / 3
0 0
(6)
For air: T
0
= 273 K,
0
= 1.7110
5
Pa s, S = 110.4 K.

1. CONTINUITY (CONSERVATION OF MASS)

General principle: mass is conserved (neither created nor destroyed).

The rate of transport of anything across a surface is called its flux.
Mass flux (or mass flow rate) is the mass crossing a given surface
per unit time.

Conservation of mass can be applied to the fluid in or passing through
the surface of an arbitrary control volume:

Steady flow: mass flux in = mass flux out

Unsteady flow: ) out flux mass ( in) flux mass ( ) mass (
d
d
=
t

1.1 Mass and Volume Fluxes

If velocity u is uniform over a section and normal to area A, then

volume flux: uA Q = (m
3
s
1
)

mass flux: uA Q m = = (kg s
1
)

Q is often called the quantity of flow or discharge.

A stream tube is a bundle of streamlines across which there is no flow.

For an incompressible flow (liquids and gases at speeds much less than sound), is constant
along a streamline and mass conservation implies volume conservation; i.e.
2 1
Q Q =

If u is uniform over the cross-section then
2 2 1 1
A u A u =

If u is not uniform then the total volume flux or mass flux must be obtained by summation
over individual areas. For continuously-varying quantities, summation integration.

u
A

u
1
u
2
1
2
m
m
out
m
in

Example. (Examination, January 1998)
The figure shows a converging two-dimensional duct in which flow enters in two layers. A
fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flows as the top layer at a velocity of 2 m s
1
and water flows
along the bottom layer at a velocity of 4 m s
1
. The two layers are each of thickness 0.5 m.
The two flows mix thoroughly in the duct and the mixture exits to atmosphere with the
velocity uniform across the section of depth 0.5 m.

0.5 m
2 m/s
4 m/s
0.5 m
0.5 m
p =15 kN/m
1
2

(a) Determine the velocity of flow of the mixture at the exit.
(b) Determine the density of the mixture at the exit.
(c) If the pressure p
1
at the upstream section is 15 kPa, what is the force (per unit width)
exerted on the duct? (Do this last part after completing section 2 on the Momentum
Principle).

Answer: (a) 6 m s
1
; (b) 933 kg m
3
; (c) 7.8 kN

1.2 Flows With Variable Velocity

The continuity principle may be extended to cases where u varies over a cross-section (e.g.
flow in pipes or flow in a boundary layer) by considering the flow to be broken down into
infinitesimal areas A, across each of which the velocity is approximately constant:
A u Q =

The total quantity of flow can then be found by summation. In the limit of small areas this
becomes an integration:

(
]
(
= A u Q d (7)

We will look at two special cases:
2-dimensional flow
axisymmetric flow

1.2.1 Two-Dimensional Velocity Profiles

If the velocity is a function of height,
u u(y)
but is uniform across the width b then we can sum the
contributions from small areas
y b A =

Quantity of flow:
(
]
(
= y u b Q d (8)

From this we can define:
flow rate per unit width:
(
]
(
= y u q d (9)

average velocity:
A
Q
u
av
= =
area
flow of quantity
(10)

u
av
is sometimes called the bulk velocity. It is the equivalent uniform velocity which would
give the same quantity of flow.

Example. The distribution of velocity in a rectangular channel of width 800 mm and depth
200 mm is given by
7
1
2 . 0
8
|
.
|
\
|
=
y
u
where u is in m s
1
and y is in m. What is (a) the quantity of flow; (b) the average velocity?

Solution.
(a)

(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=
2 . 0
0
7 / 1
d )
2 . 0
( 8 8 . 0 d y
y
y u b Q
Simplify the integral with a change of variables 2 . 0 / d d , 2 . 0 / y Y y Y = = :
1 3
1
0
7 / 8
1
0
7 / 1
s m 12 . 1
8
7
28 . 1 d 2 . 0 8 8 . 0
=
(
=
(
]
(
= Y Y Y Q

(b)

1
s m 7
2 . 0 8 . 0
12 . 1
= = =
bh
Q
area
flow of quantity
u
av

b
y

1.2.2 Axisymmetric Velocity Profiles

Axisymmetric flows are those for which u is a function of radius:
) (r u u
Examples include pipes and jets.

An element of area across which u is essentially constant is an infinitesimal hoop of radius r,
thickness r:
r r A 2 = (11)
Hence
r r u A u Q 2 = =
or, summing over infinitesimal elements:

(
]
(
= r r u Q d 2 (12)

Example. Fully-developed laminar flow in a pipe of radius R has velocity profile:
) / 1 (
2 2
0
R r u u =
Find the average velocity in terms of u
0
.

Solution.
The average velocity can be found by dividing the quantity of flow (volume flux) by the area.
For the quantity of flow,

(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=
R R
r r R r u r r u Q
0
2 2
0
0
d ) / 1 ( 2 d 2
Substitute R r s R r s / d d , / = = for convenience:

0
2
1
0
4 2
0
2
1
0
3
0
2
1
0
2
0
2
2
1
4 2
2 d ) ( 2 d ) 1 ( 2
u R
s s
u R s s s u R s s s u R Q
=
(
=
(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=

Hence,

0
2
2
1
u
R
Q
u
av
=
=

Note. For experimental as opposed to theoretical work, it is unnatural to have the integrand
vanishing at the centre (since this is where velocity is highest) and (12) can be rewritten as

(
]
(
=
2
dr u Q (13)
volume flow rate = (area under a u r
2
graph)

See, for example, the pipe-flow laboratory experiment and the Example sheet.
r
r

1.3 Time-Dependent Flow

Time-dependent flows occur typically when:
there are fluid oscillations: e.g. pressure transients in pipes, vortex shedding, waves;
and/or
boundaries are moving: e.g. pistons, rotating machinery.

The mass of fluid within a given control volume can only change if there is a net mass flux
through its sides:
) out flux mass ( in) flux mass ( ) mass (
d
d
=
t
(14)

For incompressible flows, conservation of mass implies conservation of volume:

out in
Q Q
t
= ) volume (
d
d
(15)

Example. (White, 1999) An incompressible fluid is being squeezed outwards between two
large circular discs by the uniform downward motion V
0
of the upper disc. Assuming 1-
dimensional radial outflow, derive an expression for V(r).
V
0
r
V(r) h(t)

Solution: For an incompressible fluid, conserving mass is equivalent to conserving volume.
Hence, using a control volume consisting of a cylinder of height h and radius r:
out) flow ( in) flow ( ) volume (
d
d
=
t

V rh h r
t
) 2 ( 0 ) (
d
d
2
=
rhV
t
h
r 2
d
d
2
=

t
h
h
r
V
d
d
2
=
But
0
d
d
V
t
h
= . Hence,

h
r V
V
2
0
=

2. FORCES AND MOMENTUM

Momentum Principle
force = rate of change of momentum (16)

In principle, since momentum (= mass velocity) and force are vector quantities this
equation has 3 components. In practice, often only 1 is relevant.

An ideal fluid is one without viscosity. Ideal fluids dont exist, but can be a useful
approximation. The momentum equation for an ideal fluid is often called the Euler equation
6
.

The momentum equation for a real fluid (i.e. one with viscosity) is often called the
Navier
7
-Stokes
8
equation.

2.1 Control-Volume Formulation of the Momentum Principle

The equation of motion (16) can be expressed mathematically in many ways, including partial
differential equations, velocity potential (a bit like gravitational potential), vorticity (related to
local angular momentum), or even in terms of complex variables!

Fortunately, in hydraulics it is usually adequate to work from first principles
by considering the momentum balance for a control volume (CV).

For a steady flow and fixed control volume:
CV enters momentum at which rate CV leaves momentum at which rate
momentum of change of rate force
=
=

The rate at which momentum crosses a surface is called the momentum flux.

Momentum Principle For Steady Flow

force = (momentum flux)
out
(momentum flux)
in
(17)

Where the velocity is uniform over a cross-section:

momentum flux = mass flux velocity = Qu (18)

6
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), Swiss mathematician, later Professor of Physics at the St Petersburg Academy;
tackled many problems in fluid mechanics and mathematical physics.
7
Claude Navier (1785-1836), French civil engineer; also known for his strong political views, including
opposition to Napoleons military aggression.
8
George Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903), Irish mathematician and Lucasian Professor of Mathematics at
Cambridge; many important works in hydrodynamics.
u
out
u
in
F

Let F be the total force on the fluid in the control
volume. If there is only one inflow and one outflow
and the flow is uniform across each then, since Q is
the mass flux at both inflow and outflow,
) (
in out
Q u u F = (19)

If there is more than one inflow or outflow then the net momentum flux must be obtained by
summation. In particular, for non-uniform flows it is necessary to work out fluid forces
(Section 2.2) and momentum fluxes (Section 2.6) by summation or integration.

Example. A jet of fluid flows smoothly onto a stationary curved vane which turns it through
45. The initial jet has diameter 40 mm and uniform velocity 25 m s
1
. The exit jet may be
assumed to have uniform velocity 20 m s
1
. Calculate the net force on the vane.

45
40 mm
25 m/s
20 m/s

Solution.
Gauge pressures are zero at inlet, outlet and free surface so that there is no net pressure force.
Let the force on the vane be ) , (
y x
F F = F . Then the reaction of the vane on the fluid is
) , (
y x
F F = F . A suitable control volume cuts incident and deflected jets where the flow is
uniform.

Mass flux:
1 -
2
2
1
s kg 42 . 31
4
04 . 0
25 1000
4
=
=
=
D
u Q

Momentum in x direction:
N 2 . 341 ) 25
2
1
20 ( 42 . 31
) 45 cos (
1 2
= =
= u u Q F
x

Momentum in y direction:
N 3 . 444 )
2
1
20 ( 42 . 31
) 0 45 sin (
2
= =
= u Q F
y

Net force on the vane, (F
x
,F
y
) = (341, 444) N, or 560 N at angle 52.5 to the horizontal.
u
in
u
out
F

2.2 Fluid Forces

The total force on the fluid in a control volume is a combination of:
reaction forces from solid boundaries (equal and opposite to the forces exerted by the
fluid on those boundaries);
fluid forces.

There are two types of fluid forces:
body forces (proportional to amount of fluid); e.g.
weight (F = g per unit volume).

surface forces (proportional to area); e.g.
pressure forces (normal to surfaces);
viscous forces (primarily tangential to surfaces).

These are the only forces we shall consider here. However, other fluid forces exist; e.g.
Coriolis forces in a rotating frame (e.g in meteorology);
surface tension.
Can you think of others?

As in your Structures course, surface forces are usually expressed in terms of stresses:

area
force
stress = (20)

Pressure (p) is a normal stress. It is a force per unit
area directed along the inward normal to a control-
volume face. E.g. for the control volume shown the
net pressure force in the x direction from pressure on
the left (l) and right (r) faces is
A p A p
r l

Since the net effect of a uniform pressure on all boundaries is zero it does not matter whether
absolute, gauge or other relative pressure is used provided that one is consistent; i.e. uses
the same definition of pressure throughout.

Shear stresses ( ) act tangentially to control-volume
faces. For the box shown the net force in the x direction
from shear stresses on the top (t) and bottom (b) faces is
A A
b t

Note. What we have called above is strictly
xy
: for complex flows other components (
xz
,
xx
,
yy
, ) may be important. According to convention,
xy
is the force per unit area in the x
direction that the fluid on the upper (positive y) side of the interface exerts on the fluid on the
lower (negative y) side. By Newtons third law this is equal and opposite to the force that the
lower fluid exerts on the upper fluid.
A
p A
l
p A
r
x

A
y
b
A
A


Shear stresses arise from two sources: viscous forces and, in turbulent flow, the effect of
turbulent fluctuations carrying momentum from one side of an interface to another. In the
latter case which predominates at high Reynolds number this is not strictly a force but a
mean transport of momentum: however, as far as the mean velocity is concerned these are
equivalent. Viscous stresses have a direct equivalent in Structures (viscosity shear
modulus G) but turbulent stresses have no such counterpart.

Viscous Stresses

For Newtonian fluids, viscous stress is proportional to velocity gradient.
If velocity u is a function of y only then:

y
u
= (21)

This defines the dynamic viscosity
9
, . A related quantity is the kinematic viscosity, (= / ).

(Again, should strictly be written
xy
here. Also, (21) is only a special case of a more general
stress-strain relationship which is required for more complex velocity distributions.)

2.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The qualitative effect of viscosity on the flow depends on the ratio of the inertial forces
(i.e. mass acceleration ~ L
3
U
2
/L) to the viscous forces (~L
2
U/L) given by the
Reynolds Number
Re
UL UL
(22)

U and L are typical velocity and length scales of the flow (which should be specified). For
example, in pipe flow U is usually taken as the average velocity and L as the diameter.

If the viscosity is too small (Reynolds number too large) to keep the flow in a smooth, orderly
pattern, then a laminar flow undergoes transition and becomes turbulent In general:
high Re turbulent
low Re laminar
High and low depend on the flow being considered and the particular choice of length
and velocity scales being used to define the Reynolds number.

In turbulent flows the mean stress which may be thought of as an average flux of
momentum per unit area is dominated by the net effect of turbulent fluctuations rather than
viscous stresses. In a turbulent flow is no longer equal to ( U/ y)

9
Newton referred to viscosity as defectus lubricitatis (lack of slipperiness)! James Clerk Maxwell called it
fugitive elasticity.
y
u

2.4 Boundary Layers and Flow Separation

The ideal-fluid approximation is inapplicable if viscous effects have a major effect on the
flow. The most important example is boundary-layer separation.

In real fluids the velocity must vanish at stationary solid boundaries. (This is called the no-
slip condition.). This gives rise to a boundary layer close to walls where the velocity changes
rapidly from its value in the external flow to zero at the boundary. At high Reynolds numbers
this boundary layer is usually extremely thin.

In an adverse pressure gradient (where pressure increases in the direction of flow; for
example, in an expanding channel) the net force in the opposite direction to flow actually
causes the slowly-moving fluid near the boundary to reverse direction. This backflow leads to
flow separation.

adverse pressure
gradient
backflow
flow separation

Turbulence in the boundary layer helps to prevent or delay flow separation because it is an
effective means of bringing fast-moving fluid from the free stream into the near-wall region,
maintaining forward motion.

For bluff bodies with sharp corners flow
separation occurs at all but the smallest Reynolds
numbers and causes a large increase in pressure
(or form) drag. For more streamlined bodies with
convex boundaries separation may or may not
occur.

2.5 Drag and Lift Coefficients

In general, the force on an body in a fluid stream can be resolved into streamwise and cross-
stream components.

Drag = force parallel to the free stream.
Lift = force perpendicular to the free stream.

lift F
drag

The relative importance of drag or lift forces can be determined by dividing them by a typical
pressure force: dynamic pressure area:
Drag Coefficient

A U
drag
c
D
2
2
1
= (23)

2
2
1
U = dynamic pressure
A = representative area (see below)

A lift coefficient may be defined similarly.

Bluff and Streamlined Bodies

Bluff bodies
flow separation
large fore-aft pressure difference
large drag (predominantly pressure or form drag)
representative A is the cross-stream projected area (height span)

Streamlined bodies
no flow separation
low drag (predominantly viscous drag)
representative A is the streamwise projected area (length span)
H L
U
0

U
0

2.6 Calculation of Momentum Flux

The momentum principle for steady flow may be written for a general control volume:
in out
flux) momentum ( flux) (momentum
momentum of change of rate Force
=
=

If the velocity is not constant then the total momentum flux can be calculated in a similar
fashion to mass fluxes, by breaking the surface into (possibly infinitesimal) area elements A
over which individually the velocity is uniform and given by

u
u
) (
) (
velocity flux mass flux momentum
uA
Q
=
=
=
(24)
If the velocity is continuously varying over a cross-section then the sum of contributions from
infinitesimal areas can be obtained by integration; e.g. for the x-component:

(
]
(
= A u d flux momentum
2
(25)

Special Cases

Momentum flux
(i) Uniform velocity U
u U
Area A

A U
2

(ii) Height-dependent velocity
u u(y)
y b A =
b
y

(
]
(
y u b d
2

(iii) Axisymmetric flow
u u(r)
r r A 2 =

r
r

(
]
(
dr r u 2
2

Note. As for the mass flux, for experimental rather than theoretical work it is usually more
appropriate (and accurate) to write the last of these as
graph) a under area (
d flux momentum flow, ic Axisymmetr
2 2
2 2
r u
r u
=
(
]
(
=

Water enters a horizontal pipe of diameter 20 mm with uniform velocity 0.1 m s
1
at point A.
At point B some distance downstream the velocity profile becomes fully-developed and
varies with radius r according to:
) / 1 (
2 2
0
R r u u =
where R is the radius of the pipe. The pressure drop between A and B is 32 Pa.

(a) Find the value of u
0
.
(b) Calculate the total drag on the wall of the pipe between A and B.
(c) Beyond point B the pipe undergoes a smooth contraction to a new diameter D
C
.
Estimate the diameter D
C
at which the flow would cease to be laminar.

[The critical Reynolds number for transition in a circular pipe, based on average velocity and
diameter is 2300. Take the density and kinematic viscosity of water as = 1000 kg m
3
and
= 1.110
6
m
2
s
1
respectively.]

Answer: (a) 0.2 m s
1
; (b) 0.00901 N; (c) 15.8 mm

2.7 Forces on Immersed Bodies

An object experiences a drag force in a moving stream. For bluff bodies (with flow
separation) drag is primarily due to fore/aft pressure differences. For streamlined bodies (no
flow separation) drag is primarily viscous. Fluid passing close to the body is slowed by
viscous forces and forms a wake of low-momentum fluid downstream. If the flow is
constrained by side walls for example, in a wind tunnel the velocity outside the wake
increases slightly in order to pass the same mass flow. The pressure is often reduced in the
wake due to energy lost in turbulence.

If the force exerted on the body is F then the
body, in turn, exerts a force F on the fluid. If
we can measure the changes in momentum (and
pressure) that this brings about in the fluid then
we can deduce the force on the immersed body.

If we are only interested in the total force on a body and
not the detailed flow a control-volume application of the
momentum principle is sufficient. Suitable control volumes
are shown left. Upper and lower boundaries are streamlines
not necessarily straight lines (except in case (i)). This
ensures no mass or momentum flow across these
boundaries. In the unconstrained case (ii) these boundaries
should be sufficiently far away that pressure is equal to that
in the free stream. In the wind-tunnel case (i) this doesnt
matter when considering the drag since pressure forces on
these boundaries dont act in the x direction; however, it
does affect lift.

The momentum principle for this control volume gives:
force = rate of change of momentum = (momentum flux)
out
(momentum flux)
in

(
]
(
(
]
(
=
(
]
(
(
]
(
+

inflow wake wake inflow
A u A u A p A p F d d d d
2 2
(26)
Since u
is constant the last integral can be transformed to a wake integral using continuity:
(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=
(
]
(

wake wake inflow inflow
A u u A u u A u u A u d d d d
2

Hence, substituting in (26):
(
]
(
=
(
]
(

wake wake
A u u u A p p F d ) ( d ) (
Rearranging for the force:

(
]
(
+ =

wake
A p p u u u F d )] ( ) ( [ (27)
Thus, the hydrodynamic force on a body in a stream of fluid may be deduced indirectly by
measuring velocity and pressure in the wake, rather than directly using a force balance. You
will have opportunity to do this in the hydraulics laboratory.
F
Force on BODY
F
Force on FLUID

inflow wake
(i) constrained
inflow wake
(ii) unconstrained
streamline
body
body

A two-dimensional beam of height h = 100 mm completely spans a square air-conditioning
duct of height D = 400 mm (see Figure). The approach flow is uniform (u
1
= 0.6 m s
1
),
whilst the downstream velocity profile is 2-dimensional and may be represented by:
<
=
) 2 (
) 2 ( )
2
cos
4
1
4
3
(
2
2
h y u
h y
h
y
u
u
The pressure is uniform over the height of the duct at both sections. Neglecting drag on the
walls of the duct find:
(a) the value of u
2
;
(b) the difference between pressures at inlet and downstream sections, assuming
Bernoullis equation holds outside the wake region;
(c) the force on the beam.
Also,
(d) define a suitable drag coefficient for the beam and calculate its value.

Take the density of air as 1.2 kg m
3
.

0.6 m/s
400 mm
100 mm

Solution.
(a) Continuity (flow per unit width)

)
2
1
(
) 2
2
3
( 2
2
sin
2
4
1
4
3
2 d )
2
cos
4
1
4
3
( d
2
2
2
0
2
2
0
2 1
h D u
h D h u h D
h
y h
y u
h D y
h
y
u y u D u
h
h
wake
=
+ =
+
(
=
)
`
+
(
]
(
=
(
]
(
=

Hence

1
2
1
1 2
s m 6857 . 0
350
400
6 . 0

= =
=
h D
D
u u

Answer: u
2
= 0.69 m s
1

(b) By Bernoullis equation:

2
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
u p u p + = +
Pa 06611 . 0 ) 6 . 0 6857 . 0 ( 2 . 1 ) (
2 2
2
1
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
= = = u u p p

Answer: Pressure difference = 0.066 Pa

(c) Momentum principle (for steady flow):
force = rate of change of momentum = (momentum flux)
out
(momentum flux)
in

Hence:

2
1
2 2 2
2
2
1
d u D y u D F D p D p
wake
(
]
(
=

(
]
(
+ = ) d
1
(
2 2
1 2 1
2
wake
y u
D
u p p D F
Now

)
16
13
(
) 2
16
19
(
2 sin
2
1
2
sin
2
6
2
19
16
1
2 d ) cos
2
1
2
1
2
cos 6 9 (
16
1
2 d )
2
cos
2
cos 6 9 (
16
1
2 d )
2
cos
4
1
4
3
( d
2
2
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
0
2
2
2
0
2 2
2
2
0
2 2
2
2
h D u
h D h u
h D
h
y h
h
y h
y u
h D y
h
y
h
y
u
h D y
h
y
h
y
u
h D y
h
y
u y u
h
h
h
h
wake
=
+ =
+
(
+ =
)
`
+
(
]
(
+ + =
)
`
+
(
]
(
+ =
)
`
+
(
]
(
=
(
]
(

Hence

N 007759 . 0
)
4
1
16
13
1 ( 6857 . 0 6 . 0 2 . 1 06611 . 0 4 . 0
)]
16
13
1 ( [
2 2 2
2
2
2
1 2 1
2
=
)
`
+ =
)
`
+ =
D
h
u u p p D F

Answer: Force on the beam = 0.0078 N

(d) Drag coefficient:

90 . 0
1 . 0 4 . 0 6 . 0 2 . 1
007759 . 0
2
2
1
2
1 2
1
=

= =
Dh u
F
c
D

Answer: Drag coefficient = 0.90


A long T-shaped element, of depth h / 4 and oriented symmetrically as shown below,
completely spans a wind tunnel duct of depth 2h, where h = 0.2 m. The velocity upstream is
uniform: U
0
= 40 m s
1
. The velocity distribution is measured at a position downstream and is
found to be
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
2
max
1
2
1
1 ) (
h
y
U y U
where y is the distance from the centreline.

U
0
U(y)
y
h

(a) Sketch the expected pattern of flow around the T-shaped element, indicating, in
particular, separation and reattachment points, recirculating flow regions and the
direction of flow.
(b) Calculate U
max
.
(c) If the pressure drop from the upstream to the downstream section is 200 Pa, find the
force per unit span on the T-shaped element.
(d) Define a suitable drag coefficient for the element and calculate its value.
Take the density of air as 1.2 kg m
3
.

Answer: (b) 54.6 m s
1
; (c) 36.5 N; (d) 0.76

2.8 Differential Equation of Motion (Optional)

The motion of an infinitesimal element of fluid moving with the flow is governed by:
mass acceleration = force
or, per unit volume,
F
u
=
t D
D
(28)

Acceleration

There is a special form for the acceleration Du/Dt. The velocity can change because:
(a) velocity may be changing with time at each point (
t t
d
d
)
(b) the element moves to a new position with different velocity (
x
U
x t
x
t
d
d
d
d
)
(c.f. the alternative expressions for the linear acceleration of a particle:
t
v
d
d
and
s
v
v
d
d
).

In general the total rate of change is the sum of both effects and so the acceleration is given
by the total (or material, or substantive) derivative:

z
w
y
v
x
u
t t
u u u u u
D
D

The posh way of writing this is
u u
u u
+
t t D
D
(29)

Forces

Pressure and viscous stresses are forces per unit area. If they were uniform then there would
be no net force, because equal and opposite forces on either side of a control volume would
cancel. In practice, because they vary with position there is a net force per unit volume
dependent on their gradients.

(i) Pressure
Consider an infinitesimal control volume of length x with
cross-sectional area A of left (l) and right (r) faces. The
net force pressure in the x direction is
A p A p
r l

Dividing by the volume A x, the net force per unit
volume in the x direction is
x
p p
r l

In the limit as x 0:

x
p
nit volume orce per u pressure f
= (30)
Hence there is only a net pressure force if there is a pressure gradient and (unsurprisingly) the
force acts from high pressure to low. Pressure forces in the y and z directions are similar.
A
p A
l
p A
r
x

(ii) Shear Forces

If the velocity u is a function of y only, then there is only one
dynamically-significant shear stress , acting tangentially in
the x direction. For a cuboid control volume of height y and
cross-sectional area A of top (t) and bottom (b) faces the net
shear force is
A A
b t

Dividing by the volume A y, the net force per unit volume in the x direction is
y
b t

In the limit as y 0:

y
volume e per unit shear forc
= (31)

For laminar flow,
y
u
= . Hence,

2
2

y
u
y
it volume rce per un viscous fo
= (32)

Navier-Stokes Equation

Combining the expressions for acceleration and for pressure and viscous forces, the Navier-
Stokes equation for a viscous fluid moving in the x-direction only, u (u(y), 0, 0), is

2
2
D
D
y
u
x
p
t
u
= (33)
For general flows the equation for u and the other velocity components is similar, but the
viscous terms are more complex.

Example. Use equation (33) to find the velocity profile u(y) between parallel planes at y = a,
in terms of the maximum velocity u
0
. Relate u
0
to pressure gradient G and viscosity .

Solution.
Since the flow is steady, u/ t = 0. Since the flow isnt accelerating in the streamwise
direction, u/ x = 0. Hence, Du/Dt = 0.

Since v 0, p and hence p/ x are not functions of y. However, in (33), u and hence
2
u/ y
2

are not functions of x. Hence, p/ x is not a function of x and so must be a constant, G say;
(G for Gradient).

(33) then simplifies drastically to

2
2
d
d
0
y
u
G + =
Integrating twice and applying no-slip boundary conditions u = 0 at y = a gives
) / 1 (
2 2
0
a y u u = where 2 /
2
0
Ga u =
A
y
b
A
A

3. ENERGY AND FLOW MEASUREMENT

3.1 Bernoullis Equation

Consider a thin stream tube, with varying cross-sectional area
A. In the absence of thermal effects the energy of fluid passing
through it is changed by the work done by pressure and
viscous forces from the adjacent fluid and energy supplied or
removed by external agents (e.g. pumps and turbines).

Since the sides are locally parallel to the flow, energy only flows in or out of the control
volume through ends 1 and 2. Hence, for steady flow,
( ) ( ) work doing of rate 1 passing energy of rate 2 passing energy of rate = (34)

If there is no heat input the mechanical energy consists of kinetic energy (mU
2
) and
potential energy (mgz).

The rate at which forces do work (i.e. power) is given by force velocity (in direction of
force). The rate of working of pressure at end 1 is therefore (pAU)
1
and at end 2 is (pAU)
2
.
where U is flow speed. Pressure does no work on the sides because force and velocity are
perpendicular there.

(34) can then be written
W pAU pAU gz U Q gz U Q

+ = + +
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
where W
consists of the rate of working of friction forces (i.e. losses) and pumps/turbines
etc. Q = AU is the mass flow rate, which must be constant along the stream tube. Dividing
by Q = AU gives
Q
W p p
gz U gz U ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
2 1 1
2
2
1
2
2
2
1

+ = + +
or, rearranging,

Bernoullis Equation With Losses
= + + ) (
2
2
1
gz U
p
(35)

means change in and is the work done per unit mass of fluid passing through this
length of stream tube.

Notes.
(i) represents all non-pressure work done on the system. It is composed of frictional
losses (due to viscosity) and any work done on or by the flow via pumps, turbines etc.

(ii) Each term in the equation represents some form of energy or work done per unit
mass.

(iii) (35) can easily be extended to thermal flows (engines, boilers, condensers ...) by
adding the internal energy e to the LHS and the rate of heat input Q
H
to the RHS.
u
1
u
2
1
2


(iv) If there are no losses and no external sources of energy then (35) reduces to
Bernoullis equation
10
:
= + + gz U
p
2
2
1
constant (along a streamline) (36)
For incompressible flows, is also constant along a streamline and hence this
equation is often applied as
= + + gz U p
2
2
1
constant (along a streamline) (37)
Note the assumptions:
inviscid (no losses)
incompressible
steady
along a streamline (different streamlines may have a different constant)

3.2 Fluid Head

In Bernoullis equation:
volume unit per losses ) (
2
2
1
= + + gz U p
Each term has dimensions of pressure or energy per unit volume. If one divides by the
specific weight g these become energies per unit weight:
H
g
U
z
g
p
)
2
(
2
= + + (38)

Energy per unit weight has dimensions of length and is called head.
g
p
= pressure head

g
U
2
2
= dynamic head

g
U
z
g
p
2
2
+ + = total (or available) head

In hydraulics, energy is almost invariably expressed in terms of head. You will be familiar
with gravitational potential energies proportional to height and pressure measured in metres
of water or mm Hg (millimetres of mercury).

Losses due to friction and the capabilities of pumps are typically specified in terms of head;
that is, work done per unit weight. For the latter the rate of working (i.e. power) is given by
gQH power = (39)

where Q is the quantity of flow and H is the change in head. These will be examined further
in Topic 2: Pipe flow and Topic 4: Pumps.

10
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) Swiss-Dutch mathematician, a member of an illustrious family of well-known
mathematicians.

3.3 Static and Stagnation Pressure

A stagnation point is a point on a streamline where the velocity is reduced to zero. In general,
any non-rotating solid obstacle in a stream produces a stagnation point next to its upstream
surface, where the flow streamlines must split to pass around the obstacle.

The stagnation pressure or (Pitot pressure or total pressure) p
0
is that pressure which would
accrue if the velocity were brought instantaneously to zero. By Bernoullis equation it is
given (for a constant density fluid) by
2
2
1
U p + . We define:
stagnation pressure
2
2
1
U p +
static pressure p
dynamic pressure
2
2
1
U

The dynamic pressure (and hence the flow velocity) is found by the difference between
stagnation and static pressures (see the wind-tunnel laboratory experiment).

Example. Water is emptied from a tank through a horizontal pipe with centreline h below the
level of water in the tank. The pipe has a severe constriction where the diameter is D
1
and the
water exits to the atmosphere through a nozzle of diameter D
2
(> D
1
).
h
D
2
D
1
(1) (2)

(a) Assuming no losses, formulate an expression for the gauge pressure at the constricted
section (1) in terms of diameters D
1
and D
2
and the tank level h.

(b) Cavitation (i.e. the formation of bubbles of vapour) will occur if the absolute pressure
falls below the vapour pressure for water (2.337 kPa at 20 C). If the tank level h = 2
m and the constriction diameter D
1
= 25 mm, calculate the exit diameter D
2
at which
this begins to occur. To avoid cavitation should you increase or decrease D
2
?

(Take atmospheric pressure = 101.325 kPa.)
Answer: (a) ] ) ( 1 [
4
1
2
1
D
D
gh p p
atm
= ; (b) 39.2 mm; decrease D
2
.

3.4 Flow Measurement

3.4.1 Measurement of Pressure Manometry Principles

Three basic rules apply in a stationary fluid:
(1) Same fluid, same height same pressure
(2) Same fluid, different height z g p =
(3) Different fluids: pressure is continuous at an interface

U-Tube Manometer
By rule (1) the pressure at level C is the same in both arms of the manometer. By
rules (2) and (3) it can be found from p
A
and p
B
respectively by summing the
changes in pressure over the heights of columns of fluid:

arm right
m B C
arm left
A
gh gy p p y h g p ) ( + + = = + +
Cancelling gy and subtracting gh gives:
Differential Manometer Equation
gh p
m
) ( = (40)

If the working fluid is a gas then
m
and (40) can be approximated by
gh p
m
= (41)

Inclined Manometer
Differences in head may be small and difficult to measure
accurately. The movement of the manometer fluid may be
amplified by inclining the manometer. It is the vertical
difference in height which is proportional to pressure
differences: this is given in terms of the much larger length L by
sin L h = (42)

3.4.2 Measurement of Velocity

A Pitot tube measures the stagnation (or Pitot) pressure only.
However, it allows the evaluation of
2
2
1
U for an open-channel
flow because the static pressure is known on the free surface.

A Pitot-static tube measures both stagnation and static
pressures (from the same probe). The dynamic pressure
(and hence fluid velocity) is obtained by subtraction:
pressure
dynamic
pressure
static
pressure
Pitot
U p p
2
2
1
0
=

static holes
stagnation point
static head tube
total head tube

free surface
U /2g
2
stagnation point

L
(
l
a
r
g
e
)
h (small)

A B
h
C
y

3.4.3 Measurement of Quantity of Flow

Venturi Flowmeter

A venturi is a localised smooth constriction in a duct.

In the throat region:
U increases (by continuity)
p decreases (by Bernoulli)
The difference in pressure between the main flow and
the throat can be measured by a differential manometer
and converted to quantity of flow.

Bernoulli:
2
2 2
1
2
2
1 2
1
1
U p U p + = +
) (
2
1
2
2 2
1
2 1
U U p p =
There are two unknowns on the RHS but this can be reduced to one (the velocity U
1
which is
required) by using continuity:
2 2 1 1
A U A U =

2
1
1 2
A
A
U U =
Hence, substituting for U
2
in Bernoullis equation:
(
= 1 ) (
2
2
1 2
1
2
1
A
A
U p
Rearranging for U
1
and taking Q = U
1
A
1
,

2 / 1
2
2 1
2
1
1 ) / (
2
)
`
=
p
A A
A
Q (43)

2 / 1
) ( p K Q = (44)

Thus, the flow rate can be found by measuring the pressure difference p.

In accurate experiments a coefficient of discharge, c
d
, is included to represent departures from
non-ideality. c
d
is the ratio of the actual flow rate to the ideal flow rate which would be
computed from Bernoullis equation and continuity:
ideal
d
Q
Q
c =
or

ideal d
Q c Q = (45)

Design Features
A large convergence angle is advantageous as it tends to make the flow more uniform.
A small divergence angle is necessary to prevent flow separation.
The throat must be long enough for parallel flow to be established.
For a well-designed flowmeter a typical value of the coefficient of discharge is ~ 0.98.
1
2

Orifice Flowmeter

An orifice is an aperture of negligible streamwise thickness through which
fluid passes.

The streamwise thickness determines frictional losses.

The fluid cannot turn immediately, so that the emerging stream tube
continues to contract up to the vena contracta the section of minimum area.

An orifice meter is a means of measuring the flow rate in a duct
by measuing the differential pressure across an orifice.

It is basically an extreme variant of the venturi meter with the
divergent region omitted. It relies on the recirculating eddy
ensuring that the pressure p
2
just downstream of the orifice is
essentially equal to that at the vena contracta.

Advantage: cheap.
Disadvantage: considerable loss of energy.

By the same process as that for the venturi meter one obtains:
2 / 1
2
1
2
1
1 ) / (
2
)
`
=
p
A A
A
Q
v

where A
v
is the area of the vena contracta. A
v
is not obvious from the geometry. If A
v
is
replaced by the area of the orifice then this may be compensated for by a coefficient of
discharge, but, in practice, theory is simply used to deduce the form of relationship between
flow rate Q and pressure drop p:

2 / 1
) ( p K Q = (46)
with the constant of proportionality K determined by calibration.

vena contracta

0.075 m
0.15 m
0.04 m /s
3
B
A
C

Example (Massey). A vertical venturi meter carries a liquid of
relative density 0.8 and has inlet and throat diameter of
150 mm and 75 mm respectively. The pressure connection at
the throat is 150 mm above that at the inlet. If the actual rate
of flow is 40 L s
1
and the coefficient of discharge is 0.96
calculate (a) the pressure difference between inlet and throat;
(b) the difference in levels in a vertical U-tube manometer
connected between these points, the tubes above the mercury
being full of the liquid. (Relative density of mercury = 13.56)

Solution.
(a) The difference in static pressure comes from Bernoullis equation under ideal conditions:
B
2
2
1
A
2
2
1
) ( ) ( gz V p gz V p
l l l l
+ + = + +
) ( ) (
A B
2
A
2
B 2
1
B A
z z g V V p p
l l
+ = (*)
The velocities to be used in (*) come from the ideal flow rate, which is derived from the
actual flow rate via the coefficient of discharge C
D
= Q/Q
ideal
:
4 /
/
4 /
2 2
ideal
D
C Q
D
Q
V
D
= =
With Q = 0.04 m
3
s
1
, C
D
= 0.96, D
A
= 0.15 m, D
B
= 0.075 m, this gives
V
A
= 2.358 m s
1
V
B
= 9.431 m s
1
The density of the liquid is
3
m kg 800 1000 8 . 0

= =
l

Hence, substituting in (*) gives:
Pa 1177 15 . 0 81 . 9 800 ) (
Pa 33350 ) 358 . 2 431 . 9 ( 800 ) (
A B
2 2
2
1
2
A
2
B
= =
= =
z z g
V V
l
l

And hence
Pa 34527
177 1 33350
B A
=
+ = p p

(b) The height difference h in the U-tube manometer can be established by equating at the
common height C the pressures found by applying the hydrostatic law in the two arms of the
manometer:
) ( ) (
C A l A C Hg C B l B
z z g p p gh h z z g p + = = + +
Hence,
Pa 33350
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
2 2
2
1
=
=
+ + =
A B l
A l A B l B l Hg
V V
gz p gz p gh

Then,
m 266 . 0
81 . 9 ) 800 13560 (
33350
) (
33350
=

=
=
g
h
l Hg

3.5 Tank Emptying

For an emptying reservoir, discharging as a free jet, with free
surface at a distance h above the discharging fluid, apply
Bernoullis equation between the free surface and the jet:
2
2
2 2
1
2 1
2
1 2
1
1
gz U p gz U p + + = + +
Here, h z z U p p p
atm
= = = =
2 1 1 2 1
, 0 , , so that
gh z z g U 2 ) ( 2
2 1
2
2
= =

Hence, we have
Torricellis Formula
11

gh U
exit
2 = (47)

If the aperture is large (compared with the height to the free surface), then this value will be
different for each streamline passing through the orifice (because each will have a different
value of h). The total discharge would then have to be found by integration.

Ideally the discharge would be
) orifice of area ( 2 = gh Q
ideal
(48)
This is not true in practice because of
(i) frictional effects (small for a sharp-edged orifice)
(ii) contraction (area of vena contract < area of orifice).
If these are significant then a coefficient of discharge c
d
may be introduced to compensate:
ideal d
Q c Q =
c
d
must be measured experimentally. For a sharp-edged orifice, c
d
0.6 0.65.

Contraction effects can be reduced by using a bellmouth exit to minimise rapid changes in
direction. However, frictional losses are then greater.

Submerged Orifice

If the discharge is not a free jet but into a reservoir of the
same fluid it is called a submerged orifice. In Bernoullis
formula p
2
is not then atmospheric, but given by
2 2
gh p = .
Torricellis formula then reads
) ( 2
2 1
h h g U
exit
= (49)

Bernoullis formula is invalid in the reservoir/orifice problem if the free-surface level
changes rapidly (since it is then time-dependent). If, however, the tank cross section is much

11
Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647) Italian mathematician of barometer fame; served as secretary to Galileo.
h
2
h
1

h
1
2

larger than that of the orifice, then a quasi-steady approximation is OK and, by equating the
rate at which the volume of fluid in the tank decreases to the rate of discharge from the
orifice,
Q
t
V
=
d
d
(50)
we can find how long it takes to drain the tank.

Example. A cylindrical tank of base diameter 0.5 m is used to store water. A rupture at the
base of the tank allows water to escape through an aperture of area 8 cm
2
. If the depth of
water in the tank is initially 0.6 m, how long does it take to empty the tank?

Solution.
The volume of water in the tank is that of a cylinder of base diameter D = 0.5 m and
(variable) height h. Its volume is, therefore,
h
D
V
4
2
=
This volume is reduced at a rate equal to the flow rate through the aperture, i.e.
UA Q =
where A = 0.0008 m
2
(given) and gh U 2 = by Torricellis formula.

Hence,
Q
t
V
=
d
d

gh A h
D
t
2 )
4
(
d
d
2
=

2 / 1
2
2 4
d
d
h
D
g A
t
h
=
t
D
g A
h h d
2 4
d
2
2 / 1
=

Integrating between t = 0 (where h = h
0
= 0.6 m) and emptying time T (where h = 0):
T
D
g A h
h
2
0
2 / 1
2 4
2 / 1
0
=
(

T
D
g A
h
2
2 / 1
0
2 4
2 =
Hence,

s 86
81 . 9 2 0008 . 0 2
6 . 0 5 . 0
2 2
2 / 1 2 2 / 1
0
2
=

= =
g A
h D
T

T 1

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Hydraulics 2 T1-1 David Apsley

TOPIC T1: MASS, MOMENTUM AND ENERGY AUTUMN 2004

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