Rationale

Definitions for Tutorial s 1, 2 and 3. Term Meaning

Claim A claim is a type of proposition put forward by
somebody as true.

Example
There should be lots of stars in the Apollo pictures

Conclusion Often interchanged for the word contention. Contention A contention is a claim supported by a reason
(or evidence which can be for or against the claim). It is often referred to as a conclusion
Claim

because
Reason

This claim is known as a contention

Co-premises Two premises that are within a single reason or

objective are called co-premises. Alternate names are helping premises or linked premises. According to the Golden Rule every simple argument has at least two co-premises

The Apollo astronauts landed on the moon

Two copremises in one reason contention

Co-premise 1 supports the claim

Co-premise 2 supports the claim

Counter- A counter argument is where for the same arguments contention there is a reason and an objection.
The counter-argument is BOTH the contention and the counterarguments.

The same contention exists for each simple argument amd these simple arguments overlap the same contention

Declarative A declarative sentence is one which states an sentence idea which can be true or false. Disputes A dispute is an argument where there are both
multiple reasons and multiple objections bearing upon a single contention.

Example

Golden Rule The Golden Rule is a rules that states every

simple argument must have at least two copremises. The co-premises support each other as part as the one reason to support another claim (the contention).

The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LVR) would not have left much room on the Lunar Module for other things The LVR descent stage was 4.3 metres in diameter by 3.2m high

The LRV was 3.1 metres by 2.3 metres and 1.14 metres high

Term Meaning
Hidden A hidden premise is a co-premise which is not Premises stated when an argument is presented. It is then
up to the reader to guess or extrapolate what is being inferred. Sometimes this is obvious but other times it is more difficult to infer. In the example opposite the hidden premise could be Artificial lighting is only available in a studio on earth. Alternate names are missing premises or assumptions.

Example
The Apollo pictures were taken in a studio on earth

Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken

Holding Hands The Holding Hands Rule says if something Rule appears in a premise but not in a contention, it
must appear in another premise. That is, premises need to hold hands with each other. The opposite of this rule is a stranded copremise where co-premises of a single reason are put into separate reasons.

Socrates

is

mortal

Socrates is human

All humans are mortal

If this test fails then it gives you an indication Holding Hands The Holding Hands Test says: what is goinmg to have to go in any that if there are any significant terms or Test concepts which appear there but not in the contention the argument fails the test. additional co-premisaes required to make the argument properly structured.

Multi-Reason Multi-Reason Arguments is where there is more Arguments than one reason for a particular contention.

The moon rocks are unlike any rocks on earth

The moons rocks are covered on zap pits

The moon rocks are anhydrous

There is a single claim (the contention) with at least TWO quite distinct pieces of evidence bearing upon it. As an objection is a special type of reason (i.e. a reason to think the objection is not true), we use the term multi-reason argument to cover arguments with multiple objections.

Term Meaning
No Danglers A Dangler is something that hangs loose or
dangles. No danglers means that every significant word or phrase appearing in one claim (contention or premise) of a simple argument must also appear in another claim. The No Danglers Rule is a combination of the Rabbit Rule and the Holding Hands Rule. So apply the Rabbit Rule, then Holding Hands Rule No Danglers ensures all Hidden Premises have been made explicit

Example
Rabbit Rule satisfied as everything appearing in contention appears in the one premise Holding Hands Rule satisfied as everything appearing in one of premises spears in another premise / contention

Two Co-premises work together as part of a single reason or objection.

Contention

No Hidden Premises as all copremises have been identified. Apollo astronauts landed on the moon

Objection An objection is a reason (or technically a set of

claims), but is evidence against a claim (contention). Technically an objection is a set of claims working together to provide evidence that another claim is false. .

but There are no stars in the background

Objection

Premise A premise is a claim found inside or part of a

There should be lots of

reason or an objection. Where there are more than one premise (or claim) then it should be broken down into two or more premises. The least complicated of these premises is the most favoured. These are called co-premises.

stars in the Apollo pictures because

If we go out on a clear night and look up, we see many stars

This claim is a premise

Proposition A proposition is an idea which is either true or

false.

Rabbit Rule The Rabbit Rule says that any significant term or
concept appearing in the contention must also appear in one of the premises.
Socrates is mortal

A fully articulated simple argument MUST obey the Rabbit Rule. A Rabbit Rule will force Hidden Premises out into the open

Socrates is human

All human are mortal

Rabbit Test A simple test to determine whether you have a

properly structured argument. To apply the Rabbit Test: 1. Examine the contention to see if there are any significant terms that appear there but not in any premise. 2. If there are, the argument fails the Rabbit Test

There should be lots of stars in the Apollo pictures The Apollo pictures should show what we see when we go out on a clear night and look up

If we go out on a clear night and lookup, we see lots of stars

Term Meaning
Reason A reason is a piece of evidence in support of a
claim. Technically a reason consists of a set of claims presenting evidence that another claim is true.

Example
(Because) if we go out on a clear evening and look up we see many stars. Ensure only the reason is provided and do not provide a justification within the reason. NOTE: when argument mapping you must ensure USE full, grammatically, declarative sentences are used. That is: do not pose questions or reasons in a claim. Write complete simple sentences.

Simple A simple argument can be either: a contention with a single reason for it Argument
a contention with a single objection against it That is, a simple argument only has one contention and one piece of evidence.

Stranded Co- Stranded Co-premises occur when you place copremises premises of a simple reason into separate
reasons. If this occurs then the co-premises are stranded from each other. This is the opposite to Strange Bedfellows
Socrates is mortal Wrong Socrates is human All human are mortal

Socrates is mortal Correct Socrates is human All human are mortal

Strange Sometimes it is difficult to determine for a Bedfellows multi-reason argument whether you have one

reason or two. That is should the two claims relate to the one reason or should there be two distinct reasons? This is the opposite of Stranded Co-premises.
The moon rocks are unlike any rocks on earth

The moon rocks are unlike any rocks on earth

Correct
No earth rocks are anhydrous

The moons rocks are covered in zap pits

No earth rocks are covered in zap pits

The moon rocks are anhydrous

The moons rocks are covered in zap pits

The moon rocks are anhydrous

Wrong

Note A multi-reason argument has now been created and you will note co-premises have been created to satisfy the Rabbit and Holding Hand rules
Claim

To map a Put the reason and claim in boxes. The reason is reason shown in a green box. A claim supported by a
reason is called a contention.

because
Reason

Rationale continues
Definitions for Tutorials 4. Term Meaning
Argument Webs An Argument Web is where two multi-layer
arguments join together to form a complex web. The connection is where a contention from one joins a reason or objection in another one. That is the contention and the reason or objection are the same wording.
Main contention 1 Same wording in Objection 1 and the Main contention 2 Reason 1

Example

Main contention

Objection 1

Reason 2

Objection 2 Objection 1 Main contention 2

Reason 1

Reason 2

Objection 2

An argument web is an argument that is both multi-reason and multilayer.

Main contention

Chain of A Chain of Reasoning is where there are many Reasoning layers to the argument. Typically, where for

two multi-layer arguments, the main contention in one argument is the bottom layer premise in another argument. There is no limit to the number of layers of an argument although they are normally between 6 10 layers.

Objection Main contention Reason

Reason

Objection

Common A common mistake is mapping a supporting mistakes reason as it were a co-premise. The Apollo pictures Support versus were taken in a studio on earth Co-premise 1
Wrong
Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken The shadows of the astronauts and their equipment in the Apollo pictures seem to point in different directions

The Apollo pictures were taken in a studio on earth

Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken

Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken

The shadows of the astronauts and their equipment in the Apollo pictures seem to point in different directions

Correct

Common mistakes Support versus Co-premise 2 Main contention

Opposite to above mapping a co-premise as if it were a supporting reason. Refer to tutorial for an example. The main contention of a multi-layer argument is the one at the top level. The primary reason is a premise of the main contention and itself is a contention for the lower argument

Main contention

Primary reason

The Main Contention is the only contention which is not also a premise in another reason or objection.

Secondary reason

Term Meaning
Missing Layers A missing layer is where there is a whole layer
is missing between the evidence and the contention. Typically in these cases the Rabbit Rule wont work and therefore should be easy to identify.

Example
The Apollo astronauts landed on the Moon

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

Seems to be a huge gap in reasoning between contention and objection.

Multi-layer A multi-layer argument is one where a reason arguments within an argument has another reason or
objections supporting it. That is, you have reasons backing up reasons, or objections to reasons etc.

Reasons for Reasons (Multi-layer argument)

The Apollo pictures were taken in a studio on earth

The contention is the premise of the first argument

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

The Apollo pictures were taken in a studio on earth

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

The shadows of the astronauts and their equipment in the Apollo pictures seems to point in different directions

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

A reason supports another reason

The shadows of the astronauts and their equipment in the Apollo pictures seems to point in different directions

Correct

Reasons for Objections (Multi-layer argument)

The contention of one simple argument, is a premise in the objection. In this case a reason supports the objection can be shown to support the objection.
The Apollo astronauts landed on the moon
The claim is the premise of the first argument

The two simple arguments opposite are combined into a multi-layer argument. In this example the objection is shown to be supported by another reason.
The Apollo astronauts landed on the moon Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

Correct

Artificial lighting was used when taking the Apollo pictures

Rebuttal A rebutal is an objection to an objection. A

rebutal basically is saying that the objection provided is not a good objection. The second objection is only an objection to that objection, not to the top level contention.
Contention

The Apollo astronauts landed on the moon

NASA cannot produce pictures from the Hubble Space Telescope of the equipment that the astronauts left behind

Objection NASA has provided many Hubble photographs showing objects in the landing zone.

Rebuttal

Term Meaning
Rejoinder A Rejoinder is the actual objection to a reason.
A rejoiner is basically implying that the reason, because there is an objection to it, is a poor reason. Typically the end result would be that the premise should be rejected.

Example
Artificial lighting was used when the Apollo pictures were taken

The astronauts seem welllit when times they should have been in shadow.

Reflected light from the lunar surface would easily provide enough light to illuminate an astronaut in a white spacesuit.

Rationale continues ..
Definitions for Tutorials 5 Inference Objections. Term Meaning
Complex Fundament principle: Every arguments, no Arguments matter how complex is built up of simple

Example
Main Contention

arguments and every reason or objection muat be aimed at a specific claim.

Reason 3

Reason 1

Reason 2

Reason 4

Objection 1

Objection 1

This complex argument is made up of THREE simple arguments. The contention is one simple argument is a premise is a premise in another (except for the main contentions

Inference An Inference Objection is an Objection to Objection another Simple Argument, providing evidence

not against any particular premise BUT against the relationship between the stated premises and their contention. This inference objection
Contention targets the connection between the premise (reason) and its contention

The inference objection is basically saying the contention is wrong even though the premise (reason) may be true. To map inference objections: 1. Take the reason and articulate all its copremises. Follow the Rabbit and Holding Hands Rules to achieve this. 2. The inference objection will now provide evidence that one of the co-premises is false. Identify that co-premise and attacg the objection to it. Refer to your tutorial exercises for an example of this.

Reason

Objection

Inference Objection

Inference Inference rebuttal is also an objection to Rebuttal another objection which provides evidence

against the inference from the stated premise of that other objection to the falsity of its contention
The Apollo astronauts cannot have been to the Moon

Premise A Premise Objection is an objection to a stated Objections premise of another simple argument.
By definition an Objection to a Main Contention is not a Premise Objection rather it is a simple Objection

The Apollo astronauts could not have survived the journey through the Van Allen Belt

When you have a Premise Objection there is a Simple Argument made up of the one of the already stated premises and the objection

The astronauts would not experience any immediate health problems that would prevent the journey

This is called a Premise Objection to the above Premise

Term Meaning
Premise Premise rebuttal an objection to an objection Rebuttal which targets whereby it provides evidence
that one of the stated premises of that objection is false.

Example

Rebuttals A rebuttal is is an objection to an objection.

Contention The kind of rebuttal; that targets the connection between the objection and the main contention is called a premise rebuttal

Objection 1

Objection 1

Objection 1

A kind of rebuttal; that targets the connection between the objection and the main contention is called an inference rebuttal.

There are two types: 1. Premise rebutal an objection to an objection which targets whereby it provides evidence that one of the stated premises of that objection is false. 2. Inference rebuttal is also an objection to another objection which provides evidence against the inference from the stated premise of that other objection to the falsity of its contention.

Rationale continues ..
Definitions for Tutorials 6 - Macrostructure. Term Meaning
Debates A debate is a multi-level dispute. It includes the
reasons and objectons to a single claim AND where the rreasons / objections are disputed.
The first layer reasons and objections make the argument structure a dispute This second layer reasons and objections make the debate structure a genuine debate

Example

Groups A group is simply all reasons and objections

bearing directly upon the main contention of any other reasons or objection.

First group

A second group

A third group

Mutually Basically the MECE states that for any group of Exclusive, reasons or objections there should be no overlaps and no gaps. Collectively Exhaustive (MECE) MECE Within any group, the reasons and objections Collectively should cover all the arguments relevant to the point. That is each group should cover the Exhaustive
relevant points (no gaps).

MECE Rule
Considerations in any given group should be Mutually Exclusive (no overlap) Considerations in any given group should be Collectively Exclusive (no gaps)

MECE - The reasons or the objections should be Mutually genuinely distinct from each other. These must be Exclusive genuinely distinct
from one another So must these

Example the following objections are basically saying the same thing?
The official evidence of the Apollo landing is fabricated NASA faked the evidence

There will be some overlap as the Rabbit Rule must still apply with a group so the reality is that they can not be genuinely distinct.

Term Meaning
Pyramid An argument map according to the Pyramid Rule - Structure Rule should end up looking like a pyramid

Example
The Apollo astronauts cannot have been to the Moon The official evidence of the Apollo landing was fabricated The Apollo astronauts cannot have been on the Moon

There are no stars in the background of the Apollo pictures

The American flag scenes were filmed on Earth

The astronauts could not have survived Van Allen belt.

The LRV could not have been transported to the Moon

Pyramid More general or abstract considerations should Rule 1 appear higher in the argument tree
Main Contention

This claim is quite general or abstract higher in the tree

This reason is more concrete or particular information backing up the reason

Pyramid Rule
The higher the argument tree the more general or abstract the consideration Considerations at the same level should be roughly the same level of abstraction

Pyramid Reasons or objections at a given level in the Rule 2 tree should be roughly the same level of
generality or abstraction