THE

ART
THE

OF LOGICAL
OR

THINKING

LAWS

OF

REASONING

THE

ART

OF

LOGICAL
OR

THINKING

THE

LAWS

OF

REASONING

By

WILLIAM

WALKER

ATKINSON

L. 1,

N.

FOWLER

"

COMPANY
Circus

Imperial

Arcade,
E.

Ludgate C, EuKland

London,

1909

THE

PROGRESS
CHICAGO.

COMPANY
ILL.

6^'^

Copyright
By
THE

1909

PROGRESS

COMPANY S.
A.

Cliicago, 111., U.

5nj,Aa5 9i.os

CONTENTS

I.

Reasoning
The The Process
of

II. III.

Reasoning

17

Concept
Use of

25

IV, V.
VL VII.

The

Concepts Images

37
48

Concepts
Terms

and

56

The

Meaning

of

Terms

73 82
90

VIIL
IX. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVL XVII. XVIII. XIX.

Judgments Propositions
Immediate
Inductive

Reasoning Reasoning by
and and Induction

99 107 116 125 132 144 156

Reasoning

Theory
Making
Deductive
The

Hypotheses Testing
Hypotheses

Reasoning

Syllogism
of

Varieties

Syllogisms Analogy

167 179
186

Reasoning
FaUacies

by

CHAPTER

I.

REASONING

'*

Reasoning^
or

is

defined the

as:

*^The

act,
of
son rea-

process
;

art
or

of

exercising
of

faculty
reason

the

act

f actdty

employing

in
soning rea-

argument;
power

argumentation,
;

ratiocination; discussion,
^*The word in its

disputation,
says:

mentation.*^ arguson rea-

Stewart

itself In

is far
common

from and

being

precise

ing. mean-

popular by
which and enabled

discourse
we

notes it de-

that truth and for from

power

distinguish
from wrong,
means
' *

falsehood,
we are

right
to

by
the

which

combine ends.

attainment

of

particular
of the

By
of
to

the the
mind

employment
mind
as we

reasoning
objects

ties facul-

compare
or

presented taking weaving

mental
up

the

percepts
of

concepts,
and

the them

**raw

materials''
more

thought
and

into

complex
we

elaborate and
^ '

fabrics ideas of
power
us

which

call

abstract
says
;
:

general
ing think-

truth,
of has

Brooks mind called

It is the
which

the
been

the

faculty

gives
in

what

thought-knowledge,

10

LoGicAii

Thinking

distinction

from
as

sense-knowledge.
mental architect the material into
. . .

It may
among

be the

regarded
faculties
;

the

it transforms

furnished and

by
thus

the

senses

new

products,
and

builds
'^

up

the

temples

of science

osophy. philadds:

The

last-mentioned
are

authority
ideas and

^^Its An

products
idea is
a

twofold,

thoughts.
when
pressed ex-

mental does

product
not

which
a

in words
a

give

proposition
embraces The
two

thought

is

mental
or

product
more

which

the of

relation
the
;

of two

ideas.
are

ideas

understanding
abstract
are

of

general
The those
taining per-

classes

ideas of two

and

general

ideas.
;

thoughts

also
to

general
truth

classes and In

pertaining
to

contingent

those

necessary

truth. immediate

contingent judgments,
and
causes,

truth,
and

we

have

facts, or

general
from
we

truths

including

laws
in

derived truth and

particular
axioms,
derived
or

facts;

necessary

have truths

self-evident them

truths,
ing, reason-

the

from

by

called In

theorems/'.
you
are

inviting
we

to

consider

the

processes

of of the

reasoning,
old
one

irresistibly reminded
of Moliere's
expresses

story
of

of

one

plays

in

which
on

the

characters

surprise

Reasonikg

11

learning forty
says out
on

that

he

^ '

had

been

talking
it. '
'

prose

for

years

without

knowing
this
^ '

As

Jevons

in of
a

mentioning
hundred that

Ninety-nine

people

might they

be had

equally surprised
been

hearing

converting
into

propositions, framing
with whether

syllogizing, falling hypotheses

genera
were

gisms, paralofications classiasked

and

making
If

and

species.

they

logicians, they
!
a

would

ably prob;

answer.

No that

They

would number

be

partly right
even

for

I believe
persons

large
no

cated of edu-

have
a

clear

idea

of what
one

logic
have

is. been

Yet,
a

in

certain since
you
are

way,

every

must

logician
in

he
to

began
consider

to

speak.''
the
processes

So,
of
never

asking
we

reasoning
have
aware

not
on

assuming
the

that
we

you
are

reasoned"

contrary
with

fully
other life.

that

you

in connection reasoned

every mature one every-

person,

have
is not

all your While

true

That
reasons,

the fact

question.
is

the

equally

that

the

majority
persons

of persons
reason

reason

incorrectly. Many
far from and the
correct

along
suffer

lines

and Some

and scientific, writers

are

therefor that
even

thereby. majority
correct

have

claimed of

of persons

incapable

fairly

12

Logical

Thinking

reasoning, pointing by
the
a

to the

absurd

ideas
as a

tained enter-

the

masses

of

people
writers

proof

of

statement

These
in their struck

are

probably
statements,
at

little radical
one

views

and

but

is

often

with
for

wonder

the

evidences and

of

incapacity
on

interpreting
of the

facts

impressions
The ideas asserted
most
masses

the of

part

general
the
most
are

public.
absurd

people accept

as

truth, providing by
some one

they

gravely
The

claiming
are

ity. author-

illogical ideas
or

accepted providing

wjithout dispute they

are

examination,
and

stated in

solemnly
the

authoritatively.
fields blind of

Particularly
and of assertion the In

respective
we

ion relig-

politics do

find

this

ance acceptMere for

illogicalideas by
the
of
to
reason

by

the
seems

multitude. sufficient

leaders followers

multitude order

to

acquiesce.
it is not An

correctly
a

merely
athlete work, framehe kind
not can-

necessary
may

to have

good

intellect.

have and

the

proper

proportions, good
muscles,
others but

symmetrical
to oope

expect
he and
to

with
to

of his those

less un-

has
use same

learned them
way, to

develop
best who

muscles

the
man

advantage.
wishes
to

And,
reason

in the

the

Rbasonikg

13

correctly
and
to

must

develop
also learn

his the

intellectual
art

ties faculthem will

at
a

must

of

using
he be

the

best his

advantage.
energy when

Otherwise and will

w-aste
a

mental

placed
with

disadvantage

confronted
or
or

trained
who has

logician in argument
witnessed
men a

debate.

One
tween be-

debate

argument

two
one

equally
a

strong

intellectually,
the other the

of whom

is

trained

logician and
will
never

lacking this advantage,

forget
the of
a

impression produced
struggle.
The

upon

hitn

by

unequal
ful powerand

conflict untrained

is like that in the

wrestler,
turns

little tricks

of the

science,
force in
a

in the

various
way
a a

principles
at
a

of

applying
at
a

certain

certain

time,

certain wrestler.

place, with
Or
untrained with of **the conflict
everyone
a

trained conflict
the
art

and

perienced ex-

of

between of boxing,

muscular

giant

in
a

when

confronted

trained

and

ex-

perienoed
result of

exponent
any

manly

art.'*

The in vance. adto art

such

is assured should

Therefore,
rest content

refuse
of

without

knowledge
otherwise

the

of

reasoning
under

correctly, for
a

he places
in the
race

himself for

heavy
allows

handicap

success,

and

others, perhaps

less

14

Logical

Thinking

well-equipped mentally,
over

to

have

decided

vantage ad-

him. in

Jevons

says

this

connection:
far
more

*^To

be

good
than
us

logician is, however,

to be
a

valuable

good athlete well,

and and

because

logic teaches gives

Bacon for
a us

to

reason

reasoning
as

knowledge,
said,
moment

knowledge,
As

Lord
cannot
or

is power. compare

athletes, men
with

horses
power

tigers

or

monkeys.
men

Yet,
horses The

with and

the

of knowledge,
and

tame

shoot

tigers

despise
with
the cause be-

monkeys.
most

weakest
will
to

framework
conquer

logical mind
it is easy the which
result

in the

end;
to

foresee of be

the

future,
to avoid

culate caltakes misthe

actions, fatal, and

which

might doing

to discover

means

of

things

seemed
as

sible. imposhad ter bet-

If such brains
men or

little creatures
men,

ants

than

they
into

would

either

destroy
that

make

them
use our

slaves.

It is true
ears

we

cannot
some can

eyes

and

without
the brute

geting
animals
power

kind do

of knowledge, the
same.

and

But

what

gives
Science. feel the all
na-

is the
may

deeper knowledge
see,

called

People
their

and

hear,

and

lives

without

really learning

Reasoning

15

ture

of

things
eye,

they

see.

But
us

reason
see

is

the

mind's
are,

and and

enables how

to

why
be

things
made
to
deavors en-

and

when
or

events

may

happen

not

to

happen.

The

logician
this
We but ill,
us reason

to which makes

learn

exactly what
power
reason

is I

the
must

of well and

men.

all, as

have
the

said,
science

or

logic is
to

of

reasoning
the

enables

tinguish dis-

between leads
every

good
bad

reasoning reasoning
error

which which
fortune. mis-

to

truth, and betrays

the

day
'^

people

into

and

In
out

this the

volume methods

we

hope

to

be

able of

to

point

and

principles

correctly mind, in
a

using the reasoning plain, simple

and
manner,

faculties
devoid

of the of

useless We

nicalities techshall lished estabold with of the

academic

discussion.
to

adhere,

in the

main,

the

principles

by the best
school those New book sole of

of the

authorities the

of the
same

psychology, by the
No

blending
best

advanced

authorities
to make

Psychology.
a

attempt
shall be

of this for
our

school

text-book aim the

made,

object and

is to

bring this important

of

subject before

general public composed

16

Logical

Thinking

people
to

who

have

neither

the

time

nor

tion inclina-

indulge

in

technical

discussion

nor

academic

hair-splitting,
the

but

who

desire

to

derstand un-

underlying

working

principles

of

the

Laws

of

Reasoning.

CHAPTER

IL

THE

PKOCESS

OF

REASONING
k

The

processes

of

Eeasoning
stages

may
or

be

said

to
as

comprise
follows L of
:

four

general

steps,

Abstraction, drawing
person
or

by wMcb

is meant aside
or

the from

ess procan

off and thing,

a

setting
a

object,
and For of

quality object
in
to
a

attribute,
of the

making instance, strength, abstractly

of

it

distinct

thought.

if I and and

perceive
am

lion

quality
ity qual-

able

think

of
of

this the

independently
has
an

animal mental then

"if

the

term to
me,

strength

actual the the lion"

meaning
I have

independent
that
act

of

abstracted is
an

quality;

thinking
and the Some
are

thereof

of

abstraction;
an

thought-idea
writers and Brooks its color hold

itself that

is

abstract abstract

idea. ideas of

these
mere

ities, realAs of
thorities au-

^^not
^ ^

figments
rose

fancy."
my

says

The

dies, but
remains."
as

idea Other

and

fragrance

regard
attention

Abstraction
upon
17

but the

an

act

of

concentrated

but

particu-

18

Logical

Thinking

lar

quality
abstract

to the

exclusion has of
no

of

others, and
apart
which
says:

that
from

the the

idea idea Sir

our

existence

general

the

object
Hamilton
on some

in

it is
^^We

included.
can

William
attention
as

rivet
of its
a

particular ure, figers. oth-

mode

thing,

its

smell,

its color, its it from

size, etc., and

may

abstract Modal
now

the

This
The is

be
we on

called have

Abstraction.

abstraction

been

considering
is
sequently con-

performed

individual There

objects, and
is

particular.
connected
;
on

nothing

sarily neces-

with

generalization
is indeed
supposes;

in

stractio ab-

generalization
which
involve

dependent
but

abstraction,
does II.
not

it

stractio ab-

generalization.''
which
or

Generalization^
of in

by

is meant

the
Idea. the and into
prehend com-

process

forming
the

Concepts
of

General

It

acts

direction of

apprehending
persons

common

qualities
and

objects,
and

things,
a

combining
or

imiting
which all.
a

them will A

single

notion and

conception
them from

include differs

General idea of

Idea

or

Concept
it includes

particular
the

in that the

within
other

itself

qualities
and of

particular
may

and be

particulars,
to any
one

cordingly ac-

applied

these

20

Logical

Thinking

thai horse

all is is

mammals
a an

are

animals; (c) that,

(b)

that

mammal;
animal
statement The
most
;

therefore^ reasoning
is
an

horse

the result that:

of the ^^A

being
animal.

the
' '

horse

fundamental
in

principle
the
ing compar-

of

reasoning,
of two
means

therefore, consists objects of thought

relation
to
a

through

and

by
The

of their

third

object.
process

natural

form, of expression
is called be
seen a

of this

of

Reasoning
It will

Syllogism.
these four
processes

that

of the

reasoning
processes

necessitate of

the
and
a

employment

of

Analysis
means

Synthesis, respectively. separating

of
an

Analysis object of qualities thought

or

into

its constituent

parts,
the

relations. of the

Synthesis
or

means

combining
of
an

qualities,parts
into
a

relations
whole.

object of thought
two processes
are

composite

These of

found

in all processes is

Eeasoning.
;

Abstraction
or

principally
chiefly analytic synthesis
evolution in tion. Deduc-

analytic

6'eneralization

Conception
or

synthetic; Judgment
or

is either is
*^

both
a

synthetic

Eeasoning
in

either
or an

of
of

particulars
the

Induction,
from the

particular

general

Process

of

Reasoning

21

There

are

two

great

classes

of
or

Reasoning;
the ence infertruths ence infertruths.
;

viz., (1) Inductive

of and

Reasoning,
from

general

truths

particular
or

(2)
of

Deductive

Reasoning,
truths from

the

particular

general

Inductive
a

Reasoning
truth from die
men

proceeds
from

ing by discovertruths.
that

general

particular

For

instance,
men

the
we

particular
discover

truths the
or

individual truth

general
from serving obice infer

that

**A11 in

must

die;''

that melts that

**

all

observed

instances
we

at

certain ice melts

temperature,
at
a

may

All

certain

temperature.''
from the
a

Inductive known
to

Reasoning
the unknown. It

proceeds
It seeks is
to

essentially
discover
eral gen-

synthetic
laws Deductive

process.

from

particular Reasoning
truths that
a

facts.

proceeds
from
as

by

ing discovertruths. John

as

particular
Thus
we reason

general
all
men

die,
that

Smith,
ice melts that the

being
at
a

man,

must

die ; or,

all

certain

temperature,
of ice under

it f oUows
eration consid-

particular piece
will melt
at

that

certain

temperature.
seen

Deductive

Reasoning
an

is therefore process.

to

be

essentially

analytical

22

Logical

Thinking

Mills
inductive

says

of

Inductive of the

Eeasoning:
ancients
of

^^The in
to all

method

consisted truths

ascribing the character propositions

of which the
we

general

which have

are

true

in all the Bacon and

instances

knowledge.

exposed physical
the conian Ba-

insufficiency of this method,

has
now

investigation

far
. . .

outgrown

conception.
is that
we

Induction,
we

then,
what
or

operation
to

by which
true

infer

that
case

know will

be

in

particular
which

cases,

be

true

in all

cases

resemble In

the

former

in certain induction that of

a

assignable
is the

respects.

other
we

words,

process

by which
certain whole

conclude

what

is true

of

dividua in-

class is true

is true
at

of the

class,
will
'^

or

that in

what similar

certain
at

times

be

true

circumstances Deductive

all times.
a

Eegarding
*^

Eeasoning,
is that
at

writer
process
sary neces-

says:

Deductive

Eeasoning
we

of reasoning

by which

arrive

the

consequences,

starting
^

from

admitted
says:

or

established

premises.^
from derived
are

Brooks
we

**The
to ticulars par-

general

truths
are

which from

reason

several
as

distinct axioms
are

sources.

Some

intuitive,

the of

of

mathematics

or

logic.

Some

them

Pkocess

of

Reasoning

23

derived
them
are

from

induction.
. . .

Some
as

of

merely
of the

hypothetical, physical
theories
as

in

the

vestiga inof

sciences. of the truth of

Many

the

hypotheses
are

and used

physical
for ductive de-

sciences

general
the

reasoning;
the the

as

theory

tion, gravitafrom

theory of light ;
of universal

etc.

Eeasoning

theory

gravitation, Leverrier
a new

discovered heavens human

the
before

position of
it had

planet in the
discovered

been

by

eyes.''

Halleck

points
and words: his
own

out

the

interdependence Eeasoning
has
or

of the
out

Inductive

Deductive ^*Man

in find of

following through
the draws

to

experience,
from

that he

others,
or

major
his what

premises
conclusions.
seems cases.

which

argues
we

By
us a

induction

amine ex-

to

sufficient conclude
we

number that
not
ined, exam-

of the

individual
rest

We

then

of

these

cases,

which
same cows

have

will The down

obey the
^

general
chew the of
see

laws.
. . .

premise,
after
a

All

cud,'
cows

was

laid been

certain If
we we

nrnnber
were

had
cow

examined.
years

to

twenty
chewed classi-

hence,
cud.
.

should After
.

expect

that

she
has

her

Induction

24

LoGiCAii

Thinking

fied

certain

phenomena
we

and

tlvus

given
to

us

major
the

premise,
inference

proceed
to any to
new

deductively specimen
class.''

ply ap-

that

can

be

shown

to

belong
steps
of

that

The

several

Deductive in

Eeasoning
as
we

shall

now

be

considered

turn

proceed.

CHAPTER

III.

THE

CONCEPT

In
must

considering classify
that
purpose
as
a

the

process

of

thinking,
or

we

the
we

several may

steps

stages
in them

of

thought
for

examine

each

detail
bined com-

the

of

comprehending
In

whole.
or

actual
are

thinking
not

these
arated sep-

several

steps
in

stages

clearly
each

consciousness,
and

so

that
the

stands
and
trary, con-

out

clear

distinct

from

preceding
on

succeeding they
so

steps
blend

or

stages,
shade
to

but,
into draw
or

the

and

each
a

other
viding dithe

that

it is often
line. The

difficult first

clear in

step
that

stage
is

process
a

of

thinking

is

which

called

concept.
A

concept

is Prof.

mental Wm.
we

representation
James
says:

of ^^The

anything.
function draw distinct
a

by
line

which

mark

off, discriminate,
a

around,
of
are

and

identify
is
or

numerically
tion.^^ concep-

subject
There

discourse five
:

called

stages

steps

in

each

concept,

as

follows

25

26

Logical.

Thinking

I.
formed the

Presentation.
there
must

Before first be which wish

to

a a

concept

may

be of be

presentation
concept
the is to

material If
we

from
we

the

formed.

form

concept,
an

animaly

must

first have several

perceived
of

mal, ani-

probably horses,
etc.

kinds

animals"

dogs,
must

cats,
also

cows,

pigs, lions, tigers,

received

We the

have

impressions
which
may

from

sight by
In of

of these the order

we

animals

be
to

reproduced
the mind.

memory"

represented
we

that

may

have

full

concept
every

animal of
some

should for
of

have

perceived
there

kind be

animal,
elements

otherwise the full

would

concept

lacking.
to

Accordingly
a

it is

practically impossible
of for

have

full concept

anything.
perception
for
we

The the

greater greater
In

the
will

opportunities
be the books value and and

opportunity
of this

tion. concep-

other

series

have the
tention at-

spoken

of the and

importance
full

of

of clear

out perception. Withthe

an

active

employment
to

of
a

attention, perception
has
to

it of

is

impossible
and

receive the

clear

anything;

unless

perception
the mind

been
a

clear, it is impossible
clear

for

form As

concept

of

the

thing perceived.

Sir

28

Logical

Thinking

of

resemblance

and that the

the

points

of

difference. the

We
to
a

perceive

wolf

resembles

dog
some

considerable of resemblance

degree;
to

that the
to

it has
a

points
less that
cow

fox; and
the the
learn

still
also the

distinct
it differs
or

resemblance

bear; horse,
that

materially
We of
to of

from also

the

elephant.
kinds

there
a

are

various

wolves,

all

bearing
ing yet havcloser

great

resemblance

each

other, and
The

marked
we

points
the
more

difference. individuals
of

observe the The in

various

among

the do
we

wolves,
find. itself

points
of

difference

faculty

Comparison

evidences position disetc.

inductive
to

reasoning;

ability and
compare,

analyze,
that those

classify,
in whom

Fowler

says

it is

largely
from

developed
conclusions which the with

^^Eeason and

clearly and
facts

correctly
up

scientific them detect

;

to

the

laws from

govern

discern
error

the

known

unknown;
facts
;

by its incongruity
talent
for
paring, com-

have

an

excellent

explaining, exposing, **Any

results makes etc.'' Prof.
or

expounding,
William

criticising,
James
says:

personal
to one's

practical by

interest

in

the

be

obtained

distinguishing, sharp
to

wits

amazingly

detect

The

Concept

29

differences.
in

And

long
has Bioth of

training
same

and effect

practice
as

distinguishing
interest.

the of

sonal per-

these

agencies
difference

give
the

to
same

small

amounts

objective
the

effectiveness

upon

mind

that, under
ones

other make.'' in.

circumstances,

only

large

would

Abstraction.
is that
as

Following
of Abstraction. used of in

the

stage
The

of

Comparison
^^Abstraction'' ^^The
numerous

term

psychology

means:

act

or

process

separating
in any
to make

from

the the

qualities
one

inherent
we

object,
the

particular

which

wish

ject subact

of observation of

and the

reflection.

Or,
from

the
a

withdrawing
of

consciousness
a

ber num-

objects

with

view

to

concentrate

it
act

on

some

particular
Attention
to

one.

The

negative
'

of

which is of
^ ^

is the
or

positive. '
apart.
' '

To the

abstract
process of

separate

set
our

In

Abstraction after

in

consideration

ani-

malsy

having

recognized
and and resemblance

the

various between
we

points
the

of difference

various
to

species
some

individuals, special quality

ceed pro-

consider in

of

mals, ani-

and,
or

doing
the

so,

we

abstract^

set

aside,
we

separate

particular

quality

which

30

Logical

Thinking

wish size size

to of

consider.

If
we

we

wish

to

consider

the of

animals,
the with

abstract

the and

quality
consider Thus

from

other reference

qualities,
to

animals
we

size

alone. of them size

consider

the

various

degrees

of the

various In

animals,
the
same

classifying
way
we

ingly. accordthe

may

abstract

quality setting
and examine
we

of

shape,
this

color

or

habits, respectively,
for If
we

aside

quality

special
wish

tion observato

classification.
or

study,
a

consider that of

certain

qualities quality
or we

in

thing
the

abstract

particular
the until under

from

other

qualities

thing;

abstract the In
ber num-

the other

qualities quality
or

nothing

is left but

particular

consideration.
a

examining
of

considering
we

class the
or

or

things,
in

first

abstract the

qualities
number aside the

possessed
of

common

by

class
or

things;
not

and

also

al)stract
to

set

qualities
For

comnwn

them. classes of mals, aniof is

;

instance
we

in

considering
the combined

abstract and
common

quality
which of animals in
a

milk-giving possessed
then which
we

pouch-possessing
by
a

in

number animals

group
we name

these the

several

class the

Marsupialiaj

of which

The

Concept

31

opossum

and animals

kangaroo
the
young

are

members.

In forth in in size

these
an

are

brought

imperfect

condition, undeveloped
are

and and

condition, and
nourished until

then
are

kept in the pouch

able
may to
care

they
we

for the which

themselves. idea of the the and

Likewise, placenta^
young

abstract

the

appendage
animal which the

connects

unborn of

with foetus

the is

mother,
nourished.

by
The

means

animals

distinguished
as

by this

quality
Mammals.

are

grouped
The

together

the

Placental
are

Placental
groups,

Mammals

vided di-

into of
as

various
or

by

an

Abstraction
or

qualities
follows:

class The

resemblance

difference,
toothless
adillos, arm-

Edentata,
the

or

creatures,

such

as

sloths, ant-eaters,
from

etc. ; the

Sirenia, so-named
to
are

their

fancied among

resemblance which class

the

the

fabled^*

sirens,'^
manatees,

the

sea-cows,
or

dugongs,
which

etc.;

Cetacea,
in

whale

family,
are

although

fish-like

appearance,
to

really mammals,
which which

giving birth
with

living

young among

they nourish
are

breast-milk, porpoises,
hoofed

the

whales,
or

dolphins,
such the

etc.; the
as

Ungulata,
the

animals, rhinoceros,

the

horse,

tapir, the

32

Logical

Thinking

swine,
the

the

hippopotamus,
the
cow,

the

camel,

the

deer,
ing hav-

sheep,
teeth

etc. ; the

Eyracoidea,
hoofed which

resembling gnawing
is
or

both

the of

animals the
coney

and
or

the

animals,
the

rock-rabbit

principal example;
animals,
the various
or

the ily famof

Proboscidea,
is

trunked

which families

represented
the

by

elephants;
represented

Carnivora,
various
or

flesh-eaters,
and Insector

by

sub-families
gnawers
;

species
ivora,

;
or

the

Rodentia,

the

insect

feeders;
the

the

Cheiroptera,
or

finger-winged; having
but also the

Lemuroidea,
appearance

lemurs, monkey,

general

of the the

the

long bushy
the

tail of

fox;

the

Primates^
man-apes,

including gibbons,
and

monkeys,

baboons,

gorillas, chimpanzees,
Man.

orang-outangs
In class
common

all of
or

these

cases

you

will
possesses

see

that
a

each

general

family

certain

gives quality\^]\\Qh.
and which in animals. divides for

it its

tion, classificaof the

quality

is the

subject
the and

Abstraction
group

considering
Further
these the

particular
closer into
or

of

straction Abclasses; subof di-

classes

instance,
or

family

class be

the

Carnivora,

flesh-eaters,

may

The

Concept

33

vided of

by

further

Abstraction

into

the

classes

seals, bears,

weasels,
etc.
more

wolves,
this

dogs, lions,
we

tigers, leopards,
first the make wolf the and and

In

process,

must

general
animals and

Abstraction into the

of

similar the

dogforms

family;
into the

lion, tiger

similar

cat-family.
says

Halleck of
away

of Abstraction
we

^ ^

In

the

ess proc-

Abstraction,
a mass

draw

our

attention

from
at
common

of

confusing
and attend

portant details, unim-

the

time,

only

to

ties quali-

to the

class. the

Abstraction
power

is little
on
''

else
some

than

centering
to

of of

attention others. from of

act

qualities
IV.

the

exclusion

Generalization.
of Abstraction

Arising
is the is
:

the

stage

stage
^ '

ization. Generalor

Generalization
of

The

ess proc-

generalizing objects

or

making agreeing general

from

general
in
name,
some

ing bringpoint

several under class

a common

or

head
to

or

; an

extending
or

particulars
in series circle of
a

erals; gen-

reducing

arranging
fact wider *^The
or

genus;

bringing
into
As
a

particular
with
says:
a

of

facts

relation

facts.''

Bolingbroke
its utmost

mind,
to

therefore,
its

makes

endeavors

generalize

34

Logical

Thinking

ideas, beginning
familiar
less so.'*
seen

early with
in time head

such

as

are

most
are

and

coming
the

to those

which

Under that the

of

Abstraction
we

we

have

through
various

Abstraction

may
ious var-

Generalize

species into

the

families, and
sub-families.
we

ous thus, in turn, into the vari-

Following
down of the

the

same

process

may

narrow

sub-families

into
or

species composed
into
groups.

various

individuals;
families
act

greater

and

still greater
is

or

Generalization
or

really the
into
or

of

Classification, things having

in in
common.
a

forming

classes

all

certain
The

qualities

properties
all
possess

corollary is that
class
must
common

things
the
to the

certain

generalized
or

particular quality
class. class Thus of the
we

property
that
must

know

all animals
eat

in

the

Carnivora
possess

flesh ; and which

says:
a are

that

all Mammals

breasts

from

they
^*We
tain cer-

feed

their

young.

As

Halleck
like

put all objects having

genus,
or

qualities into
the

class. know

When
that

objects

in

that

class, we
a

certain

qualities will
alV^

have
V. the

general

application

to them

Denomination.

Following
or

closely

upon

step

of

Generalization

Classification,

36

Logical

Thinking

before

in

his

mind.''

Mill

says:

**A

name

is

word

(or

set

of

words)
to

serving
recall
to

the

double

purpose

of

mark

selves our-

the

likeness

of

former

thought
to

and

as

sign

to

make

it

known

others."

Some
of

philosophers
ideas

regard things,
others

names

as

symbols
of the

our

of

rather

than
them

things
symbols
seen

themselves;
of the

regard
It

as

things
of
a

themselves.

will

be

that

the

value

name

depends
and

materially understanding

upon

the

correct

meaning
it

garding re-

possessed

by

the

person

using

it.

CHAPTER

IV.

THE

USE

OF

CONCEPTS

Having
of
a

observed let
ns

the
now

several consider At first

a

steps
the

or

stages
use

concept,
of

and

misuse
appear

the

latter.
to

glance
but

it would
a

difficult

misuse show

concept,

little
monly com-

consideration fall For

cow or

will into
error

that

people
their
a

very

regarding
child hears it. This

concepts. horse, apply

a

instance,
a

perceives
its elders
term

sheep

and
to

the

term

^'ammaV^

is
a

perfectly
very eral gen-

correct,

although

symbolizing
or

only

classification child

generalization.
of the
more

But,
limited

the and
garding re-

knowing

nothing

detailed

classification the animal.

begins
To with
as

to

generalize

it, accordingly,
the the the
to

an

'

animal"

is identical
or

dog
case

or

the

cow,

the when all

sheep
the animals
seen.

the

horse,
is used

may

be,

and that
imal an-

term
are

child the

thinks

similar
on, to

particular
the

Later
'^

when
a

it hears

term

**

animal

applied

totally
a

different has

ing lookbeen

creature,

it thinks

that

mistake

37

38

Logical

Thinking

made
even

and when the

state term
same

of is

confusion

occurs.
narrower

Or,

applied

within

limits,
may

trouble
^ *

occurs.
^

The
to
a

child

hear it

the

term

dog'
forms

applied
a

mastiff,
of

and

accordingly
with the

concept
and the

dog
of term

identical the

qualities hearing

attributes
same

mastiff.
to
a

Later,

applied
and is the

toy-terrier,
that the

it becomes is
no

indignant ^^dog"
but

cries

out

latter different.

something
child there

entirely

It is not with
creatures

until
fact in the latter

becomes
are

acquainted
kinds of of

the

that

many

general
term

category

^^dog''
understood is

that

the and

becomes

fully
concept

its

propriate ap-

intelligently
of the

formed.

Thus

we

see

the

importance

sentation. step of Pre-

In

the

same some

way

the

child

might
^^man^'
men

imagine
had red reda

that
hair haired would

because and and

particular
whiskers,
all

long

were

long-whiskered.
form the of
a

Such

child
as a

always

concept
the writer

of **man''

creature

possessed
As French

personal
once

qualities said,
ers read-

just

mentioned.
of current

literature
were

might

ine imag-

that

all

Englishmen

short, dumpy,

Use

of

Coitcepts

39

red-cheeked

and had

irascible,
great teeth
of

and

that
enormous

all

lishwome Engfeet ;

and

also

that

readers that all

English

literature
were

might
keys, mon-

imagine
and

Frenchmen

like sad

all In the

Frenchwomen
same

were

quettes. co-

way

many

American
say

young
^*

people
you

believe
know"

that and
**

all all

Englishmen Englishwomen
Also In

Don't

constantly
every
same

ejaculate:
wears

Fancy!'*
a

that
the

Englishman
way,

monocle. person,
own

the

young

English
of his of

from

reading might
as

the

cheap
form

novels

country,

well

the

concept

all Americans and

" ^ ^

long-legged,
' '

chin-whiskered I want
to know
;

big-nosed,
I reckon themselves the
man,
' '

saying
and back

Waal,

^^Du

tell;" while
a

they
their

tilted
on

in

chair

with

feet Western

piece. manteltained enter-

The

concept
the average

of

by
never

Eastern West the who

same

person

who

has is

traveled

further In

than
way,

Buffalo,
we

equally
known

amusing.
Western

have

people
as

formed of
a

concept
and

of Boston

people
diet

partaking
beans

steady

continuous

of baked and

and

studiously
between

reading
these

Browning

Emerson

meals.

40

Logical

Thinking

Halleck
ten years

*^

says

certain

Norwegian
white

child
bedded imone

old in his
a

had

the

quality
man.

firmly

concept
for
a

Happening
first

day

to

see

negro

the
man

time,
the

the

child

refused other his that

to

call

him

until the

negro's
to

qualities compelled
concept
child and should the
to

child

revise If
or a

eliminate
ever see an

whiteness. Indian

Chinaman,
further
an

concept
A father

would of

undergo six,
reared had

still with the

cept con-

revision.

girl
and

intemperate

brothers,
fixed

quality
of
age

of drunkenness
man.

firmly
certain

in her until

boy

kept,
in his in

the

of
man.

eleven,
Another that
not

trustworthiness

concept
his who
teens

of

boy,
was

until
a

late

thought
wrong

man

creature

did

from
any

determination
man

but

from his

ance, ignorcourse

that
to

would

change
but

the he

right path
was

if he

could

understand
one

that

going
of
a

wrong.
man

Happening
who his
was

day

to hear to

wealthy
comforts

ing neglectmother that

provide
last did he

for

aged

in the When
to

her
man

sickness, the
not know

boy

concluded

his

mother's the The

condition.

informed his
own

the

man,

boy
same

was

told

mind

business.

day

he

Use

of

Concepts

41

heard

of

some

politicians
the

who

had
a

ally intention-

cheated he be
are

city

in

letting
his
most

contract

and

immediately
borne in mind
to

revised that

concept.
of
our our

It must

concepts
entire
a

subject
at

change
are

during
made
may

life;

that
way;

first

they

only in
show

tentative
at any

that that

experience they
have

us,

time,
that made here taken Let

been

erroneously
too
or

formed,
too

we

have, this

abstracted
too must

little
too

or

much,
or

class

wide be

narrow,
or

that
one

quality
away/'
us now

added

there

consider the have formation

the

mental and
we use

processes

involved We

in

of

cept. con-

first, as
crude be
to
or

have

seen,

the

presentation
the

of the
must

material Our

from

which

concept

formed. directed

attention
an

being

attracted
we

toward and

ject, ob-

notice

its
a

qualities
of
our

properties.
of

Then

we

begin

process
or

comparison perception
other

the it.
or

object perceived
We ideas
compare

of

of

the

object

with

objects
and

in

our

mind, noting
thereby
similar The

similarities towards and the

ferences dif-

and with
ones.

leading objects

cation classifisimilar disother

opposed
range

greater

of

42

Logical

Thinking

objects previously perceived, the

be the number of relations
or

greater

will

established
others. As

between
we

the

new

object
in

idea

and and

vance adweb
more

experience objects
and

knowledge,
ideas The becomes

the

of

related

and

intricate
to

complex.
child's than Then
we

relations
of horse of
to

ing attach-

the

concept
the
we

is very

much

simpler
adult.

concept
pass
on

the the

enced experistep
of

analysis, in which
the
act Then which

separate
them
an

the in

qualities of
detail.
The

object and
of
we

consider
is
to

abstraction
pass
we on

analytical

process.

the

step of synthesis, in

unite and
or

the

materials

gathered
thus form

by
a

comparison general idea

In

analysis, and
concept
we

regarding
the

the

object. ties quali-

this process
discerned

combine

various and in
a

by
them

comparison together
the
as

analysis, bundle,
we

and

grouping

tie them
and from
a

together with
have first
a

string of synthesis conception.

of Thus
as

thus the

true

general

general
we

conception
first that

horse animal

simple thing,
certain certain
we

notice

the

has and

qualities lacking in other

others the similar various
to

things

other

things;

then

analyze

qualities of the

44

Logical

Thinking

the

two

steps, comparison
other. Some have

or

analysis,
that else

cedes prealysis an-

the

claimed

must

precede
compare

comparison, having compared.

how

could

one

without
to

yzed first analOthers

the hold else had that how his to

things

be
must note

comparison
conld
one

precede
a

analysis,
xmless he

quality
it by

attention
or

drawn from
seems

to

its

blance resem-

difference

qualities in
to

other the
to

objects.
two

The for

truth
in of
some

lie between there

seems or

ideas,
a

cases

be

perception
before
any

some

similarity
or

ence differtakes be
an

analysis
others

abstraction
seems

place;

while
or

in

there before
we

to

analysis possible.

abstraction In this book

comparison
followed latest
an

is the

have the still

arrangement
but
many

favored

by
is

ties, authorione

the

question

open

to

minds.
we

As

have been the

seen,

the

general
mind others

concept

once

having
classify

formed,
concept
in

the with

proceeds
having

to

eral gen-

qualities proceeds assuming

Then
we

common.

And,
from

likewise,

it

to

generalize

the
in

classification,
classes.

certain

qualities
to make

certain

proceed

still further

general-

Use

of

Concepts

45

izations
and

and

classifications

on

an

ascending
blances resem-

widening
less

scale, including

seeming

marked,
with other
as

until

finally we
in
as as

embrace

the class

object
as

objects
well
as

large
close and

possible
a

in

limited
*'

sub-class

as

possible.
is
an

As

Brooks
ess. procas

says:

Generalization broader the

narrower

ascending
is

The

concept

regarded
; a ; a

higher

than

concept
a

concept

is considered idea
go up

higher
above
a

than

percept
idea.

general
We thus
cepts perto ticular pareral gena as

stands from
to

particular
to

particulars
concepts;

generals
lower down them

from

from

concepts
with
to

higher

concepts.

Beginning
we

objects,
idea number
we

rise

from

the

of

their

class.

Having
compare

formed them them

same

of lower individuals classes.

classes, we
and We

did

generalize
the

into
ess procceed pro-

higher
with

perform

these
we are

higher
at

classes, and
arrested
reached
may

thus in the the

until

last

est highcle pinnathe which

class. Being.
of ladder
we

Having
we

generalization, by reversing the

descend

process

through

ascend.^' From this process of

generalization,

or

syn-

46

Logical

Thinking

thesis,
our

we

create

from

our

simple
of the

concepts
older
thorities au-

general

concepts.

Some

distinguished
classes and

between former
^^

these

two

by terming
the

the
term

^^conceptions,"
'*

reserving

concepts
says
are

for
* '

the The

general concepts. products

called the of

Brooks

of this

generalization
We have

general

ideas

concepts.
of

already

discussed and
now

method

forming
nature

conceptions
of the

consider A
. . .

the

concept
idea.

itself. It is is
mon coma

concept
which

is

general

general notion
to its which class of
own

has

in it all that
a

class. all

It is the

general

scheme of the
none

embraces while

individuals
in all respects of
a

it resembles
Thus
my

its class. has

conception

ruped quadbut it

in it all four-footed

animals,
to any
a

does

not

correspond animals;
my

in all respects

ticular par-

conception
but does

of
not

triangle
agree

embraces details

all with

triangles,
any

in The

particular
cannot

triangle.
made
to

general
any many

conception

be

fit

actly ex-

particular object,
These

but

it teems
may

with be

particulars.
with the

points

lustrat il-

concepts

horse, bird, color,

animal, etc.'*

Use

of

Concepts

47

So
and

we

may

begin
between

to

perceive
a

tbe

distinction

difference

concept
and the

and

mental

image.
concept
for

This

distinction,
be

fact

that

cannot

imaged
j

is

generally important
distinct

cult diffi-

the

beginner.
have
a

It

is

that

one

should

clear

and

standing under-

regarding
consider
it

this

point,
the

and

so

we

shall

further

in

following

chapter.

CHAPTEE

V.

CONCEPTS

AND

IMAGES

As

we

have

said,
be

concept
as

cannot

be of

aged"cann ima

used

the

subject
is

mental
to

image.
student that of
every

This who has

statement

perplexing
to

the

been

accustomed of the mind of

the

idea

conception

is capable
a tal men-

being

reproduced
But the
as

in the

form

image.
statement

apparently quite
to

paradoxical
when
a

is

seen

simple
it.
a

little

consideration For

is

given
you

instance,
of
you
an

have You know

distinct
what
you

general
mean

concept
when

animal.
say
or

think,
you meant

animal.
see one

You and another

nize recogyou
derstand un-

animal what

when is

when But the

uses

the form

word
a

in

conversation. of mental
a

you

cannot

meipital image
Because
any

concept,

animal.

Why?
form ticular of

image
of of

you
some

might
par-

would animal several and

be
or

either else
a

picture composite
Your allow of

the

ties qualiis
too

animals.
to

concept
a

broad

general

composite

48

Concepts

and

Images

49

picture
concept

of

all
a

animals.

And,

in

truth,
that
an

your ally actu-

is not in

picture of anything particular,

the but of

exists idea

one

abstract animals. for

thing some-

embracing
the

qualities
x"a

all

It is like that As

algebraic

symbol
the

exists, but
^^

not

thing

itself.
be resented rep-

Brooks

says:
a

concept

cannot

by
from its

concrete

image.
rather

This than is fixed

is

dent evi-

being general
or

cular. partiby
an
' '

If its color, size

shape
but

image,
And

it is

no

longer general
says:

particular.
to

Halleck

'^It is

impossible image

image

anything
marks. that
A

without The
a

giving
mental could

that

individual
are so

best

images
be

nite defithem. and

brows, eye-

picture
come

painted
the

from
man

being might
a

under blonde
on

class

have

snub and
no

nose,
scar

hair, scanty
face.
The

his

presence

of

one

of

these
man

individual would

peculiarities
it. be If
we

in

the

concept
an

destroy
it must
russet
as

form of
as a

image

of

an

apple,
or or

either either

yellow, red, large

A
as a was was

green,

apple,
as a

pippin
asked

small he He

crab-apple.
of when he bad

boy

what

thought replied

^apple^ thought

mentioned.
'

that
a

of

big, dark-red, apple

with

50

Logical

Thinking

spot
could

on

one

side,

near

the

top.'

That

boy

image
concepts

but distinctly,
was

his power

of forming
' '

still in its while

a

infancy.

So

we

see

that

mental

image

must

picture

the

particular
and
a

and

individual of
can some

ties, qualiticular parmust

properties
unit contain of

appearances

class, a concept
class
to

and

only the

qualities" thai
the
entire said class.
*^a

is, the
The

qualities belonging general concept

idea
...

is
a

as

has

been notion its

own

general
has
' '

general
to
'^

which class. of
must
a

in

it all that it follows

cannot
some

is

common

And kind be of is

that be

general
A

idea''

this

pictured.

picture
while

particular
above
may

thing,
and

concept

something things.
We

higher
a

than but
race.

particular
we

picture
concept

man^

cannot

picture Man
is not
a

the

of

the of

cept con-

reproduction
the

the

image
of
a

of

thing^ but

on

contrary
that
he

is the

an

idea

class
sider conderstanding un-

of things. We
this

trust

student
at
a

will
clear

point
of

until

arrives

the

distinction, and

the

reason

thereof.

But,

while

concept
as an

is

incapable

of
true

being
that

pictured mentally

image, it is

52

Logical

Thinking

stract

; but

he when

failed it

to
was

recognize placed
a

an

individual him. A

cranberry
humorist had
an

before

remarked such
a

that for for

certain

cian metaphysiand such

as

love

abstractions,
concrete

intense
to eat

dislike
a

things,
when

to

refuse

concrete

peach

placed

fore be-

him." In the

beginning

many

students difference

are

plexed pera

regarding
percept
when
* ^

the

between

and

concept.

The

distinction A

is simple is
:

properly
of
' '

considered.
act

percept
;

the

object

an

of

perception
is
^ ^

that

which

is

perceived.

concept

mental

resentatio rep-

Brooks distinction of
a
^ '

makes is the is
a

the mental
mere

following product
or tion no-

A
a

percept concept

real of

thing;
the
common

idea of

attributes
some

things.

A
a

percept
concept cept
can

represents
is not be be
can

particular object;
but

particular,
described

general.

A
a

percept con-

by particulars;
only by generals.
be

can

described

The age im-

former the
,

usually
cannot

represented
be

by
it
can

an

latter
^

imagined,
is able horse
to to

only
the
been

he

thought.^
of
a

Thus

one

image
has

percept

particular
he

which

perceived;

but

is unable

image

correctly

Concepts

and

Images

53

tlie concept In

of horse

as

class

or

generic

term.

connection
and

with

this

distinction
we

between
as

perception
consider favored the

conception,
of

may

well
term

subject
many

apperception,

by
others

modern

psychologists,
decline refuse defined
to

though al-

steadfastly
or

recognize
to
as:

its it.

necessity

meaning
may

and be

employ
ception ^^perception ; per-

Apperception accompanied

by comprehension by recognition." comprehended

in
a
new

accompanied thing perceived recognized" by

in
reason

The
or

is held

to be

that

is,perceived previously

sense,

of certain mind.
of

acquired
it
to
as:

ideas
^Hhe

the

Halleck

explains
in relation It

perception
which
we

things

the

ideas that
gans or-

already

possess.'^
of

follows active

all individuals of will

way

possessed
and
same

equally

perception, perceive
in the of each
same

equally thing
But

actit^e in the the and

tion, attensame

the

and

degree.
will

ception appervary

individual his

differ

according

to

previous
and

experience
taste, habit

and and

training, temperament
custom. For

instance, the familiar

a

story of the
watched The the first

boy

who

climbed

tree

and

passers-by, noting

their

comments.

54

Logical

Thinking

passer-by
would make

noticing
a

the

tree,

says

aloud

' '

That

good

stick

of timber/* said the

^^Good

morning,
next
man

Mr.

Carpenter,*'
*^That Mr.

boy.
fine

The

said:

tree

has

bark.'* the

^^Good Another
up

morning,

Tanner,'*
a

said

boy.

said, ^^I bet there's

that
* '

squirrel morning,

*s nest

in

tree.** the
sees

*^Good

Mr.

Hunter,
The and
^^

said

boy.
in The
a

woman

bird hunter

something
sees

pretty
thing some-

cunning.*'
to

in it
sees

kill. of
a as

The certain

ornithologist
genus

it

as

something perhaps
collection.

and

species,
for
to

and his be
or

also

something
farmer of
a

appropriate perceives
either it

The

something
crops.

destructive

insects
to

thief

sees

jail as

something

be

dreaded for

; an

ordinary

citizen, something people;

of his
a

ful use-

confining objectionable something

And
so

liceman, po-

in the

the

line

ness. busi-

on,

apperception
of

differing
the
sees

upon

the In

previous
the
or same

experience
way

vidual. indiin the

the

scientist

an

animal

rock

many

qualities

of which

ordinary

person

is

ignorant.

Our
our

training,
ception. apper-

experience, prejudices, etc.,

affect

Concepts

and

Images

55

And

so,

we

see

that

in

measure

our

cepts con-

are

determined

not

only

by by
not

our

simple
ceptions. apper-

perceptions,
We

but

also

materially things
senses,

our

conceive

only
as

as

they

are

apparent
influenced

to

our

but

also

colored

and

by
For

our

previous
reason we

impressions
find

and

ideas.

this

widely
among

varying
different

concepts
individuals.

of

the

same

things
an

Only

absolute

ndnd

could

form

an

absolute

concept.

CHAPTER

VI.

TERMS

In

logic

the

words

concept
but
a

and

term

are

practically
of

identical,
there is is

in

the

popular
difference.

usage

the

terms

distinct if
we

This the
cept con-

difference theoretical

warranted,
of
an

depart
for in
a

from word

phase
denotes

logic,
idea denotes the
we

the the

really
the of In
an

mind,
or

while
name

word idea

term
or

really
concept"

word of
seen

symbol
have

the

latter.

previous
or

chapter
^ '

that

nomination De-

the is

act

of

naming
step
a

or

ing designatstage
that
in

by forming majority
civilized

name''
a

the And

final

or

concept.
of the words
denote

it is
in

fact

the of
cepts. con-

the

languages
ideas
or

people
As
or

general
^ ^

Brooks

says

To

give

each

vidual indito

particular
be

idea

name

peculiar
indeed become

self it-

would

impracticable
would

and
soon

sible; imposwhelmed over-

the

mind with

its burden
words

of
our

names.

Nearly
are

all
eral gen-

the

ordinary
rather

of

language
The

than

particular.
56

individuals

Tebms

57

distinguished
persons

by particular places,
are are

names,

excepting
few.

and

comparatively only
verbs denote

Most
nouns

objects
;

named
our

by

common

nearly
; our
our

all of

express
common

general

actions
and

adjectives
adverbs

ties, qualiof
tions ac-

designate
There the
express
are

classes
very

and

qualities.

few

words

in the and In
any

language,
that

besides do
not
term

names

of persons ideas.
' '

places, logic
word word of
to
a

general

the
or

word words

is

employed
a

to denote

which is

constitute

concept.
in the

The
sense

concept

employed

strictly
without it. the The

subject of thought,
words of and

ence refercon'-

the

symbolizing thought,
the
term

cept,
element

or

subject
or

is

important
it is
It not for

fact

denoting
of

merely
must

convenient remembered consists words sometimes

are

symbol
that of but
a

expression.
term does

be

necessarily
often
many

single word,
to

employed
even an

denote
clause

the
or

concept,

entire for the

upon is

phrase
term. of
we

being
For

found

necessary

the

current

the

purpose to be

of

consideration
in the

the
may

subjects
agree

treated A
term

this

book,

that:

outward

58

Logical

Thinkii^g

symbol
is the There Deductive and Terms

of
idea
are

concept; expressed
three

and

that:
the term.

The

concept

by

general

parts

or

phases

of

Logic,

namely:

Terms,
in
a

tions Proposiing consider-

Syllogisms.
we are

Therefore,
into

entering

tion considera-

of the
we

first have

phase
a

of Deductive

Logic.

less Unof

correct

understanding
to

Terms,

we

cannot

expect
of

understand

the

succeeding
As

stages
says:

Deductive
we

Eeasoning. join
when
an

Jevons
we

*^When
a

terms
we

gether to-

make

Proposition;
we

join

Propositions
or

together, reasoning.

make
. . .

argument
We should
we were

piece

of

generally get nothing

to

but
terms

nonsense

if
any

put

together
and
to
a

any

and
we were
we

tions proposireasoning.

suppose

that

To

produce
to

good

argument

must

be

ful care-

obey

certain
to make

rules, which
known.

it is the

pose purto

of

Logic

But,

in order
we

understand

the

matter

perfectly,
a

ought
how have and

first to learn
many next

exactly what of
terms nature of

term may
a

is, and

hinds
to

there of

be;

we

learn

the

proposition

the

different
we

kinds
learn

propositions.
one

wards Aftermay

shall

how

proposition

60

Logical

Thinking

ond books

term

being,
world,

^41ie
"

greatest
contains
two

collection three

of

in the
one

which

stantives subtwo plied sup-

adjective,
The who of above

articles, and
is

prepositions.

illustration ^^A number with the

by Jevons, then,
may

adds:
any

logical term,
of
nouns,

consist
or

substantive

adjective,

articles,
to

prepositions
them

and

conjunctions
still it is

required
one

join if
it

together;
out,
or

only

term
a

points
or

makes
or

us

think

of

ject, single ob^

collection,
is
:

class

of objects.^
which

(A
presses ex-

substantive,

^^the

part of speech

something
or

that

e:^sts, either

material

immaterial. The first into

two

'0
classification of
terms

divides

them

general

lar classes, vi^., (1) SinguTerms.

Terms;
A

and

(2)

General is a-Mmi

Singular
person

Term
or

denoting Although
or

single

object, only
be
a

thing.
person

denoting
may

single object,
of

thing, it
; or

composed

several
one

words
as

it may
case

be of
a

composed
proper

of but
etc.

word

in

the
are

name,

The
are or

following
terms

Singular
but
;
a

Terms,

because

they
person
;

denoting
*^

single object,
;

thing:

Europe
the first

nesota Min;

Socrates

Shakespeare

man

Terms

61

the

highest good
the

; the

first

cause

the

King
sioner Commis-

of

England;

British
Works

Museum;
;

the

of Public

the

main
be

street noted

of the that Term in

City

of

New

York."

It will

all of the denotes

a

examples

given,

the

Singular
a

particular
of

something,
which there

specific
one,

thing,
and

something
one

is but and

that

possesses

particularity
' '

viduality. indikind

As is not the

Hyslop
or

says

Oneness
of

of

only
but
a

distinctive

feature
or

lar Singuas

Terms,

individuality,
concrete

singularity,
whole."

representing
A the General
same

individual
term

Term
to
or

is

which
every

applies,
individual of
or

in

sense,

each
in

and
a

object,
persons

person
or

thing
of

number

objects,
to

things

the
of

same

kind,
objects
For
; trees

the

entire
or
^ '

class

composed
of
;

such kind.

persons

things
horse
;
man

the

same

instance,
;

biped

; mammal

figures
says,

grain

of

sand

matter,"
Terms:
more

etc. ^^In

Hyslop
these
one

garding re-

General the
terms

instances

denote the
the

than kind.

object,

and

apply
is

to all of in

same

Their
of

meaning
what
are

important

interpretation

called

universal

propositions."
classification
of

Another

general

Terms

di-

62

Logical

Thinking

vides

them

into

two

respective classes,
Terms;
says

as

lows: fol-

(1) Collective
Terms.
^ ^

and of

(2)
this

tive Distribution classifica-

Hyslop
division

This

is based

upon

the of

tion distincsame

between kind the the A and

class

aggregate
terms.

wholes It

the

partly
and

coincides

with

division latter

into

Singular being
is

General

Terms,

always

distributive.''
one

Collective
or

Term collected of the

which of
or

denotes

an

aggregate
or

whole
same

objects,
similar
as an

sons per-

things

kind,
vidual, indiarate sep-

which

collective

whole

is considered of
a

although
individual Thus
the

composed

totality of
or

objects,
terms:
;

persons
^^

things.
gregation con-

following
; army ; ;

regiment;
; ;

family

crowd

nation

pany com-

battalion

class
are

; congress

parliament
Terms,

convention;"
they

etc.

Collective

cause beor

denote

collective, aggregate
considered
as
an

composite
A each

wholes,

individual. denotes
or

Distributive
and in
a

Term

is

term

which

every

individual class. For

object,

person
are

thing
terms:

given

example, biped;
As

the

*^man;

quadruped;
tree.''
are

mammal;
says:

book;
^^

diamond;
terms

Hyslop

General

always

distributive."

Teems

63

Also:

^^It is important
between
. . .

also

to

keep
and

clear

the

distinction wholes.
as

class

wholes
are a

collective
so

They

often class

confused
a

to

call

term

denoting

Collective

Term.'* Another divides them

general
into

classification the

of
two

Terms

following Terms;

ive respect-

classes;
Terms. A
a

(1)

Concrete

and

(2)

stract Ab-

Concrete

Term

is

term
or

denoting
which and

either is subject
may

definite
to

object, person
and

thing

perception
as

experience,

be
as

considered for

actually existent horse;

etc.,
man;
or

concretely,
lar; dol-

instance:

mountain;
else
as an an

knife; thought
for of

table;
and
*^

attribute
as

used

solely

attribute,

instance:

beautiful,

wise, noble,

ous, virtu-

good,''
An

etc.

Abstract

Term
or

is

term

denoting
considered
or as

the

tribute, atas

quality
apart

property
person

from
an

the

object,

thing
for

and

as

having
^^

abstract

existence, nobility;
have real
seen

instance

beauty;
etc.

wisdom;
As
we

goodness;
elsewhere,
in

tue," virthese

qualities have
but
are

no

existence of

themselves,
in
connec-

known

and

thought

only

64

Logical

Thinking

tion Thus know

with
we

concrete cannot

objects,
know
we
^^

persons

and

things.
may
^^

Beauty,"
cannot know

but

beautiful things;
but
we

tue," Viretc.
pressed ex-

may
or

know

virtuous is concrete and

people,
when

An

attribute
as
an

quality

adjective;
a

abstract

when

expressed
and
' '

as
*^

noun;

as

for

instance,
or

ful" ^^beauti^^

beauty," virtue,
summed
name
' '

respectively, respectively.
up
as

ous virtu-

and
may Term

^ '

The

tion distincA crete Con-

be

follows:

is the

of
as

thing
an

or

of

ity qualas

of merely
the
a noun

thing expressed
a

adjective
Abstract

and

quality
of
a

while of

an

Term

is
as

name

quality
a

thing, expressed
in

and

as

^Hhing^^
may
as

itself.
as

Certain Terms

terms
or

be Abstract
seen

used

either and

crete Contain cer-

Terms,
fit to instance

authorities
as
^ ^

have
as

classify
the

them

Mixed

Terms,
;

for

terms: etc.

government
Another
them

religion; philosophy;"
classification
of

general
into
two

Terms
as

vides dilows: fol-

respective
Terms;
and

classes

(1)
Termis. A
own

Positive

(2) Negative

Positive

Term

is
for

term

which

denotes

its

qualities, as

instance:

^^good, human.

Teems

65

large,
terms

square,

black,
the
term

strong,"
of the

etc.

These
noted de-

indicate

presence

quality

by
A

the

itself. is
as
a

Negative
of
a

Term

term

denoting
^^

the

sence ab-

quality,
unwell,
These

for

instance:

inhuman,

inorganic,
'^

unpleasant,
terms

ive, non-conducpresence

etc.

deny
than

the

of the
sentially es-

certain
presence

qualities,
of
an

rather

asserting
They
and
know
one are

opposite quality.
in
may

negative
Jevons
^^

nature

in
a

form.

says

We its
un-,
' '

usually

tive Negaof
the

Term little

by

beginning in-, a-, Hyslop

Terms

with
non-,

syllables
with of
or

an-,

or

by

its

ending
symbols diSy
tiotj

-less.

^ '

says
are

The
un,

usual

Negative

in,

less,

a,

an,

anti, mis, and

Jevons
a

sometimes ^^If
every

de, and

and

not.''
were

adds:
one,

the
term

English
ought

language
to

perfect
Term all Just

have
to

Negative
so

ing exactly correspondadjectives

as

it,
be in

that

and

nouns

would

pairs.

convenient

has

its

negative

inconvenient;
and

metallic, non-metallic;
so

logical, illogical;
have its

on;

so

blue

should
non-

negative,
paper,

non-blue;

literary,
But
many

literary;
these

non-paper.

of
or

Negative

Terms

would

be

seldom

66

Logical

Thinking

never

used, and
make
or

if

we

happen
the the

to want

them, by

we

can

them
non-,
we

for before

occasion Positive

putting

not-,

Term.

cordingl Ac-

find

in the which

dictionary only those

are

Negative
The
^ '

Terms last

much

employed.'*
also
seem

named the
more same

authority
word
may

says:

Sometimes
or even

to have

two

distinct between in of
two

negatives.
undressed

There and

is
not-

much

difference that be the

dressed,
seem

is *not

evening

dress.' but

Both this is

to

negatives
word has

^dressed,'
distinct
upon

because Some

meanings."
and ther furcase

authorities

insist for

closer

classification,as
of the
what

instance, in the Term,

they

call of

Privative
once

denoting

absence

qualities
or

possessed

by the

object, person
dark,"
^^are
or

thing,

as

*^deaf, dead, blind,

that these
terms

etc.

Hyslop
in form Also

says

Positive

and in the

Negative
case

in matter what

meaning."
a

of

they
^Hhe in
a

call

ego-positive
of
a

Term,

denoting

presence

positive quality expressed

as
:

negative manner,"
invaluable,
however of
**

disagreeable, inhuman^
last mentioned
some as

etc.

These

classes the result

are

regarded
too

by

carrying

far"

the

tendency

toward

68

Logical

THiisrKi:tsrG

horse;
to

gun;''
many

etc.

These

terms

may
are

he
sarily neces-

lated re-

other
to any

terms,
other. is
to son;
a

but

not

related A Relative

Term

term

denoting
terms,
as

certain for

necessary

relations

other

stance: in-

^'father;
teacher it is
;

mother;
; servant
' '

daughter;
;

pupil

; master

etc.

Thus in
one

impossible
to
^*

to

think
or

of

^^

child''
versa.

except
The

relation
term

parent,"
the

vice of above the

implies

existence of the

its related

term.

Hyslop
^^Kelative individuals

says

classification:

Terms with the term's

suggest
the

thought
involved while in

of other
as a

relation

part
Terms

of

meaning,
the
to

Absolute the ject sub-

suggest
without
a

only
relation

qualities
others

being

sarily neces-

involved." Some

authorities
and

also also is
as

classify
hroad
to

terms
narrow.

as

higher
This
content

lower;

and

classification and
we

meant term.

indicate For the

a

the

extent

of the
we

instance,
uals individclass.

when

classify,
we

begin
group

with into

which These

then
we

small
a

classes

then
to their

group

into

larger
These of

class, according larger

classes

resemblances.
to

then

go

form

part

still

Teems

69

larger
advance
retreat

classes, they
from and
more

and

so

on.

As

these and

classes
as

form the

broader

terms;
class the

we

general

into
term term

the

less

general
narrower.

particular,
some,

becomes which

By
the the

the

broader is
are

includes

narrower

called called be
or a

the the

higher
lower and it
a

term,, and
terms.

narrower

Thus term

animal than latter.

would
cat

higher
because
^^

broader includes

dog,

tiger
says:

the

Brooks

Since
common

concept
attributes both

is formed of

by the union
it

of the
thus

individuals,
and

embraces

attributes of
a

individuals. what

The

butes attriits

concept
the

constitute it

is called

content;

individuals

embraces

tute consti-

its extent.'^

Accordingly,
in
a

the
or

feature
term of

of

including
its

jects ob-

concept
the

is called

exten-

sion; while
or

feature

including

attributes It follows

qualities
a

is called consequence

its intension. that

less the
more

as

natural of its

the

greater

the the

extension

term,

the

its intension; less its

greater
We
will

intension,

extension.

understand that the the

this
more

clearly

when

we

consider in
a

individuals
common

contained
or

term,

fewer

properties

70

Logical

Thinking

qualities it properties,
says:

can

contain fewer

and

the

more

common

the

individuals.
man

As

Brooks

^^The

concept
orator
or

has

more

extension since it
braces em-

than

poet,
more

statesman,
and the

individuals;
lay aside
orator

less

intension,
butes attriorder In

since

we

must

distinctive in man.'*^ is

of
to

poet,
them
way

and
common

statesman

unite
same

in the

class
term
a

the

general

animal

quite

extended

for

it includes of very

large number
different
as

of individual varied

varieties characteristics the

worm, must

and for

and

qualities ;

instance, snail,

lion, camel,
snake,
be
common

dog, oyster,

elephant,

etc.

Accordingly
it
can

its intension

small

for
to

include

only
which

the
are

ities qualvery

all animals, definition

few how

indeed. small

The

of the
^^

term

shows An in
rious va-

is its intension, above

as:

Animal.

organic being, rising

vegetable

respects, especially in possessing

will and the
power

bility, sensition.^' mo-

of the animal has

voluntary
intension
as:

Another further when he

narrows

still
ture crea-

defines
or

*^a

which Halleck

possesses,
^^

possessed,
narrow

life.'' in intension,

says:
very

Animal in

is very extension.

broad

There

are

Terms

71

few is
a

qualities common
vast

to all

animals,
To

but

there
full

number of
name

of animals.
term every to

give
we

the

meaning
have
to

the

in

extension,
from
from
we

should
scopic micro-

animal,
the

the
the decrease

infuoria
to

tiger,
When
of

worm anglethe the

the
to

whale.
one

extension individuals

species fewer,

animal, horse,

are
' '

the

qualities

more

numerous.

The

importance
concepts
and

of

forming

clear

and

tinct dis-

of

grouping,
into

classifying
broader all
thorities au-

and

generalizing
and and the real

these is

larger and

concepts

terms

recognized regarded

by
as

is basis
says:

generally
of

ing form-

all constructive

thought.
lies
at

As

Brooks of

^^Generalization
:

the
eral gen-

basis

language

only

as

man

can

form

conceptions
a

is it
. .

possible Nearly
are

for

him

to

form

language.
in
our

all the

ordinary
than

words

language
. . "

general
power

rather of

particular.
lies
we no

This also of
at

zation generaliHad

the

basis

of

science.

power

forming
would
never

general
be
a

ideas, each

particular
and
very
we

object

study
pacs

by itself,
the
ex-

should of

thus

beyond

alphabet

knowledge.

Judgments,

72

Logical

Thinking

cept

in

the

simplest
is difficult

form,
to
see

would

be

ble impossithe plest sim-

and
;

it

how

even

form

of

the

syllogism
conclusion

oould

be

structed. con-

No

general

could

be

drawn

from

particulars, generals;
deductive

nor

particular
thus neither

clusions con-

from

and

ductive in-

nor

reasoning
of

would

be

sible. posnot

The

classifications

science

could

be

made;
threshold

and

knowledge
of

would

end

at

the

very

science*

^^

CHAPTER

VII.

THE

MEANING

OF

TERMb

Every
some

term

has

its

meaning,
to term

or

content,
The word

as

authorities words of vocal which

prefer
the

call is
as

it.

or

composed
a

are

merely
the real

sounds,
of the To the

serving
the

symbol

for

meaning
only
it. in

term,
of the

which
person

meaning
standing underthe
as a

exists

mind
one

not

understanding
latter
one

meaning meaningless
it the sound

of

term,
but

the
to

is

but

sound,
awakens and

understanding
associations its
purpose

mental thus
serves

and
as

representation
a

symbol
Each

of

thought.
general
actual the term

concrete

has

two

mearir-

ings, (1)
object
the
to

the which

concrete term
or

thing,
is

person

or

applied;

and of

(2)
those of in

qualities,
persons term

attributes
or

properties
in
consequence

objects,
which the
case

things applied.

the of

is

For

instance,
hook,
idea and the of the

the

concrete

term

first the
sec-

meaning thing
which

consists
we

of think

the of
as

general
a

booh,

73

74

Logical

Thinking

ond which

meaning
go to pages, etc.

consists make the

of

the

various
a

qualities
as

that

thing

book,

the the

printed
cover,
a

binding,
is that

the

form,

Not
every

only
other

particular thing
the
a same

book,

but

thing having
also
a

or

similar
so,

properties
I call

must
a

be book

book.

And
possess

whenever the the I must said

thing

it must I in

qualities.
of of
every

And,

whenever

combine

ideas think

these
a

qualities
As Jevons

thought,
says: term

book.

^*In has
to
a

reality,
double it is

ordinary
it
. "

general
the

meaning: applied,
way,
as

means

things
means,

which
a

it also
.

in

totally different

the

qualities
in the of

and

peculiarities Logicians
to which term
;
a

implied
say

being
the

things. things
of

that

number extension

term

applies
number

is the of

the

while

the

qualities
^

or

peculiarities implied
The been extension referred and

is the

intension.^ of

intension

terms

has The
sion extentwo

to in the

previous
of is the

chapter.
of

general
of
a

classification

degrees

general
and

term

expressed

by the

terms,

Genus

Species, respectively.
character of the

The

classification

of the

intension

76

Logical

Thinking

divided, the
which
a man

species/^
is
a

Animal
;

is
man^

genus

of

species

while

in turn, is

genus

of

which

Caucasian

is
a

species

and

Caucasian,
Socrates
must

in turn, becomes becomes

a

5'e7^l^5 of which

species.
the

The

student of of

avoid
terms
same

confusing
genus terms
^^

logical meaning
with the
use

the
^

and in
^

species
Natural

the class

History.
helow

Each it in
to
tension; ex-

is

genus'
each

to

the is

class
^^

and class above of the

class

species''
the

the
treme ex-

it in extension. scale
we

At what be
*^

lowest

reach
cannot

is called further

the divided, sub-

infima species, which

as

for
must
or

instance

Socrates be
an

''"this

lowest

species
person

always thing.
we

individual

object,

At

the what is
no

highest
is
never summum

treme ex-

of the
genus,
or

scale

reach which

highest

genus,

spe^

cies than

of

anything,
for

for

there
^*

is

class

higher

it^as

instance,

ity, being, existence, realthe

truth, the
etc.

absolute,

infinite, the
^*In

mate,'' ulti-

Hyslop

says: genus,

reality there
there
may

is but
an

one

summum

while

be All

indefinite

number
terms

of

infimae species.
these
extremes
as

intermediate
are

between

sometimes

called

subalterns,

being

Meaning

of

Terms

77

either

genera

or

species, according they

are

to

the

lation re-

in which

viewed." of the
we

Passing
of

on

to

the

classification of terms,

acter char:

the

intension
term

find ^^The

Difference,
or

denoting: species
genus
;

mark

marks

by which
rest

the the the

is

distinguished

from

the

of Thus

the of

acteristic. specific charthe and skin the is

a

color

difference
the the and oak
*^

between number and

the of the the

Negro
feet the

casian; Cautween be-

difference
;

biped

quadruped difference
etc.
one

the

form the
says:
other an-

shape
and

of leaves the elm

between

trees,

Hyslop object
from

Whatever
can

distinguishes
be called the

differentia.
to the
common

It is

some

characteristic and under the

in addition the

ities qualindividual

determines
' '

species

or

genus. term
;

Property, quality
or

denoting:
that
to

**A

peculiar
in
a

of

anything

which

is inherent Thus of the

a

naturally
is
a

essential

anything."
mark of

property
Thus
race

distinguishing
is
a a

class.

black
;

skin feet

property
of

Negro
; a

four
form

property
a

quadrupeds
of the
oak

certain

of leaf

property

tree.

78

Logical

Thinking

Thus
a

difference
of
a one

between of the

two

species

may

be

property Accident^

species. *^Any
may
; or,

term

denoting:
may
as or

quality
belong

or

circumstance
a

which

not

to

class,accidentally
not

it

were

whatever

does
an

really

constitute
or

an
' ^

essential

part of instance, part

color
may
jority ma-

object, person
redness of
a

thing.
for

As,
rose

for

the with

rose,

might
the
a

its redness accident and

and of the

still be
rose.

rose"

is the be white

Or,

brick the
or

still be
are are

brick, although
the redness

of bricks of the brick

red"

ness whitenot

its accidents

and
says:

its

essential
in and of he
a

properties.

Whately
of
two

dents ^^Acci-

Logic

are

kinds" be the

separable
accident
one,

inseparable. particular
not
man,

If

walking
it is
a

separable
man

for he

would

cease

to
on

be

that

though
if

stood is the

still ;

while,

the

contrary,
with
never

Spaniard
an

accident
one,

connected since he

him,
can

it is
cease

separabl in-

to

be,

ethnologically considered, Arising

or

what

he

was

born.'*
ing mean-

from

the of

classification

of the the

content
^^

terms,

we

find

process

termed

Definition.'' is
a

Definition

term

denoting:

^'An

expla-

Meaning

of

Terms

79

nation
is used which
are

of

word
denote

or

term. the

' *

In

Logic
of

the

term

to

process

analysis
of
a

in

the

properties
stated. of

and There

differences
are

term
eral sev-

clearly
kinds

of

course

definitions.
a as:

For

instance, there
which
plains ex-

is

what

is

called

Real *^A the

Definition,
definition which
a

Whately
the name.''

defines
nature

of

thing by

particular
a

There

is also which such

as

what is: *^A

is called

cal Physimade

Definition, by enumerating
such
a

definition
as are

parts

actually
etc., of
which and
as a

separable, ship.''
'^A

the

hull, masts, Definition,

of the be
genus

Also

Logical

is: the
*a

definition

consisting
Thus if
star
a

difference.

planet
is the

defined and between

wandering dering planet

star,'
out

genus,

wana

points
and
an

the

difference
star." of An the

ordinary
^*A

Accidental accidental

Definition qualities
is: and
**a

is:
a

definition An the

of

thing."
of of
an

Essential essential

Definition properties
or

definition

differences

object, person
between
as a
^*

thing."

Crabbe
and
an

discriminates

Definition

Explanation,
or

follows
an

definition
is general de-

is correct
or

precise;
The

explanation
of
a

ample.

definition

word

80

Logical

Thinking

fines

or

limits
rule

the

extent

of

its

signification;
use

it is the word both

;

for

the

scholar
of
a

in the word

of

any

the

explanation
and

may

include former the

definition of
no more

illustration;
words than will of

the

admits

include
any scope
'^

leading
the

features admits
on

in the of
an

meaning
unlimited

term;
for

latter

diffuseness

the the

part of the

explainer.
excellent which the

Hyslop
of
states

gives
the the He

following

nation explaas

Logical
proper

Definition^ meaning
of

he in

is

term

Logic.
*^The
are

states:

rules
as

which
:

regulate

Logical

tion Defini-

follows

1.

definition of the

should

state

the

essential

attributes
2.

species
must

defined.
not

definition defined.

contain the

the

name

of

word
a

Otherwise in

definition

is

called 3.
to

circiilus

definiendo.
must

The the A

definition

be

lent exactly equiva-

species

defined. should
or

4.

definition

not

be

expressed
language.

in

obscure,
5. it
can

figurative,
definition affirmative. definition

ambiguous
not

A be

must
''

be

negative

when

correct

necessarily requires

the

Meaning

of

Terms

81

manifestation
of

of and is
a

the

two

respective

processes

Analysis Analysis
of

Synthesis.
term

denoting:
its and order

^^The

tion separa-

anything

into

constituent attributes."
to

elements,
It define is

qualities,
seen

properties
that
person

at

once

in
or

correctly

an

object, analyze

thing,
in

it is first
to

necessary

to

the and

latter accidental the

order

perceive
or

its

essential

properties

ences. differand
we

Unless attributes
cannot
are

qualities,
and the

properties

clearly
define
a

fully

perceived,
itself. ^^The
act

properly
is

object

Synthesis

term two

denoting:
or more

of
gether to-

joining
;

or

putting Logic
to
:

things

in

the

method method
a

by
of

composition,
resolution
we or

in

opposition
In

the

analysis.'^

stating

definition the various

must

necessarily

join together
and the

essential which
we

qualities, properties
have and
as a

attributes,
process

discovered the

by

of

analysis;
considered

synthesized
is

combination,
definition of the

whole,

the
term.

object

pressed ex-

by

the

CHAPTEE

VIIL

JUDGMENTS

The is that

first of The

step

in

the
or

process

of

reasoning
of cepts. Con-

Conception
second of of

the is

forming
of the

step

that

Judgment,
agreement

or

the

process

perceiving
two

or

disagreement Judgment
in

conceptions.
^ ^

Logic
in

is defined the which mind

are

as

The

paring com-

together
concepts
or

of the
or

two

notions, objects
of

ideas,
whether

apprehension,
and with
or

complex they
one

incomplex,
or

pronouncing
each does
not

that
or

agree

disagree belongs
is

other,

that
to

of

them

belong
aflfirmative

the
or

other.

Judgment

therefore When
we are
we

negative.''
mind them
at
or a

have
to

in

our

two
one

concepts,
with the
garding re-

likely
and
to

compare

other,

thus

arrive

conclusion

their This
process

agreement
of

disagreement.
and decision is

comparison
is called

what,
In least

in
every two

Logic,
act

Judgment.
there examined
must

of

Judgment
to be

be
com-

at

concepts

and

82

84

Logical

Thinking

both
state In the

concepts
that: the

are

of is of
a

equal rank,
rational

as

when

we

^^Man

animal." there is

process

Judgment
choice When
we

always
tive Posithe
sity neces-

necessity
and the

of

the

between
we

the
compare

Negative.
and

concepts
decide
or

horse

animal,
that
an

must

of
an

either

the

horse

is

animal,

else The

that

it is not

animal.
process
as

importance
stated

of the

of

Judgment
^^Were be
no more

is

ably

by Halleck,

follows: would of

isolated
very

concepts
use.

possible, they
Isolated facts We
are

of

little

service

than of
a

unspun

wool. class of
two

might

have

concept
as we

certain also these of

of three-leaved Unless and

we

ivy, ment judgdecided

might
linked

poisons.
concepts
is

that take have

this hold
a

species
of

ivy
be

poisonous,

might
might
one

it and of

poisoned.
and

We also If
to
we

concept
fruit and of
to

bread

of also
we

meat,
had
a

vegetables.
food, unrelated

concept
starve
as

these,
not

should
of to

death,
A
sea,

for

we

should

think itself vessel

crew

them be far the

foods.
out at
were

vessel, supposing

signaled

another That

that

crew

dying
concept

of thirst. of

certainly

had

drinkable

things

Judgments

85

and the the the

also

of water.
vessel

To

the

surprise

of the

first,
from of
not

second
sea

signaled back,
You
are

^Draw

and

drink. The

at

the

mouth had

Amazon.' the
over

thirsty
to

crew

joined
water

concept
the overdose time

drinkable

the
A
man

concept

of

ship's
of

side.

having
wife for had had she lost dotes, antinot

taken much

an

laudanum,
in

his
out

valuahle because

sending

certain

of her

concepts
She

been

connected of
an

by judgment.
coffee and of
to

good
also
;

concepts
knew

mustard; opium
these
was

that she had

antidote
never

needed and dotes antithat her

.

but

linked
and
moment
a

concepts
were

judged
to

that

coffee
The
was

mustard she
woman

opium.
she
was

formed for
.

judgment

wiser
and

knowledge Judgment
world. The forces

related

usable.
.

is

the

power

revolutionizing
is
slow
so

the
ture's na-

revolution
are so

because

complex,
forms

hard
so

to be

duced re-

to their and

simplest
by

and

disguised
of
is

neutralized
.
. "

the

presence

other
ever

forces.

Fortunately
and

judgment

silently working
to

comparing

things that,
and
out it

past

ages,

have

seemed

dissimilar;
and

is

continually abstracting

leaving

of

86

Logical.

Thinking

the

field

of

view
to may
;
a

those
obscure

qualities which
the

have issue.
'^

simply

served

point
or

at

Judgment
in its processes
we

be and

both it may

analytic
be

synthetic
When broader is synthetic
we cept, con-

neither. with
a

compare
as a or

narrow

concept
a

one,

part with
an

whole, the
combination.

process

act

of
a

When another
we

compare

part of

concept

with

the

process

is

analytic
in rank
nor

When
or

pare com-

concepts
process

equal

extent,

the

is neither
statement

synthetic
that
^ ^

analytic. Thus
is
an

in the the that:

horse

animal,
statement

' '

judgment
*^some

is

synthetic;
are

in

the

animals

horses,'' the
statement

ment judg^^a

is
man

analytic; in the
a

that:

is

rational
nor

animal,"

the

judgment

is

neither Brooks
are

analytic
says:

synthetic.
one sense

^^In A

all

judgments
of
a

synthetic.
of two

judgment
and this

consists

the

union of view
mere

ideas

uniting is
is
a a

process

synthesis.
of the

This, however,
process.

superficial
is is
a

Such

synthesis
this

mechanical

synthesis;
which

below

thought-process
sometimes

is sometimes and

analytic,
neither

synthetic
nor

sometimes

analytic

synthetic.''

Judgments

87

The
mind

same

authority
is what

states:

^^The
as

act

of

described

is

known

logical
every

judgment.

Strictly speaking, however,

of the To
to know

intelligent act
a

mind

is

accompanied
discriminate sensation and
cannot
so a or

with

judgment.

is to

and,
nition cog-

therefore,

judge.
a

Every

involves that all Even without in

knowledge
The
to

ment judgat

it exists.

mind think

think
to

judging;
the

is

judge.

forming
the mind
a

notions

which

judgment
notion
or

compares,

judges. previous
a

Every
act

concept
form the and that
every

implies
in

of

judgment
we

to

it:
common

forming
attributes is

concept,
before
we

compare

unite

them
true

comparison
*

judgment.
is
a

It is thus

Every

concept
an

contracted

judgment;
This the

judgment
of

expanded by
of

concept.'
we

kind

judgment,
of
states

which

affirm

existence

consciousness,

nate discrimiand
form

qualities, distinguish percepts

concepts,
is called

primitive

or
m

psychological

judgment/^
In
i. e.,

Logical Judgment Judgment

there

are

two

aspects by
cepts con-

by Extension
When and
we

and

Judgment
the that
two

Intension.
horse

compare
we

animal

find

the

con-

88

Logical.

Thin^king

cept horse
and
may

is contained that
as

in the ''a horse

a

concept
is
an

animal
anirmiV'

the be In

judgment
considered the horse in
same

Judgment
we

by
see

sion. Extenthat the

comparison
the this

concept

contains

quality of quality
is

animalhorse
^

ity, and
we

attributing
say

to the
an

may

also

^^the
may

horse

animal/^
as a

which

judgment by

be

considered
Brooks

ment Judg^^Both
may
or

Intension.

says:
;

views reach

of its

Judgment judgment
The

are

correct

the

mind

either

by

extension is

by

intension. the
more

method

by

extension

usually

natural.''
a

When is called

Judgment
a

is

expressed
There is

in words
some

it
fusion con-

Proposition.
the and
term two
a

regarding
that
a

terms,

some

holding
are

Judgment
that used the
to

proposition

cal, identimay

and

^^proposition"
the seek
now

be

properly
But the

indicate who

judgment
for

itself. of hold

authorities and

clearness

expression
that
in
:

thought
is next
we
a

generally

'M

Proposition
^

Judgment

expressed
in which
enter
we

words/

In

the

chapter,
shall

consider
more

Propositions,

into

extended
as

consideration

of the in

subject

of

Judgments

expressed

Propositions,

Judgments

89

which

consideration

we

omit

at

this

point
as

in

order

to

avoid

repetition.
of

Jnst

the

spective re-

subjects
blend into

Concepts
each

and

Terms

essarily nec-

other,

so

do

the

spective re-

subjects
In each

of

Judgments
too,
there

and

sitions. Propothe
ment ele-

case,

is

of

the

mental

process

on

the

one

hand

and

the

verbal

expression
be well
to

of

it

on

the

other

hand.

It

will

keep

this

fact

in

mind.

CHAPTER

IX.

PROPOSITIONS

We

have

seen

that is that

the

first
we

step
call which

of

ive Deduct-

Reasoning
The second

which is that

Concepts.
we

step

call

Propositions.
In

Logic,
of
a

Proposition

is:
or

^'

sentence,
a

or

part

sentence,
the

affirming
terms
;

denying
to to

nection con-

between assertions and

limited

express

rather

than

extended

questions
a

commands.^'
as:

Hyslop
affirmation
two

defines
or

sition Propoof
an

^^any
between

denial

agreement

conceptions.''
are

Examples following
*^a all

of Propositions
sentences:

found is
a

in

the

**The
*^

rose

flower;''
a

horse of which the

is

an

animal;"
affirmations
terms

Chicago
of

is

city;"
tween be-

are

agreement
also
not

two
a

involved;
'^

in:
roses

*^A

horse *^the denials The

is not whale of

zebra;"
is
not
a

pinks

are

;"
are

fish;"
between

etc., which
the
terms.
are:

agreement

Parts
or

of
that

Proposition
of

(1)
is

the af-

Subject,

which

something

90

92

Logical

Thinking

in

accordance the An
terms.

with

the

character

and

meaning

of

Affirmative
Predicate
A is

Proposition
affirmed
to

is

one

in which with is
one

the

agree

the in and

Subject.
which the

Negative
agreement

Proposition
of the

Predicate of both

Subject
classes Another

is denied. have been

Examples given
in this
of

of these

chapter.
vides di-

classification in three

Propositions
as

them

classes,

follows

(1)

Categorical;

(2)

Hypothetical;

(3)

junctive. Dis-

A
the

Categorical
affirmation
or

Proposition
or

is is
as

one

in

which

denial

made for is be
as a

without instance:

reservation ^^Man
etc.

qualification,
;'' ^Hhe
may

is The

an

animal fact

rose

flower,'^
true, but
a

asserted is made

not

the

statement of

positively

ment state-

reality. Proposition
or

Hypothetical
affirmation certain
as

is

one

in which
to

the
upon

denial

is made

depend
or

conditions, circumstances
for it will instance: ^^If
or

sup-,

positions,

the

water

is

boiling-hot,
be

scald;"
not

**if the
etc. may

powder
Jevons
gen-

damp,

it will

explode,''

says:

^^Hypothetical

Propositions

Propositions

93

erally
word

be

recognized
but much We
.

by

containing the
whether

little

^if;^
differ
. .

it is from

doubtful the

they

really

ordinary
say

tions. proposithat
*

may

easily
and

ing boil-

waiter

will

scald/
'

^damp
the

gunpowder
use

will word A
or

not

explode,
''

thus

avoiding

of the

4f/

Disjunctive
an

Proposition alternative,"

is

^^

one

implying
taining con-

asserting
the with is sheet

and

usually

conjunction
^ ^

*^or,'' sometimes
for instance
^^ ' ^

gether to-

either,"as
or

ning Lighteither

forked;"
" ^ *

Arches
are

are

round

or

pointed
or

Angles

either

obtuse,

right angled
Another them

acute." of
as

classification in two classes

Propositions
follows:

vides diversal; Uni-

(1)

(2)
A whole the

Particular.

Universal

Proposition
of the

is

one

in which is involved

the in For is
are

quantity
assertion
or

Subject
of the

denial
men are

Predicate.

instance:
affirmed in the the
way
men

*^A11 that

liars,"
entire
race some

by
of
men

which
men

all of the of
are

category
that

liars, not
in
:

but the
same

all

existence. ^^No
a men are

In

the

Proposition
for

immortal" denial.

is

Universal,

it is

universal

94

Logical

Tnii^KiNG

Particular
or

Proposition
denial of

is

one

in which

the

affirmation

the

Predicate whole
men

involves of the
are

only

part
as

or

portion
instance:
women

of the

ject, Subists," athein

not

for
or

''Some
are

''Some the
or

not

vain,"
does

which involve

cases

affirmation whole

or

denial

all

the

of the

Subject.

Other

examples

are:

^^A

few

men," books,"

etc.; ^^many etc.; "most

people," people," Hyslop

etc.; "certain
etc.
' '

says

The

signs
formally
and The

of

the

Universal
are

Proposition,
all, every,

when
any,

expressed,
or

each,

ivhole

words

with

equivalent Propositions quantity,

most
or

import.
are

signs
certain

of

Particular
of

also
some,
as

adjectives
a

such such

as

certain,
denote
at

few,
least

many,
a

others

part

of

class.

The

subject

of the

Distribution
very
' '

of Terms

in

Propositions Logicians,
and

is considered
as

important
:

by

Hyslop

says

has

much
or

portance imat

in least the the

assurance

determining

the
our

legitimacy, reasoning
be

of intelligibility, that Some it

and

will

accepted
the

by

others."
**

authorities of the Terms

favor of

term,

Qualification

Propositions,"

Pbopositions

95

but
**

the

established

usage

favors

the

term

Distribution/*
The definition is: whole of ^^The the

Logical

term,
of

tribution/* ^^Disa

distinguishing
kinds of

versal uni;

into

its several of
a

species
extent;

the the
so

employment application
as

term term

to its fullest to

of

its fullest
or

extent,

to

include A Term it is

all of

significations
a

tions." applicais distributed

sense

Proposition
in

when that

employed
it is

its fullest
so as

is to say,
to

when

employed
person

to apply

each

and

every

object^
Thus in

or

thing

included
^^

under
are

it.

the

proposition,
horses ^^Some horses is
late re-

AH

horses

animals,"
in
the

the

term

is

distributed;
horses
not
are

and

proposition,
the these the
term

thoroughbreds,"
Both of of

distributed.
to

examples subject
of
a

the

distribution But
or

of

the

proposition.
also may

the
may

predicate
not

tion proposiFor
are

be

distributed. ^^All horses is not

instance, animals,"

in

the

proposition,

the that

predicate, animals, is, not

are

tributed, dis-

used

in its

fullest
are

sense,
some

for all animals animals the which

not not

horses" horses
not

\hQve

are

and,

therefore,
used in its

predicate, animals,

being

96

Logical

Thinking

fullest The
some

sense

is said

to

be
means

^^not
^ ^

distributed.^'
All horses
are

proposition
animals/'

really

There

is however in the

another

point

to

be

membered re-

consideration

of Distribution which Brooks

presses ex-

of

Terms
as

of

Propositions,

follows:

^^Distribution form be
we

generally
but the

shows

itself in the it Thus all men, But if

we we

of the

expression, by
are men

sometimes

may

determined ^Men
term
are

thought.
we mean

if

say,

mortal,'
is distributed.

and
^

the

say

Books

necessary

to *some

library,'
'

mean,

not

*all books'

but

books.
term
we

The

test

of

distribution and

is whether Thus of each

the when and

applies
say *men
man

to ^each
are

every/
true

mortal,' it is
he is mortal."

every

that of
are

The

Rules

Distribution
as

of
:

the

Terms

of

Proposition
1. 2. All All

follows

universals

distribute do
not

the

subject.
the

particulars

distribute

subject.
3.
4.

All All

negatives

distribute do
not

the

predicate.
the

affirmatives

distribute

predicate.
The above rules
are

based

upon

logical rea-

Propositions

97

soning.

The

reason

for when the

the the

first two

rules sal, is univeris

is

quite obvious,
it follows

for

subject

that the
a

whole is

subject particular

ir.-

volved;

when

subject

it follows

that only
In that the for
not

part of the subject is involved.

the third

the

case

of

rule,

it will the

be whole

seen

in every

negative
must

proposition
denied
^ ^

of
as

predicate instance, horses^

the
case
' '

be
we

the Some

subject,
animals is cut

when the

say

are

whole and

class

of horses

off In
see

from the that of for

subject,
of the

is thus

distributed.
may

fourth

rule, we

readily
the

in

the

affirmative is not
we

proposition
denied
say
mean

whole
as are

the

predicate
when
do

the
^^

subject,
Horses
are

instance,
we

that: that
are

animals,"
the

not

horses
a

all
or

animals,
of

but the

that class

they

merely

part

portion

animal"therefore,
distributed. of of

the

predicate, animals,
In addition there
as

is not the

to

forms class
or

Propositions Propositions tions, ProposiPredicate For stance, inis

a

given
known

is another

Definitive
the
in

Substitutive and and

^^A two

in which
are

Subject
extent

the rank.

exactly
in

alike the three

proposition,
sides'^ the

triangle
terms
are

polygon

of

in-

98

Logical

Thinking

terchangeable
each other.

tliat
;

is,
the

may

be

substituted

for

Hence

term

^^

substitutive/^

The

term

*^

definitive

'^

arises

from

the

fact

that

the

respective necessarily
definitions
are

terms

of

this

kind

of

proposition logical
mentioned

define expressed proposition,

the

each

other.
in this

All

last

form

of

for

in

such

cases

the

subject
to

and

predicate

are

cisely pre-

equal

each

other.

100

Logical

Thinking

ing

tlie in

same

subject
or

and

predicate,
or

but The

ing differLaws

quality

quantity,
as

both^
:

of

Opposition
L

are

follows

(1)
is true.

If the

universal If the

is true, the
is

lar particufalse, the

is

(2)
is

particular
If the If

universal

false. follows.

(3)

universal the

false, nothing
is true, II.

(4)

particular

nothing (1)
If
one

follows. of
two

contraries
one

is

true,

the

other

is false.

(2)

If
can

of

two

ries contra-

is false, nothing
Contraries be false. III.
are never

be

inferred. both

(3)
may

both

true, but

(1)

If

one

of

two

sub-contraries If
one

is subcerning con-

false, the
contraries

other

is true.

(2)
can

of

two

is true, the other.

nothing (3)

be

inferred

Sub-contraries
may

can

never

be

both

false, but
one

both
two

be

true.

IV.

(1)

If

of

contradictories If
one

is
tradictories con-

true, the other

is Contradictories

is false.

(2)

of

two

false, the
can never

other be both and

is

true.
or

(3)
both is

true

false, but
false. In order

always

one

is true

the

other

to

comprehend
familiarize

the

above

laws, the
with the

student

should

himself

Immediate

Eeasoning

101

following
as

arrangement,

adopted

by logicians

convenience:

Universal

(^" J^"^^*^^^

Negative

(E) (I) (0)

tive AffirmaUniversal ticular ^^Parare

Propositions
AjBfirmative Particular

Negative

Examples
(A): Negative

of the ^^AU
men

above
are man

Universal

mortal;"
is

(E)

^^No

mortal;"
men

Affirmative

(I):

*'Some

mortal;"
men are

Particular
not

Negative

(0):

^^Some

mortal."

The

following
are

examples
used

of

abstract
as

ositions prop-

often
a as

by logicians conception
above
:

ing tendamples ex-

toward such

clearer

than

given

(A)

^^AUAisB,"

(I) ^^SomeAisB."

(E) (0)
These

^^No

is B.''

^^SomeAisnotB." four forms of

propositions
other,
as

bear

tain cer:

logical relations
A and
E
are

to each

follows 0 0
are are

styled contraries.
and
I and

I and E and

sub-contraries; A

also

102

Logical

Thinking

called
are

subalterns;

and

and

also

I and

styled
A close

contradictories.

study

of

these

relations,
is necessary Laws
as we

and

the for
a

symbols
clear

expressing

them,
of the

comprehension
stated
a

of

tion Opposias

little further

back,
which The

well shall

the

principles
a

of Conversion
on.

tion men-

little further the

following chart,
is also the
ployed em-

called

Square

of
to

Opposition,
illustrate of

by logicians
between the four

relations
:

classes

propositions

Conversion

is

the
we

process

of from

immediate
a

reasoning proposition

by

which

infer

given
the

another

proposition^ having

Immediate

Reasoning

103

predicate
the

of

the

original original
words: the

for for

its its

subject, and
predicate
is
; or

subject
in
a

of the few

stated

Conversion
and

the

transposition
a

of
As

subject

predicate
it
^ *

of

proposition.
or

Brooks
are

states

tions Proposithe
a

judgments
and that from

converted

when in such is The

an

subject
manner

predicate change
the

places

resulting judgment given judgment.''

from the

ference innew

the

proposition, resulting Conversion,

is called

the

operation
the

or

Converse;
the

inal orig-

proposition
The
must not

is called

Convertend. ^*No
term

Law be

of

Conversion in the the

is that: Converse

distributed

that

is

distributed from be there

are

in
the

Convertend." fact derived that

This

arises should than

obvious in the

nothing

afl"rmed is in the three

proposition

original proposition.
kinds of

There

Conversion;
Conversion

viz:

(1) Simple

Conversion; (3)
Conversion

(2)

by

Limitation;

by

tion. Contraposi-

In either

Simple

Conversion
or

there
In

is

no

change

in

quality
the

quantity. quality
In is

Conversion from

hy
versal uni-

Limitation
to

changed

particular.

Conversion

by Nega-

104

Logical

Thinking

tion

the

quality

is

changed
the
in the
now

but

not

the

tity. quan-

Referring
and

to

classification

tables
pages

symbols

given
we

preceding proceed
methods
to

of

this chapter,
the

may

consider sion Conver;

application
to

of

these four

of

each
:

of the

kinds

of

propositions

as

follows The

Universal

Affirmative

(symbol
or

A) by

proposition
a

is converted

by Limitation,
universal
to

change
The

of

quality

from
not

lar. particuin it in in this *^all

are

predicate
we

being
not

^^distributed'' distribute Thus

the the
case
men

convertend,
converse

must

by
must

saying

^^all/^

we

convert

the
into

proposition,
^^some

are

mortaP'

(A),

mortals

men"

(I).
Universal

The

Negative

(symbol
in
or

E)

is

verted con-

by Simple
is
no

Conversion, quality
are

which

there For

change
both both

in either

quantity.

since
may

terms

of *^E''

distributed, they
converse

be

distributed
the law

in the of

out withThus *'Na into

violating
'^No
man

conversion. into:

is mortal''
are

is converted ^^E" is

mortals

men."

converted

The

Particular

Affirmative

(symbol

I)

is

Immediate

Reasoning

105

also there

converted
is
For
no

by Simple
in

Conversion

in which
or

change
since

either
term

quality

tity. quan-

neither
may

is distributed

in the

*^I/' neither
converse,

term

be

distributed
must

in

and

the the

latter

remain **Some

^^I/'
men

For
are

instance;
mortal"

proposition:
into the

is converted
are

proposition,

**Some The

mortals Particular

men."

Negative

(symbol 0)
in

is

verted con-

by Conversion
the Thus
men

by Negation,
but
not

which

quality is changed
in
are

the

quantity.
^*Some ^^some
we

converting
not
are

the
we

proposition:
must not say

mortal,"
not

mortals would it is not

men,"
men

for the

in

so

doing

distribute distributed

in in the

predicate,

where Avoid-

convertend.

iug this,we
the

transfer
to the

the negative
so

particle from
the
tend conver-

copula

predicate
which Thus
' '

that is

becomes

^*I"

converted
^ ^

by
Some
not-

Simple
men are

Conversion.
not

we
* ^

transfer
men

mortal

into
we

Some

are

mortal"

from

which

easily

convert

(by
**Some

simple

Conversion)
are

the

proposition:

not-mortals It will consider be

men." for

well

students, following

at

this

point, to

the

three

Fundamental

106

Logical

Thiistkii^g

Laws

of which

Thought
are as

as

laid

down

by

the

ties, authori-

follows:

The

Law
same

of

Identity
^

which

states is how

that:
the

^^The
same

quality
or

or

thing
matter it

always
different

quality
conditions The Law *^No both Law
^^

thing,
in which

no

the

occurs.''

of thing
be and

Contradiction,
can

which
same

states

that:

at

the

time

and

place
The that:

not

be.''

of

Excluded
must

Middle,
either alternative

which be
or

states not

Everything
is
no

be;

there
course." Of

other

or

middle

these
'

laws.
'

Prof.

Jevons,
are

noted able
to

ity, authorsee

says

Students

seldom and

at

first

their

full

meaning
be
are

importance.
when and of it these

All

arguments
evident
much
to to

may

explained granted;
the
will whole

selftoo

laws

is

not will

say

that
who

logic
use

be

plain
laws

those the

constantly

these

as

key."

108

Logical

Thinking

soning, respectively ing

upon
one

are

interdependent"

restr

another. of Inductive
we

Jevons Deductive

says

Eeasoning:
bow
we

*^In
may

Eeasoning
the truth

inquire
in

gather

contained and

some

tions proposianother We
have

called

Premises,
called the

put

into

proposition
not

Conclusion.
out
are

yet undertaken

to find

how

we

can

learn

what
what
are

propositions propositions
true.

really
are

true, but
when other

only
ones sidered con-

true

All would

the be

acts called

of

reasoning

yet

deductive

becmise

we

deduce,
to

or

lead

doivn It is
an

the. truth

from

premises important
rectly, cor-

conclusion.
to

exceedingly

thing

understand it

deductive
seem

inference be still
more

but
to

might

to

portant im-

understand

inductive truth of
as

inference, by

which

we

gather
facts

the

tions general proposihappening

says:

from world
to find

observed Halleck

in the has that he

around
out

us.''

**Man
or

through
the

his

own

experience,
from

of

others,
or we

major
his what

premises
conclusions.
seems

which

argues

draws

By
us a

tion induc-

examine of that

to

suiB"cient then
clude con-

number

individual the
rest

cases.

We
cases,

of

these

which

we

Inductive

Reasoning

109

have
law.

not
.

examined,
. .

will

obey

the

same

general
laws have fied, classi-

Only
after

after

general
have

been

laid down,
after

objects

been been

major
be
may

premises employed.
now

have
' '

formed,

can

deduction

Strange
until
a

as

appear, recent

it is

fact in

that the

comparatively
of
man, way

period

history
that
was

it

was

held arrive

by philosophers
at

the

only
means

to

all

knowledge by
of
to

by
of
was

of Deductive

Eeasoning,
influence

the

use

the

Syllogism.
great
and
men

The

totle Aris-

preferred
methods
to

pursue

artificial

and

complicated
rather the and facts then
so

of

ive Deductthe

Reasoning, by obtaining hand,

the

than from

reach Nature

truth

herself,

at first

inferring general principle gathered.

of
The

from modern the lines

facts

rise

of

scientific of

methods

reasoning,
dates
one

along
from of the

Inductive

Inference,
Bacon
was

about

1225-1300. that

Roger
we

first to teach truth

must

arrive

at

scientific

by

process
on

of

observation

and
to

mentation experibe found

the He

natural made

objects
many

on

all sides. this

discoveries

by

following by
Galileo

process.

He
some

was

ably seconded
three hundred

who

lived

110

Logical.

Thinking

years

later, general

and

who

also

taught
be

that

many
ful care-

great

truths and

might

gained

by

observation Lord time

ganum

intelligent
who lived about

inference.
the
same

Francis
as

Bacon,

Galileo, presented
many

in his

Novum and

Orfacts

excellent the
process

observations of Inductive As Jevons

manner

regarding
and

Eeasoning
*^

scientific

thought.

says:

ductive In-

logic inquires by
we can

what laws

of

soning rea-

gather
events

the

of nature Such

from
ing reason-

the

facts

and

observed.
or

is called

induction,
actually
in

inductive

inquiry,
by
all in

and,
the four The stated

as

it has

been

practiced

great

discoverers

science, it consists

steps.''
Four

Steps

in Inductive
are
as

Reasoning,
:

as

by Jevons,

follows

First Second Third Fourth It will

/S^e^?."Preliminary
Step."
The

observation.
of

making

hypotheses.^

/Siep." Deductive

reasoning.

Verification. /S'^e^^." be
seen

that

the

process
a

of Inductive
process,

Eeasoning
because and

is

essentially
in the

synthetic

it operates

direction facts which

or

ing of combintruths into

uniting particular
truths
or

general

laws

comprehend,

Inductive

Reasoning

111

embrace
"ays:

and ^^The into the

include

them facts
;

all.
are

As united

Brooks

particular
the

by
law

the
braces em-

mind

general

law

the

general
and binds and

particular
a

facts

them

together
Induction the

into

unity
a

of

principle
of

thought.
from
'^

is thus
to

process
a

thought

parts
also

the be

whole" that is

synthetic
process
an

process.

It will

seen

the

of Inductive

Reasoning
process,

essentially
it ascends

ascending particular
truths
to

because
to

from

facts

general
truths
;

laws;
from

particular
the
lower

universal the
narrower

to the

higher,
to the

to the

broader,

the

smaller

greater.
Brooks relation
says

of Inductive induction Induction

to

Reasoning
deduction and Deduction

^ '

The be
are

of
seen.

will

clearly
the

converse,

the opposites
a

of each

other. from
a

duction Dea

derives

particular

truth

general
truth
appears

truth;

Induction

derives This

general

from

particular

truths.

antithesis
goes goes

in every

particular.
to

Deduction
;

from from
an

generals

particulars
to
;

Induction Deduction is
a

particulars analytic
process

generals.
Induction
a

is

synthetic
process"

process.

Deduction

is

descending

112

LoGiCAii

Thinking

it goes

from Induction the in

the

higher
is
an

truth

to

the
process"

lower it

truth;
goes

ascending
to the

from also

lower

truth

higher.
be is

They

differ

that

Deduction
while

may

applied
mainly

to necessary

truths,
to

Induction truths.'^ several been

restricted
^ '

contingent
have been It has

Hyslop
of
to

says

There

ways

fining detrast con-

this

process.

usual

it with often said

Deduction.

Now,
from

deduction

is

to be

reasoning
the

general

to particular
tained con-

truths, from

containing
to

to the

truth,

or

from

cause

effect.

tion, Inducas soning rea-

therefore,
from from the
to

by

contrast

is defined
to

the

particular
to

the

general,
or

contained
cause.

the

containing,
induction
known to

from is said

effect
to

Sometimes from the make the The

be

reasoning
This

the

known. untrast, con-

would

deduction, by
unknown former the of
to ways

reasoning
known,
which

from

the of But

is absurd. it
a are

representing
there is still

much
way

better.

better

comparing
the This
a

them.

Deduction is contained

is reasoning in the and

in which

conclusion
is
a

premises.
we

ground
ever when-

for its certitude

we

commit

fallacy
as

go

beyond

the

premises

shown

by

Inductive

Eeasoning

113

the

laws with

of the

distribution
we

of may

terms.

In

trast con-

this, then,
the
process in

call
we

inductive
go

reasoning
the

by which
conclusion.

beyond
The
.

premises
here
some

the

process to

is to other

start

from

given
facts In the

facts
more

and eral gen-

infer
or

probable
with them.

connected of of

this

we

see

the

process
are,

going

beyond
certain
of

premises.
which

There

course,

conditions the

regulate
as

the
are

legitimacy
conditions

procedure,

just

there
are

determining
shall

deduction.

They
the
same

that

the

conclusion
kind
as

represent
with
But
as

general

the

premises,

possibility of
goes

accidental the

differences. in
so

it

beyond
are

premises

far

known

facts The clearer

concerned.-'

following
idea
:

example
the

may

give
of

you

of

processes

Inductive

Eeasoning
First

Step.
We

Preliminary
notice have that
come

Observation.
all

ample: Ex-

the
our

particular
tion observaof the

magnets

which

under mental
'^

attract

iron.
may be

Our stated

record

phenomena
F,

as:

A, B, C, D, E,
Z, all of which

Gr, etc., and

also

X, Y, and

114

Logical

Thinking

are

magnets,

in all observed

instances, and
iron/^
of

at

all observed Second

times, Step.
:

attract

The the
as

Making
basis above

Hypotheses.
observations and

Example
and

Upon

of the

experiments,
the axiom is
' '

stated,

ing applythat: of the

of of

Inductive the
many,

Eeasoning,
is
true
a

*'What

true

whole,
or

we

feel

justified in forming
of
of
a

sis hypothetruth,
plying ap-

inference the whole facts

or
' '

general

law

or

the

particulars
thus:

to

the

eral, gen-

universal,

^^All

magnets

attract

iron.

Third
:

Step.
up

Deductive
a

Reasoning. regarding
and
we

ple Examwhich which

we

Picking
had made
no

magnet

have have

experience
no

upon
reason

we

experiments,
follows:

by

the

syllogism, iron;

as

(1) All
is
a

magnets

attract therefore

(2) This thing

axiom

thing
will

magnet;
iron.

(3) This

attract

In

this

we

apply
^^

the

of

Deductive whole

Eeasoning:
is true of the

Whatever

is true

of the

parts.'*
Fourth then

Step.
to

Verification.
test
so

Example:
upon

We the

proceed

the
as

hypothesis
to

particular
or

magnet,

ascertain

whether facts. If

not

it agrees

with

the

particular

CHAPTEE

XII.

KEASONING

BY

INDUCTION-

The

term
as

^^

Induction,"
follows:
''

in

its

logical
process

usage,

is defined

(a)

The

of

vestigat inthe

and

collecting
inference

facts;
froinl used

and these in the

(b)

deducing
also of
says:
an

of

an

facts;
sense

(c)

sometimes from

loosely

inference
^^

observed is that

facts."

Mill of
we

Induction
^

then,
which in all
a we

operation
that
case

the know will former

mind,
to

by
be
true

infer

what
or

particular
which

cases,

be

true

in

cases

resemble In which

the other
we

in

certain

assignable
is the is
true at

respects.

words,
conclude of that
true

Induction that
a

process

by
certain whole times
at

what is

true

of the

uals individ-

class,
is

of

class,
will times.
'

or

what

true

certain

be
'

in

similar Basis is

circumstances

all

The ^^What

of
true
a

Induction

is
many

the is

axiom
true

that

of

the

of

the

whole.^^
this
as

Esser,
in

well

known
more

authority, complicated belongs

or

states

axiom follows:

rather

form,
does
not

^'That

which

116

Reasoning

by

Induction

117

belong
or

to

nuany

things
not

of

tlie
to

same

Mnd,
of

longs bethe

does

belong

all

things

same

kind.'' This basic axiom of Induction laws and

not must rests upon

the

conviction
are

that

Nature's

and

festations mani-

regular, orderly
that Nature the
must
^^

uniform.
manifest

If

we

assume

does axiom be

these

qualities, then
reason

fall,and
As
pared com-

all inductive Brooks

to

fallacious. has
we

well
a

says:

Induction which ladder

to

been

ladder

upon

ascend stand and

from
less un-

facts

to

laws.

This

cannot upon;

it has

something
is
' '

rest

this

something
's laws.

our

faith

in the

constancy
have

ture of Nathat

Some

authorities

held

this laws

perception

of the of

uniformity
an

of Nature's

is in the nature law

of
our an

intuitive

truth,
Others

or

an

inherent that
at

intelligence.
inductive observation held
to

hold

it is in itself

truth, arrived
at
a

by

experience
age.

and
are

very

early

We

have

noticed
and

the

uniformity

in natural infer that

phenomena,
this

alm'ost is
tinuous con-

instinctively
and The kinds

uniformity

universal.
assume

authorities of

the

existence

of two In-

Induction,

namely:

(1)

Perfect

118

Logical

Thinking

duction;
but

and

(2) Imperfect
terms to
are

Induction.

Other,
different

similar,

employed
these
two

by

authorities

designate

classes.
a

Perfect
of all all the

Induction

necessitates

knowledge
is,
or

particulars

forming

class; that

the

individual

objects,
a

persons,

things
known

facts

comprising
in
we

class form

must

be

and For

enumerated

this hnew that

of

Induction. all of
were

instance, if children,

positively
their
names

Brown

^s

and

John,

Peter,
and
every

Mark,

Luke,

Charles,
and

William,
that and of each had

Mary
and red
eralizing gen-

Susan,
one

respectively;
of in

them
that

were

freckled instead that:

hair

then,

case,

simply

and

stating Charles,
are

^^John,
Mary

Peter,
and
are save

Mark, Susan,
freckled

Luke,
who and and
Brown's

William,
Brown's

all of
red the

children,
we

have
state

hair,''
inductive
are

would

words,
^^All

conclusion: and in this have

case

children It will
in the

freckled that what

not

red
we

hair. include
the

' '

be

noticed

process

only
we

is stated

in

premise

itself
,

and

do

extend data

our

inductive which

process

beyond
This
*^

the form

actual
of

upon

it is based. called

Induction

is be-

sometimes

Logical

Induction,"

Eeasoning

by

Induction

119

cause

the the

inference

is of

logical necessity,
or

out with-

possibility

error

exception.
to

By

some

authorities

it is held
sense,

not

be

Induction
more

at
a

all, in the

strict form

but

little

than actual

simplified

of

enumeration.

In

practice

it is seldom for
a
us

available,
to know law
or

for the

it is almost

impossible
in

all

particulars
In view
more

inferring

general

truth. upon known

as

of

this

difficulty,we
form

fall

back

the
as
:

practical

of induction

Imperfect
called
meant
^^

Induction,

or

it is sometimes

Practical inductive
assume

Induction,''
process

by

which

is in

the
we

of

reasoning
or

which

that
to
us

the

particulars

facts those the this

tends ex-

actually
which whole
process
are

known
not to

correctly represent
and hence In

actually known,
which be the of
seen

class

they
that
upon

belong.
the

it will

conclusion

beyond
In

data

which
we

it is based.

this

form the the

Induction of the
of
a

must

actually
^'What
is

employ
true

principle
many

axiom:
the

of

is true it to be

whole''"
not

that
we we

is, must
know it

assume

fact,

because because
agrees

by

actual the

experience,
axiom The which

but also

infer
past

it from

with
at

experience.

conclusion

arrived

120

LoGicAii

Thii^king

may

not
case

always
of

be

true

in its fullest
of
an

sense,

as

in the

the

conclusion result which its truth of

Perfect

tion, Inducbased

but
upon
a

is the

inference
us a

principle
assume

gives
in

reasonable of better

right

to

absence

knowledge.
In

considering
of Inductive than
to

the

actual

steps in the
we can

ess proc-

Eeasoning
follow in the the

do

no

ter betof

classification

Jevons,
the
same

mentioned

preceding readily

chapter,
hended, comprecase

being
and

simple

and

therefore technical authorities.

preferable
classification Let
us

in this favored

to
some

the

more

by

other four

now

consider

these

steps.

First follows
or

Step.
that

Preliminary
the

observation.
of

It

without in the

experience
of

oneself and
sons per-

of

others

direction

observing

remembering
and the and

particular
we

facts, objects, hope

the
to

things,

cannot

acquire

preliminary
inductive

facts inference

for

generalization
in for
us

necessary

ive Inductto

Eeasoning.
a

It is necessary

form

variety

of

clear

Concepts
and from

or

ideas before

of
we

facts,
may

objects, hope
to

persons

things,
these

generalize

particulars.

In

Reasonikg

by

Induction

121.

the

chapters
of

of

this

book
we

devoted
may
see

to

the

sideration con-

Concepts,
of

the

mental fundaand
quirement acare

importance
of correct the fundamental In order
we

the

formation

Concepts.
for
a

Concepts
correct
ing. reason-

material
to

produce
have

perfect

finished and the jects obis

product,
a

must

perfect materials,
The

sufficient

quantity
one

of them.

greater
facts and able the

knowledge
of

possesses

of the the

the

outside therefrom.

world,

better
are

he

to

reason

Concepts
feed which
is

raw

material

which and

must from

the the

machinery
final

of

reasoning,
of leck

product
As Hal-

perfected
^'

thought
There

produced.
first be
a
we

says:

must

presentar
wish to ceive per-

tion
form

of

materials.

Suppose fruit.
kinds We

that
must

the the

concept
different

first

of

fruit"

cherry,

pear, etc. must

quince, plum, currant, apple, fig,orange,

Before
we

can

take

the

next

step,

we

be

able of the

to

form

distinct kinds of

and

accurate

images
concept
kind this

various be
must

fruit

If
not

the
one

is to

absolutely accurate,
be
;

of fruit is

overlooked.
many

Practically
should inaccurate be

impossible
Where

but

kinds is

examined.

perception

122

Logical

Thinking

and

stinted, the products

No

of

thought

cannot

be
on

trustworthy.
insecure In
we

building is firm

if reared

foundations.''
process

the

of

Preliminary
are

Observation,
of

find

that

there
of two

two

ways

obtaining
around

a us.

knowledge
These I.

the
ways

facts
are as

and

things
:

follows
or

By
of

Simple

Observation,
which In the

the

tion percep-

the
our

happenings
interference. motion of

are

manifested this, way

movewe

without

perceive
nient

the the the

tides; the phenomena

etc.

of

planets; passing

the of

of

the

weather;
II. the

animals,

By

the

Observation
of

of Experiment^
in which observe
we

or

perception
with An

happenings
then *^A

terfere insult. reor

things and
is:

the

experiment
; an

trial, proof,
or

test

of

anything
to
or

act, operation,
some

process

designed

discover

unknown
test
some

truth,
received
says
we
:

principle
or

effect,
truth
or

or

to

reputed
have

principle."
experiments
Jevons
says

Hobbes is what
^ '

^^To call

had

many
' '

experience.
is

mentation Experi-

observation

with

something
whose

more

namely,
is to

regulation of the things

be observed.
The

behavior

advantages

124

Logical

Thinking

In
. . .

order

that

we

may,

from the the of

our

vations obserof

and and become

experiments,
able the is
to

learn foresee

law

ture na-

future,

we

must

perform generalize
cases,

process to

generalization.
law what of the from

To

draw

general
that
true

particular
to

and few

to

infer is these and

we

see

be

true

of class

things
which

whole

genus

or

to

things
skill
to

belong.
alize gener-

It

requires

much

judgment
because and which that

correctly,
upon

everything
character reason.'* first in of

depends
the stances in-

the

number about

we

Having Eeasoning
now

seen

the

step

Inductive
let

is

Preliminary
the do with
next

Observation,
steps
in which and ideas
we

us

consider what have

may

see

we

the

facts this

which and

we

acquired

by

Observation

Experiment.

CHAPTER

XIII.

' ^

THEOEY

AND

HYPOTHESES

Following
that is the Second called

Jevons'

classification,
in Inductive of

we

find

Step
^^The is:

Reasoning Hypotheses.'' tion proposi-

that A

Making
^^A

Hypothesis
or

supposition,
or

principle
to

assumed
a

taken
or

for granted
inference in

in

order of

draw

conclusion
or

proof
assumed

the
or

point
taken the

question
for

; a

proposition
though proof
that
not

granted,
of It held

proved,
a

for in

purpose

deducing
will
to

of
a

point

question."
is

be be

seen

Hypothesis probably
the truth
nature must

merely
and
a

possibly
true;

or

true,
of

not

certainly

it is in whose The of

working by

assumption,
observed either which and facts.
to .the govern

be
may to
a

tested

assmnption things,
Akin confused is called A
to
or

apply
the laws

cause

things. people

hypothesis, meaning Theory.

is
^^

by
the

many

in
a

with

latter, is what

Theory
which

verified been

hypothesis
established

pothesi hyap-

has

as,

125

126

Logical.

Thinking

parently,
^^

the is
a

true

one/'

An word

authority
than

says

Theory theory

stronger
on

hypotJiesis.
which evidence. have A of
a

is founded
on

principles

been

established

independent
assumes

hypothesis
cause

merely
would not at

the for

operation
the

which but has

account

ena, phenomcause

evidence work. but

a

that

such

was

actually
is

Metaphysically, hypothesis probable

a

theory by
a

nothing
amount

supported
evidence.'' is shown these
to
we

large
says:

of

Brooks
to

^^When facts and becomes of

hypothesis
that
are

explain being

all the varied

known,

facts
be

extensive,
a

it is said Thus

verified, and
the

theory.

have

theory

universal of of the

gravitation,
solar

the the

Copernican
undulatory
were

theory
theory
mere

system,
all of This

light, etc., hypotheses.

which is the
ployed em-

originally
in

manner

which

the

term

is

usually

in the
must

inductive that

philosophy;
it is not

though
used
are

it

be

admitted
sense.

always

in this often is

striot referred

Discarded
as

hypotheses
and that

to
a

theories;
is

which
a

actually

theory

sometimes

called

hypothesis."
The

steps by which

we

build

up

hypothe-

Theory

and

Hypotheses

127

sis

are
we

numerous

and
erect
we a

varied.

In

the

first

place
methods

may

hypothesis
described In
as

by

the

of what
or

have

Perfect this
case

Induction,
we

Logical

Induction.

proceed

by simiple generalization
The

or

simple

enumeration. red-haired

example
of Brown,

of

the

freckled,
in It
a

children

mentioned method.

previous

chapter, explains
the examination
or

this and

quires re-

knowledge
the statement
states

of

every
or

object

fact

of

which Hamilton which of

hypothesis
the

is made. induction the than laws the

that

it is

only

is

absolutely
It does
not

necessitated extend

by

thought.
of

further
to

plane

experience.

It is akin Far
more

mathematical

reasoning.
is the
process

important
are

by

which

hypotheses
from

erected

by

means

of inferences which
we reason

Imperfect
the known

Induction, by
to

from

the

unknown,
true

ing transcendinductive E6aof

experience,
inferences
from This Jevons

and the

making
axiom of

Inductive the

soning.
Causes. is that which make

process says
or
:

involves
* ^

subject
of
an

The

cause

event

antecedent,
the much
event

set

of antecedents,

from often

always

follows. about

People

difficulty

understanding

128

Logical

Thinking

what
means

the

cause

of

an

event

means,

bnt

it

really
must

nothing before

beyond

the the

things
event

that shall

exist
pen

in order

that

hap--

afterward/^
Causes
are

often The

obscure five

and

dilBficult to
are

determine.

following
I. and Causes
to
reason

difficulties
may

likely
our

to

arise

The

cause

be
to

out

of
derstood; un-

experience,
11.

is therefore often discover of

not
act

be

conjointly,
the
one

so

that

it is difficult
cause

dominant pre-

by
Often

its of

associated
a

causes

;
or

III.

the

presence may may

acting, counterus;

modifying
a

cause

confuse be caused V.

IV.

Often of

certain

effect

by
That

either which
may

several
as

possible
a cause

causes;

appears

of

certain

effect
cause.

be Mill the

but

co-effect several
agency

of

an

original
for

formulated causal the

as

tests

ing ascertaincases,

in

particular
difficulties.

in

view
tests

of
are

above-stated follows:

These of

(1)
Method

The of

Method

Agreement;
(3) The
Method

(2)
Method

The
of

Difference;
and

Eesidues;
Variations. these follows

(4)
The
tests

the lowing folare

of

Concomitant of
as

definitions

various
:

given by

Atwater

Theoby

and

Hypotheses

129

Method

of Agreement: object
or

^^If, whenever
is

given

agency
a

present
effect that

without is the
duced, pro-

counteracting
there
or

forces,
is
a

given
evidence
of the

strong
cause

ject ob-

agency

is the

effect." the
posed sup-

Method
cause

of Difference:
is present the

"li, when
the
cause

effect is
in

is present, absent the

case

and effect
any
we

when is other
may

supposed
there

wanting,
agents

being
to

neither the

present
infer

effect the

result,

reasonably
is the real

that

supposed

cause

one."
^^

Method
we

of
find of

Residue
a

When

in any

ena phenomafter

result
causes

remaining
are

the
we

effects
may

all known

estimated,

attribute
' '

it to

residual

agent

not

yet

reckoned. Method
a

of

Concomitant in
a

Variations antecedent
of
a

^ ^

When

variation

given

is

panied accom-

by

variation
some

given consequent,
as cause

they

are

in

mianner

related

and

effect." Atwater criteria is and

concur,

adds: found

^^

Whenever
from

either

of

these dence, evi-

free

conflicting
several of
cases

especially
evidence

when

them ob-

the

is clear

that

the

130

Logical

Thinking

served

are

fair
warrant

representatives
a

of

the

whole sion/^ conclu-

class,

and

valid

inductive

Jevons rules: L
^^

gives

us

the

following

valuable

Whenever

we

can

alter
on,

the
we

quantity
can

of
a

the
rule which the time
we

things experimented for

are

apply
and
vary
one

discovering effects, as
of and
any
one

which follows
:

are

causes

We

must

quantity
greater
observe the
same
' '

thing, making
another time which

it at

at

less, and
varies

if

other

thing

just

at
an

times, it will in all probability be

effect.
II.
^^

When there

things
is
a

vary

regularly

and

quently, fre-

simple
whether
causes

rule, by following changes

and
are nected con-

which

we

can

judge
as

together
:

effects, as
in

lows fol-

Those
are

things

which

change

exactly

equal times

in all likelihood

connected

gether/' to-

III. that class

ccmnot
we

^^It is very
can ever

difficult to
reason

explain
one

how

it is
to
we a

from

thing
when

of he
in

things
sure

by
that

generalization,
the

things

resemble
. . .

each

other

the

important

points.

Upon

CHAPTER

XIV.

MAKING

AND

TESTING

HYPOTHESES

The often
the

older
at
a

philosopliers
loss

and

logicians
account

were

how

to

reasonably
It will be

for after the

more

origin
the

of

hypotheses.
matter
a

seen,

giving
actual than of
a

little the

thought,

that is

formation
mere

of

hypothesis
together
is
or

grouping
or

synthesis
mental

facts

ideas"

there

another the

process
or

which

actually
which mental Brooks

evolves
a

hypothesis
reason.

theory"
is this
matter.

gives
process

possible
?

What the

Let
' '

us

consider

well

says

The

eses hypothticipation. an-

of

science

originate
are

in the

what

is called of
a mere

They

not
no

result

synthesis
can

of the
see

facts, for
law
or

combination We the do mind

not

of
see

facts the the mind which

give
; we

cause.

law

the

facts

and of

thinks the

law. often

By

the

power
a

anticipation,
facts
to

leaps

from

few

the which but

cause

produces
them.

themi

or

the

law
were

governs
a

Many

hypotheses
mind.

happy
result

tuition in-

of the

They
132

were

the

of

Testing

Hypotheses

133

what Plato

La
so

Place

calls

^a

great

guess,'
as

or

what sacred

beautifully designates
of truth/
a

^a

suspicion

The

forming
a

of

eses hypoth-

requires
a

suggestive mind, imagination,

idea

lively fancy,
catches
or sees a

philosophic
of the

that the

glimpse
the law The in the

through
the New of

form,
' '

standing
student
mental
^^

behind The

fact.

of

Psychology
the

sees

operation
the

forming
the of the
or even

of law""

the

hypothesis"
but
an

mind

thinking operation Mind, (See

in the

instance the

of the

ties activithe
on

of

Subconscious Mind. Mind

Superconscious
the Subconscious does the it agrees
as

volume

this

series.)

Not

only
which but

this old

hypothesis psychology
with the in the

give
has

the

explanation
to
on

failed others

do,
the

ideas above
agrees

of

subject
Brooks

stated and
moreover

quotation
with
many of

from
corded re-

instances

of

the

formation Hamilton

great

hypotheses.
the
very

Sir

Wmf.

discovered
law

important
while

mathematical
one

of

ternions qua-

walking
He without had

day

in the

Dublin
on

Observatory.
subject, but
that eventful

pondered
result.

long

the

But,

finally, on
the

day

he

suddenly

^^felt

gal-

134

Logical

Thinking

vanic
was

circle the

of

thought"
of the of the

close, and
fundamental

the

result matical mathe-

realization relations

problem. Chemistry,

Berthelot,
has which fied testiled

the

founder that the

of

Synthetic

celebrated

experiments
were

to

his

remarkable of

discoveries followed

seldom of
scious con-

the

result

carefully
or

lines

thought but, instead,

so
came

pure to

reasoning
him ^^of from

processes;
own
cord,'^ ac-

their
a

to

speak,
many

^^as

clear

sky.'^

In the

these mental

and

other
was

similar

instances, purely
Hudson
not can-

operation
and that

undoubtedly
Dr. Mind" its

subjective
has claimed
reason

subconscious.
the
^^

Subjective
and that

inductively,
purely
of

tions opera-

are

and
many

distinctly deductive,
eminent is

but

the

testimony
and

ventors scientists, in-

philosophers

directly

to

the

contrary.
In from
of of

this

connection is which is the which

the

following
*^The

quotation
system
the
name

Thomson

interesting:
has immortalized of

anatomy
Oken

consequence

flash his the

of

ticipation an-

glanced
up

through
walk

mind skull the

when
of
a

he

picked

in

chance

deer,

bleached

and

disintegrated

by

Testing

Hypotheses

135

weather,
part
saw

and
a

exclaimed

after
!'

glance,
When

^It is

of the

vertebral

colnnrn

Newton

apple fall, the through

bodies
case

anticipatory ^Why
this
any
were

question
not ?^

flashed

his

mind,
like

do

the
In

heavenly
neither

fall

apple

had and

accident Oken

important prepared
by
the show if the

share;
the

Newton

deepest

previous
fact it

study
to

to

seize and

upon to

unimportant
how

odff ered

them,

important
and other have But
the

might

become;
had
or some

and

apple
some

deer-skull

been

wanting,
other

falling body,
touched in each the
case

skull,
to

would vibrate.

string
there

so

ready
a

was

great
saw a

step of anticipation; Oken type

of the whole Newton
was

thought
in
a

he

skeleton conceived full of

single
once

bra, verte-

while whole fall.

"
.

at

that

the
to

universe
.

bodies of

tending

The for the the

discovery kingdom
the

Groethe, which
what of
a

did for
to
an

vegetable
that
as

Oken

did
are

animal,

parts

plant

be

regarded

metamorphosed
to

leaves, is

apparent
for of
a

exception

the it

necessity
was

of covery dishe

disciple

invention^ since
poet
in
no
a

the which

region especial

to
or

seemed

to

have

paid

laborious

136

Logical

Thinkikg

attention.
to rest

But the

Goethe basis rather with

was

himself this

most

ious anx-

of

discovery
his

upon

his and with

observation doubtless
other

than
reason.

imagination,
As
...

good

great

discoveries,
not

hints

had

been of left for his

never

given
Goethe's

already,
and

though
Oken's
up

pursued,

both

principles. by others,
his
name

Goethe but

his to be

followed

and

great
have amassed

fame,
been

perhaps
connected

would it. Oken

with

had for able the

at

all the of

materials his and

necessary

establishment
once

theory;
conquer

he the

was new

to

discover

tory.'' terri-

It must

not

be

supposed,
into the

however,

that

all

hypotheses
from
true

flashing
the
or

field of consciousness
are sarily neces-

Subconsciousness,
correct.
or

On

the

contrary

many

of them
correct.
or

are

incorrect,
The

at least

only partially
is not lible infalsults re-

Subconsciousness

omniscient"
to

it merely
the material

produces
furnished
are

according
But
value As
even

it. of
one.

these

faulty hypotheses
formation
^^To

often

in the "Whewell
miost

later
says:

of

correct

try

wrong way

guesses

is with

persons

the

only

to hit upon

Testing

Hypotheses

137

right
at

ones."

Kepler

is said

to

have

erected
the

least of

twenty
the the

hypotheses
orbit
one.

regarding
before As
may

shape
evolved
^ '

earth's
correct

he

finally
says:

Brooks be
may

Even

incorrect

hypotheses
since

of

use

in
to

scientific
more

research,

they
The

lead

correct

suppositions.
motions
as
a

supposition
bodies lead
at last to to

of

the

circular the

of the

heavenly
which

around the the the

many

earth

center,

conception
true

of is

epicycles, etc., and

an

theory
of

illustration in

of

this.

So

^theory
facts

phlogiston'

chemistry,
the
true
as

made
one

before intelligible,

of

^oxidation'
says,
a

superseded
^^with the

it. And that

so,

son Thomhors abgether to-

theory

^Nature
to

vacuum,'
so

which

served facts Even has

not

bring

many
as

cognate
related.

previously
incorrect

considered

an

conception
so

of this kind it is which

or

its place in
to

science,

long

as

applicable
it cannot it with
some

the

facts; when
we

facts
correct

occur

explain,
a one new

either
The

it

replace science,
the

one.

pathway
strewn

of with

remarks,

is

remains

of discarded

eses." hypoth-

Halleck

says

regarding

the

danger

of

hasty

138

Logical

Thinking

infereiice:

^^Men induction

moist

constantly employ
order
to

perfect im;

in attend
narrow

advance

but

great
made

dangers
from
too

inductive

inferences
A

experience.
one or

child
at

has home. that

experience
Because all

with
of
are

two

dogs

his

their

gentleness, he
He does he

argues

dogs
out

gentle. contrary

not,
has too

haps, perbeen

find

the

until
was

severely bitten.
He of
or

His
a

induction

hasty.

had

not to

tested
form

sufficientlylarge number
a

dogs
two

such

conclusion.
a

From
crop in
a

one

experiences
latitude,
a

with

large

tain cer-

farmer be

may

argue

that

the it
man

crop may may

will
not

generally again
prove
a

profitable, whereas
so

for

years. of

have
them rule
man,
are

trusted honest.

number He

people
that

and

found
as a

concludes
a

people
est dishon-

honest,
is

trusts

certain older

and
more

ruined. cautious inductive and

make

The

people
come be-

grow,

the in

they

generally

forming
are

conclusions.

Many
but It all
a even once

instances

noted

compared;
mistakes.

the
was

wisest
a

sometimes

generally
white. and
the

accepted
had

fact
ever

that
seen

swans

were

Nobody
inference

dark
were

swan,

that

all

swans

140

Logical

Thinking

verification

of
as

hypothesis.
and
a

Some

writers,
that show and

however,
in not order

Mill

his

school,

maintain
we

to

verify
that but it

hypothesis,
all is
no

must

only

explains
there will view

the

facts

phenomena,

that which

other
for

ble possithem. is

hypothesis
The
.
. .

account

former the evident

' '

of
one.

verification

regarded view,
never

as

correct

By

the

latter could

it be

is

that

hypothesis

verified.
says:

Jevons
we

'^In

the

fourth

tion), step (verificathese deductions when

new essary nec-

proceed
facts and
and

to compare

with

the

already

collected, or
we

practicable,
plan
new

make

vations obserso as

experiments, hypothesis
with
our

to

find

out

whether If
we

the
meet

agrees

with

nature.

several deductions

distinct and that

agreement disour

between

observations, hypothesis
a

it will

become and
to
we

likely
must

the

is wrong,
In

then

invent it

new

one.

order be

produce
to

agreement
the

will

sometimes
in
a

enough degree.
seems

change
we

pothesi hy-

small

When
to
we

get hold
results
not at

of

hypothesis
with
a

which
few

give
must correct

agreeing
once

facts,

assume

that

it is

certainly

We

Testiitg

Hypotheses

141

must under it is

go

on

making

other

deductions

from whenever these facts

a

it

various

circumstances,
we

and, verify
with

possible,
that

ought

to

sults, re-

is,

compare

them

served ob-

through
is shown
many

the this

senses.

When
to

sis hypothein
a

in its
to

way

be

true

great
it
never ables en-

of
us

results, especially predict

what
or we

when

should

otherwise

have

believed that
. .

discovered,

it becomes is
a

certain
true
one.
.

the

hypothesis

itself

Sometimes
or even

it will different

happen
ses hypothethat

that

two

three

quite
with

all
we are

seem

to agree

certain
.

facts, so
. .

puzzled
are

which
two

to select.

When
one as

there
the

thus
we

hypotheses,
to agree

good
fact

as

other,
which
not

need will

discover with
one

some

or

thing
and

hypothesis
this the false." diately immeformer

with enables

the
us

other, because
to

decide the

that

hypothesis
In the

is true above of

and

latter

statements

regarding
we see

the

verification
made
'^

hypotheses testing
of

references
upon
may

to

the of

the These

latter

the be

facts"
the the

the

case.

facts
or

either
to

observed

phenomena
or

facts

ent appar-

perception,

else

facts

obtained

142

Logical

Thinking

by deductive
said
to be

reasoning.
which
true.
are

The held if
are we

latter
to be

may

be if the

facts be

true

hypothesis

Thus
men

erect

the
we

pothesi hymay

that
reason

^^AU

mortal/'
it is
test

deductively
and
or

that
that
we

will
a man our

follow
must

that

each
sooner

every

thing
Then
every

die

later. and

hypotheses
we

upon

each to

man

whom

may

ject subIf
we

observation

and who

experiment.
does
not
;

find test

single

man

die,
if
on

then the

the
trary con-

disproves
all
men

our

hypotheses
^^

(the
then The follows:

facts''
our

in the

case)

prove
or

to be

mortal,

is

hypotheses

proven

established.
case

deductive

reasoning

in

this
garding re-

is

as

''If
a

so-and-so class that is This

;

is true

such-and-such

and
;

if

this
it

particular thing belongs

will follow that

to

class

then

so-and-so

true

regarding
is
pressed ex-

this

particular thing."
in what is

argument
a

called

Hypothetical
the tion consideraject subas

Proposition
of which of Jevons Third

(see Chapter
forms
a

IX),

part of the general

Therefore

Deductive has

Eeasoning.

said, '^Deductive
in Inductive

Reasoning
and

is the
cedes pre-

Step

Reasoning,
we

Verification",

which

have

already

Testing

Hypotheses

143

considered.
classified

Halleck

^^

says:

After

Induction

has

certain

phenomena premise,
the
we

and

thus

given

us

major
to

may to

proceed
any to
new

deductively specimen
class. that

apply
can

inference

be

shown

to

belong
to

that

Induction

hands

over

deduction

ready-made
takes

major
that
as a

premise.
. . .

tion Deduc-

fact,

making Only
after

no

inquiry general
have

about

its

truth.
. . .

laws

have

been

laid

down, major

after

objects premises

been

classified,

after

have

been

formed,
In view of

can

deduction

be

employed.
we

^^

the

above

facts,
of

shall

now

proceed
of

to

consideration

that

great

class

Reasoning Reasoning.

known

under

the

term"

tive Deduc-

CHAPTER

XV.

DEDUCTIVE

EEASONING

We
classes

have
of

seen

that

there known
or

are

two

great
as

reasoning,

respectively,
the

(1)

Inductive truth

Reasoning,
from

discovery
;

of

general
Deductive

particular
or

truths

and of

(2)
ticular par-

Reasoning,
truths
from

the

discovery
truths.

general
Deductive

As the from

we

have of

said.

Reasoning particular
from the truths

is

process
a

discovering
truth. in when Thus the

general
embodied

eral gen^^All

truth horses connection that

^^

proposition
it is considered

are

animals,''
with is
a

in

the

secondary
we are

proposition
able
^^

Dobbin the

horse,''
truth in the truth

to

duce deis
we

particular Or,

that:

Dobbin
case

an

animal."
a

following
from
a

deduce

particular
follows: ^^All is
to
a

general
are

truth,
to eat

as

mushrooms mushroom
' '

good

this

fungus
is

therefore,
ment argu-

this

fungus
is

good

eat.
a

deductive

expressed
says

in

deductive the

syllogism.
last stated il-

Jevons

regarding
144

Deductive

Eeasoning

145

lustration:
state

''Here

are

three

sentences

which when
we

three the
two

different
first from
one

facts;
we

but learn

know the
we

facts,
the fact

or

gather
When

third thus
or

fact learn
reason,

other

two.

from do
us

other this
to

facts,
the

we

infer

and

we

in

mind. the If
we

Seasoning
nature

thus
a

enables without
a

ascertain trial.
we

of

thing

actual

always
know of

needed whether

to taste

thing
to

before
eat
or

could
cases

it

was

good
be

not,

poisoning
the

would

alarmingly

frequent.
of
eye
a

But

appearance may

and

peculiarities
learned
upon

mushroom
or

be

safely

by
this

the

the nose,
and

and

reasoning already
to

tion informathat out with-

the
are

fact

well
we

known,
arrive
the

mushrooms
any

good
or

eat,
at

danger

trouble

conclusion
us

that
to

the

particular
To
reason,

fungus then,

before

is

good

eat.

is to get
^

some

edge knowl-

from
The

other

knowledge.^
will

student is

recognize
an

that

Deductive
process,

Eeasoning
because
a

essentially
in the

analytic
of into

it operates
universal
or

direction truth

ing analyz-

general

its particulars"i
are

the included within it"

particular parts
and

which

asserting

of them

that

146

Logical

Thinking

**what

is true

of Thus

the in

general
the
we

is true
truth

of

the that the

particnlar.'^
**A11
men are

general
see

mortal/^
that
*^

included

particular truth
"John
man.

John been

Smith discovered

is mortaP'
to

Smith We Smith
^ *

having
the the

be

deduce from

particular general
truth
' '

truth about find

about ^*all

John
men.

We
to

analyze
be
*^

* ^

all

men

and

John

Smith

one

of

its is

particular
an

parts.
from

Therefore,
the whole
'^

Deduction its

inference

to

parts;

that

is,

an

analytic

process.

The

student

will is

also

recognize that
a\

tive Deduc-

Eeasoning
process,
a

essentially

descending
direction
the of

because from

it operates the universal

to

in the
to

descent from

lar; particufronn the

the
to

higher
narrower.

the

lower;
As Brooks

broader
^*

the

says: to

Deduction

descends from
etc.

from laws
to

higher

truths
causes we

lower
to

truths,

facts, from
the the have the

phenomena,
deduction the the

Given
to

law,

can

by

descend

facts
never

that

fall

under
seen

law,
;

even

if
so

we

before
we

facts
to

and

from

cause even

may

pass

down

observed

and

unknown

phenomena.''

148

Logical

Thinking

recognize

certain

truths

the

moment any

we

ceive perof

certain

objects,
Under the

without head

process

inference.
are

of intuitive
cases as

edge knowling: follow-

classified

such
an

the

We know and that then.

perceive
it is We time.
a

object

and
as

immediately existing
an now

time
are

relation,
said
to
we

have
are

intuitive that the

concept
whole
to the
a

of

When than
are a

told

is greater
same

part

that

things equal
other
we

thing
line

equal
enclose

to each space,

that

straight
or

cannot

diately, immetruth do
.

intuitively, recognize Attempts

surer

the

of
not

these make We the

statements.
us

at

proof
.

feel that

of

their

truth.
.

say

it is self-evident,
The said

or

that
of

we

know matics mathe-

fact

intuitively. logic
class of
are

axioms
to be

and Another the

nature

intuitive.''

of

authorities, however, knowledge

claun and that

deny
or

intuitive

of truth, all
our

intuitive arise what of from

we

truths.

They

ideas that result

sensation call
^

reflection, and
is

intuition" and

merely

the

sensation
or

reflection

reproduced
hold
are

by

memory

heredity.
animals of and

They
men

that

the

tuitions in-

of

simply
the
race,

the
or

representation

experiences

of

Deductive

Reasoning

149

individual,
stored
away

arising
in the

from

the

impressions
of the

subconsciousness
states

individual. ^^This school that

Halleck

regarding
to

this: It

likens
the
young

intuition duck

instinct.
water

grants

knows swims

stincti in-

plunges

into

it,and

without that
case

learning.
there with
to
was a

These time

psychologists
when of this the
was

believe
not

the

the

progenitors
this

duck.

They through
the

had
perience. ex-

gain

knowledge
that

slowly
learned and modified that

Those

proper

aquatic

lesson

survived
a

transmitted

this
to

knowledge
their
progeny.

through
Those in the

structure,
in the

failed for that in the have

son les-

perished
This
. . .

struggle
claims
arose

existence. the
same
seen

school and of effect human

tion in/tuiway.

of

cause

Generations
cause

beings
to

the

invariably

joined

the

effect; hence,
came

through

inseparable
of

association necessary all

the

recognition tendency
relations transmitted
until has
to
was

their

sequence.

The these force

terity, pos-

regard
with

phenomena

in

steadily increasing
laws of

by
the

the

heredity
of
^^

to

recognition
an

the

ship relation-

become

intuition.

150

Logical

Thinking

Another

class

of

general

truths
means

is
*^

merely
ed Found-

hypothetical.
on or

Hypothetical
a

including
or

hypothesis
for
purpose

or

tion; supposithough

assumed
not

taken

granted,
of The

proved,
of
a

for

the
in of

deducing ses hypotheare

proofs
and
as

point

question.'^ physical
for

theories truths

science

used

general

deductive
are

reasoning.
in the
nature

Hypothetical
of the

general
assumed of

truths in order

premises
process

to

proceed

with and

Deductive such
are,

Eeasoning,
would
as a

without

which

reasoning
however,
are

be rule the

possible imnot
ture na-

They
mere

assumptions,
of

but

rather

in

assumptions

rendered and

plausible
ing. Eeasonbe

by

experience, experiment
The Law of

Inductive
may

Gravitation and

sidered con-

hypothetical,
of Inductive of

yet it is the
based
upon
a

result
vast

Eeasoning
facts and

multitude The
may

phenomena. of Dedv^ctive Reasoning

upon to
us

Primary
be said
come

Basis
to rest

the from

logical axiom,
the
^^

which and

has which

down

ancients,
Whatever
^

is stated
the

as

follows:

is true
as

of

whole

is true

of

its

parts/
it:
^*

Or,

later

authorities

have

expressed

What-

Deductive

Eeasoning

151

ever

is true

of This

the

general
is the

is true basis

of the
upon

ticular.'? par-

axiom Deductive the

which It nishes fur-

we

build
us

our

Reasoning.

with
or

validity of the
If
we are
' '

deductive

inference for is
we

argument.
the
statement
we are

challenged
This
answer

proof

of to

that able

fungus
that

good
are

eat/'

to

justified in making

the
or

statement

by
that of
' '

the
^*

self-evident

proposition,
of the

axiom,
is true

Whatever

is true
' '

general
' ^

the is

particular. good
to

If the the

general

mushroom

eat, then
a

particular, ^^this
must also

gus'' funto

being
eat. then All

mushroom,

be

good

horses
to

(general)
the also been stated be

being
Dobbin

animals,

according horse)
must

axiom,
be
an

ular (partic-

animal. in various
For
or

This

axiom

has

stated above.

terms
:

other

than

those
may

instance of of the the

'^Whatever

affirmed
or

denied

whole, parts;'*
from

may

be

denied form is

affirmed

which used
or

evidently
who
to

derived
^ *

that

by Hamilton
not
or

said the

What

belongs,

does

belong,
not

containing
to

whole, belongs
the his

does

belong,

each

of

contained celebrated

parts."
Dictum

Aristotle
as

formulated ''What-

follows:

152

Logical

Thinking

ever

can

be
any

predicated
class in like
or or

affirmatively

or

tively negacan

of

term

distributed,
of all and

be

predicated
the classes There is that

manner

singular
under it.'^ Eeaiom ax-

individuals form

contained of

another

Deductive
upon

soning,
than whole

is

form
^^

based Whatever

another is true of form

that
true

of:
of

the of

is

the

parts.

'^

This

reasoning Eeasoning, employed

stated
to
as

is

sometimes

called form

Mathematical of Its

because

it is the

reasoning
axiom
are

in

mathematics.
*^

is

follows:

Things
equal
this

which
to
one

equal

the will

same

thing,
seen

are

another/'
ployed em-

It

be in

that

is the Thus:
x

principle
^^x

mathematics.

equals
5.^'

y;

and

equals
in

5; therefore,
terms:

equals

Or B it is
as

stated

logical

^^A

equals
C' Thus
as

B;

equals C; therefore,
seen

A of

equals

that

this

form
of

reasoning,

well

the

ordinary

form

Deductive

Eeasoning, through

is
the

strictly mediate,
medium of
a

that

is, made
' '

third

thing,
their "The

or

two

things being
to
a

compared
Brooks

through
states:

relation real

third.'' for
may
are

reason

the be defi-

certainty
stated
as

of

mathematical

reasoning
its ideas

follows:

First,

Deductive

Reasoning

153

nite,

necessary,

and its ideas truths.

exact

conceptions
as

of

quantity.

Second,
of these

definitions,
are

the

scriptio de-

necessary,

exact,
axioms

and
from

indisputable
which
are we

Third,

the

derive

conclusions and ideas result

son by comparitruths.
necessary

all self-evident these

exact

necessary

Comparing
laws of

by

the

inference, Or,

the

must

be
way,

lutely abso-

true.

stated and the

no

in another axioms
as

using

these of
a

definitions

the

premises
tably. inevifor

syllogism,
There is

conclusion

follows

place
mar or

or

opportunity
our

error

to creep
'^

in to

vitiate

derived

truths. In
'

conclusion,
to
a

we

wish from

to

call

your

tion atten-

passage

Jevons and
a

which recollection. rule which

many
come

is

worthy
Jevons

of
says
us

consideration
' ^

There the

is

simple
of
a

will enable

to test

truth

great
do
not

arguments,
under books
true any
on

even

of many the rules rule

which

of

commonly
is that
any

given
whatever which that

in

logic.
one

This

is is

of

term

is true
same we

of

term
as

stated In other

to he

the

in
may

meaning always

term.
one

words,
another

substitute

term

for

if we

know

that

they refer

to

154

Logical

Thinking

exactly
that head This rules four
a

the

same

thing.
some

There
and of

is

no

doubt the

horse of
a

is horse

animal,
is the

therefore
some

head
be

animal. under the

argmnent
of the

cannot

brought
because in

syllogism, logical horse,

some

it
two

contains

distinct

terms
some

tions; proposihead it of

namely,

animal;
But
I have
'

horse,
comes

head under
we

of the

animal. which
to

easily
cause bestead in-

rule

given,
animal'

have
^a

simply
A in

put

some

of
may

horse'.

great
this
of

many way.

arguments
Gold is
a

be
;

explained
therefore A
negro
a

is

metal metal.

piece
a

gold

piece

of

is

fellow
a

creature;
strikes
a

fore, therefellow

he creature." The
we

who

strikes

negro,

same

eminent

authority
the
in
or

says:
way

^^When
in which
case

examine
reason,

carefully enough
it will be
one we

we

found

every

to

consist

in putting
to which

thing
know

term

in

place of
an use

another,
resemblance likeness from of
a

it to have We which
to
a

exact the
us

in
as a

some

respect.
of

kind

bridge, thing

leads

knowledge
;

of the the

one

knowledge
ing reason-

another
may

thus called

true

principle of

he

substitution

of similars,

CHAPTEE

XVI.

THE

SYLLOGISM

The

third

and the

highest
which and

phase
follows

or

step

in

reasoning" styled

step

after is
'

those
ally gener' '

Conception by the

Judgment"
term
^

known which
two

general
is
as

Reasoning,
include

term,

however,
steps step
of
two
or

used
as

to

the

precedent
This

well

the consists

final of

step
the

itself.

process

comparing through
or

objects,
to
a

persons

or

things,
son per-

their

relation

third
we

object,
reason

thing.
all is is
a

As,

for
are

instance, animals;

(a)
that
a

that
horse horse

mammals

(b)

mammal;
an

and The
or

(c) that, therefore,

most

animal. this

fundamental consists of in

principle
the

of

step
of

reasoning objects
of their
form

comparing
and

two

thought
to
a

through
third
of

by
The of

means

relation
of

object.
process
'^

natural

expression
^*

this

reasoning

is called

gism. Syllo-

The
to

process

of

reasoning
of the

which in

gives

rise

the

expression

argument

the

form

156

The

Syllogism

157

of

Syllogism
to form
a

must

be

understood
of the

if

one

wishes

clear

conception
is very the

gism. Syllowhen
times some-

The

process

itself

simple
is

plainly stated, although puzzled

and
statements

beginner

by

the

complicated
authorities.

definitions Let B C
us

of the have We

pose sup-

that

we

three wish
a

objects, A,
to compare

and and

C,
B,

respectively.
but
at

fail first.

to

establish
however

relation
are

between
to

them
a

We between thus

able
;

establish

relation A. ^^A
next

A have

and the

and

between

C and

We

two

propositions equals
that
' ^

(1)
The

equals

B;

and of

(2)

A'\ if A

step is that
C

inferring
then B/^

equals

B, and

equals A,
C

it must This

follow, logically,
process

that of than indirect

equals
or

is that rather

mediate C and

comparison,
B
are

immediate.
or

not

compared
and
to

directly through
mediate This ideas
or

immediately,
medium
B

but A. C.
A

indirectly
is thus said

the

of and

between
process

of of

reasoning thought,
It form

embraces in

three
sion expres-

objects

their
the

of

propositions.
or

comprises
of

mental fundaAs

elemental
^ ^

reasoning.
movement

Brooks

says

The

simplest

of the

158

Logical

Thinking

reasoning
objects
The

process

is

the

comparing
to
a

of

two

through
of this

their
process

relation is
a an

third/*
pressed ex-

result

argument

in what

is called *^A strict

Syllogism.
is
form
an

Whate-

ly

says

that: in

Syllogism logical

argument
so

expressed
conclusiveness of
to

that
structure

its

is manifest

from without

the any

the the

expression meaning reasoning

in
to

alone,
the

regard
says:

of
can

terms/'

Brooks

**A11

be of

and

naturally syllogism.
deductive these
as

is

pressed ex-

the

form

the
and

It applies
ing, reason-

both

inductive
form Its in

and
are

is the

which

processes
an

presented.
of

importance

instrucial spe-

mient

thought

requires that

it receive

notice.'* In
order

that
may

the be

nature

and

use

of
we

the
can

Syllogism
do
no

clearly understood,
to at
once

better

than the
an

present
^^Kules of

for of

your

consideration

well-known

the

Syllogism,''
carries with it

understanding

which of the

perfect comprehension

Syllogism
The order

itself.
of the

Eules for
a

Syllogism
to be
a

state

that

in

Syllogism
:

gism, perfect Syllo-

it is necessary

The

Syllogism

159

I. than

That

there

should

be

three,
These

and

no

more

three, Propositions.
are:

three
or

ositions propto

(1)
and

the and

Conclusion, 3)
the

thing
or

be
means

proved;
of called

(2

Premises,
and Minor

the

proving
the

the

Conclusion,
and

which
mise, Prethis

are

Major

Premise
may

respectively. We
more

understand
the

clearly
:

if

we

will

examdne

following

example Major isB^OMinor

Premise:

^^Man

is mortal;

(or ^^A

Premise

^ ^

Socrates

is

"

man

(or

^^CisA'O.
Conclusion:

Therefore:
^^

Socrates

is

mortal"

(or **C

isB'O
It will be
seen

that in

the words the

above
or

Syllogism,
symbols,
must

whether

expressed

is

logically valid, logically

case,

because the

conclusion

follow

premises. being
is

And,

in

this

the

premises
conclusion

true, it must

follow
says:

that
* '

the

true.

Whately
when the the

Syllogism

is said

to be

valid from
so

clusion con-

logically
if the

follows does
not

premises;
the

conclusion
is invalid

follow,
a

gism Sylloif

and

constitutes the
reasoner

Fallacy,

the

error

deceives

himself;

but

160

Logical

Thinking

if it is advanced
others

with
a

the

idea

of

deceiving

it constitutes
reason

Sophism/^
I is that

The

for
a

Eule

only
a

three Minor
to

propositions" Premise,
form three than
a

Major
a

Premise,
are

and

Conclusion"
If
we

needed
more

Syllogism,

have
must to
more

than
more

propositions,
two

then
from

we

have draw

premises
The would

which
of in
or

one

conclusion.

presence

than

two of

premises
two to
or more

result

the else

formation
in the

Syllogisms, Syllogism.
there
Terms. of should These

failure

form II.

That three

be

three Terms

and
are

no

more

than

(1)

The

Predicate of the

the

Conclusion;
and in both

(2)

the

Subject
Term the

Conclusion;
must
occur

(3) the

Middle

which

premises, being
the
two

connecting
Terms The the

link

in

bringing

other

together
Predicate

in the

Conclusion. Conclusion it is the its is called in

of

the

Major

Term,

because with

greatest
terms.

extension The Minor

compared of
the

fellow is

Subject
Term

Conclusion
it is the

called in

the
tension ex-

because with

smallest
terms.

compared Major
and Minor

its fellow
are

The Eoo-

Terms

called

the

The

Syllogism

161

tremes.

The

Middle

Term

operates

between

the

two

Extremes.

The
appear The appear

Major
in the Minor in Minor in the
we see

Term

and

the

Middle

Term

must

Major
Term

Premise. and

the Middle Premise.

Term

must

the

Minor Term

The
appear

and

the Major

Term

must

Conclusion. that of The

Thus the Term

Major

Term the

must

be

Predicate the Term

the

Conclusion; Conclusion;
or

Minor dle Mid-

Subject
may

of the the

the

be

Subject
but

Predicate

of
be

either

of
once

the

premises,

must

always

found
The

in both

premises. example
will show this
rangement ar-

following
more

clearly

In

the is
a

Syllogism:
man;

*^Man

is

mortal;
is

tes Socra-

therefore

Socrates

mortal,"
^^

we

have the

the

following

arrangement:
^^

tal," Morthe

Major
and

Term;
''Man,"

Socrates,"
Middle

Minor
as

Term;
:

the

Term;

follows

Major
mortal Minor is
a man

Premise:

^^Man"

{middle

term)

is

(major
Premise:

term).
''Socrates"

{minor

term)

{major

term).

^^

162,,

Logical

Thinking

Conclusion:
mortal

^^

Socrates"

(minor
[

term) is
shall be

(major term).
reason

Tke

for the rule that there

terms two

*^onlythree^^
in

is that
terms

reasoning consists
with third each
term.
are more

comparing
he three

other There than

through
must

the medium

of

terms;
form

if there
two

three of
one.

terms,

we

syllogismsinstead
at

premise, affirmative. This, because

one

III. That

least, must
two

he

^'from
can

tive nega-

propositions nothing
A and differ, if have
two
can

be

inferred."

negative proposition asserts

we

that two

things
serting as-

propositions so
infer

difference,we
them. **Man If
our

nothing
that:
*^

from

Syllogism stated
mortal;"
we

(1)

is not
a

and could
was

(2)

that
no

tes Socra-

is not

man;"

formi
or was

sion, Conclunot
tal. mor-

either that Socrates There between Conclusion the would

two

be

no

logical connection
therefore
no

premises, and
be
one

could
at

deduced

therefrom.
must

Therefore,

least

premise
is

be

firmativ af-

IV.

If
must

one

premise

negative,the
This because

sion conclu^^if
one

he

negative.

1
164

Logical

Thi^s-king

stead,
woiild
"

read:
not

''Some' that

men

are

mortal,"
must

it

follow
or

Socrates
not

be mortal form that

fremight

might

be

so.

Another
statement

of this

fallacy
is Black

is shown
a

in the

(1)
hence

"White

color; (2)
must
^^

Black

is The

color;
mises pre-

(3)

be White. White and

not

two

really
Black
' '

mean

is

some

color;
either
^ ^

is

some
' '

color;
Another
are

that is
:

is
are are

all colors.

example bipeds;
^^

Men

bipeds;
birds.''

birds In
as as

hence,

men

this "all

example

bipeds''
is

is not

tributed dis-

bipeds" but

tributed simply not-disThese

to

"some

bipeds."

gisms, syllorule,

therefore, not
must

being according
not true

fail.

They

are

syllogisms, and

constitute
To be

fallacies. Middle Term must

or

"distributed^^' the
of of
a

be the
the be
a an
"

Subject

Universal

Proposition,

Predicate

a
'

Negative
it must
or

Proposition;
be the

to of of
on

undistributed'

Subject

Particular Affirmative

Proposition,

the

Predicate

Proposition.

(See chapter

Propositions.)
VI. That
may
an

extreme,
not

if undistributed
in the

in

Premise,

be

distributed it would be

clusion. Con-

This

because

and illogical

The

Syllogism

165

unreasonable than
most
are we

to

assert

more

in the It

conclusion would be

find

in

the
argue
no

premises.
that:
man

illogical to animals; (3)

no man

(1)
a
'^

^^AU

horses fore thereconcluani-

(2)

is

horse;
The the

is

an

animal. because the

s.ion would mal the

be

invalid,
in
a

term

is distributed

conclusion,

(being
while

predicate

of

negative proposition)
in the

it is not

distributed of
an

premise

(being

the

predicate
As which
we

affirmative said
any
a

proposition).
any

have

before,
above

Syllogism syllogisms

violates and
are

of the

six

is invalid There be called

fallacy.
additional rules which
may which

two

derivative. either
one

Any
two of

syllogism
derivative the first six

violates also
as

of
or

these
more

rules,
rules

violates above

given
The Two

in detail. Rules

Derivative
:

of

the

Syllogism

are

as

follows That

Vn.

one

Premise because conclusion

at

least
two be

must

he

Universal.

This
no

^^from
can

lar particu-

premises
VIII. Conclusion
That

drawn.'' the be-

if one
he

premise

is

Particular,
also.

must

particular

This

166

Logical

Thinking

cause

only
from

universal

conclusion

can

be

drawn

two

universal

premises.
in

The

principles
Eules

involved

these

two

vative Deri-

may

be

tested

by

stating
contain

gisms Syllothe
sence es-

violating
of the
other

them.

They
and

rules,
will be

every to

syllogism
also break

which

breaks

them

found

one

or

more

of

the

other

rules

given.

CHAPTEE

XVII.

VARIETIES

OF

SYLLOGISMS

The
four

authorities kinds
of order

in

Logic

hold

that

with in

the every

propositions
of

grouped
it
of

possible
to

arrangement,
different kinds the
are

is

possible
ments, argumoods

form

nineteen
which
are

valid

called These
are

nineteen classified the

of

the

syllogism.
into what

by

vision di-

called
may

four by

figures,
the
sition po-

each

of of

which the have

figures
middle

be
in

known the

term

premises.
and kinds

gicians Lo-

arranged
to

elaborate

curious of
ositions propof

tables

constructed
when

show
in
a

what

joined
will make not too

particular
and forth

order

arrangement
We

sound
set

valid these

gisms. syllotables

shall
are

here,

as

they

technical before

for

popular
and
cause be-

presentation

of

the
not

subject
necessary

us,

they
who the who will above will

are

to

the himself

student with and

in

thoroughly
stated therefore
Laws

familiarize
of

the
to

Syllogism
determine

be

able

167

168

Logical

Thinking

every correct

case

whether
or

any

given

argument

is

syllogism,
many

otherwise. of

In

instances the
not to

ordinary

thought
form

and is
mon com-

expression omitted,
usage
or

complete
stated

syllogistic
length.
of
a

at full

It is

omit

one

premise
the

syllogism, premise
A

in

ordinary
inferred

expression, by
one

missing
and

being

the

speaker premise

hearer.

syllogism
sometimes

with
called

unexpressed
the
term

is

an

Enthymene,
For

meaning

^4n

the *^We

mind.''
are
a

instance,

the

following:
we are

free

people, premise
omitted
are

therefore
^^All
or

happy,"
are

the

major being
^^

free
pressed. unex-

people

happy''
Also in
was

Poets

imaginative,
the
minor
or expressed. un-

therefore

Byron
^ '

imaginative,"
a

premise

Byron
Jevons

was

poet

' '

is omitted

says

regarding
in the
as

this

phase
on

of

the

subject
the each

^ '

Thus
known

Sermon the

the

Mount,
consist and the The the

verses

Beatitudes
a

of

one

premise
is put

and

conclusion,
are

conclusion
for

first.

^Blessed

merciful:

they
the

shall

obtain
of the the

mercy.'
sion conclu-

subject
are

and

predicate
so

here
^

inverted,
merciful

that

proposition
'

is

really

The

are

blessed.

It is

ev-

Varieties

of

Syllogisms

169

idently
mercy

understood
are

that
'

^AU the

who

shall

obtain when shall ful merciare

blessed,
full

so

that

syllogism,
^All who who
are

stated obtain

at

length,
are

becomes:
;

mercy

blessed
mercy
;

All

shall merciful

obtain
are

Therefore,
This is

all who
a

blessed/

perfectly

good

syllogism."
we

Whenever
cause^
we

find

any

of

the
or

words: similar

^^fee-

for, therefore, since/'

know
a

terms,
and

may

that

there

is

an

argument,

usually
We kinds

syllogism.
seen

have
of

that

there

are

three

special

Propositions,
or

namely,

(1) Categorical
in which the
vation reser-

Propositions,
affirmation
or or

propositions
is made

denial

without

qualification;
in
to

(2)

Hypothetical
or

Propositions,
is made

which

the

affirmation certain

nial de-

depend
or

upon

tions, condiand is

circumstances,

suppositions;
in which

(3)
plied im-

Disjunctive
or

Propositions,
an

asserted forms of

alternative. based
upon

The three
same

reasoning
of

these the

several
names

classes
as

propositions And,

bear

the

latter.

accordingly
these
or

the forms

respective
of

syllogisms
also bear

expressing
the class
name

reasoning

170

Logical

Thinking

term.

Tlras,

Categorical Syllogism is
categorical
is
one

one

containing
Hypothetical
or more

only

propositions; containing
;
a

Syllogism

one

hypothetical
is
one

propositions containing
a

tive Disjunc-

Syllogismi proposition
in

disjunctive

the

major

premise.
which
are

Categorical
common

Syllogisms,
the the other

far have and

more

than
in

two

kinds,

been the

considered

previous
of

chapter,

majority

of the
are

examples
of this

syllogisms
In
a

given

in this book

kind.
or

Categorical
is made
or

Syllogism
and and the
or

the

statement

denial

itively, pos-

without

reservation

tion, qualificaof

the

reasoning

thereupon
In

partakes

same

positive
of

character. kind

propositions
or sumed as-

syllogisms
that

this

it is asserted
is true and

the

premise
be

correct,
correct

and,
must

if the follow

reasoning
that
the

logically

it

conclusion

is correct, and therefrom

must

the

new

proposition springing
be

likewise

Categorical

in its nature.
on

Hypothetical
have
as one or

Syllogisms,
more

the

contrary,
a

of their which
or

premises
affirms
or

thetical hypo-

proposition
something
be
true.

asserts

provided, Hyslop
says

*4f,"
:

something
' '

else wish

of this

Often

we

172

Logical

Thinking

negative
may

that

is, its hypothetical

proposition
or

either

hypothetically affirm
The

hypothetof
or a

ieally deny.

part of the premise

which conditions contains

potheti Hy-

Syllogism (and
word
*

tions ques-

which is called is the

usually
the

the The

little
jor ma-

4f

Antecedent. thus

premise
The

one

usually

ed. conditionsition, propo-

other

part of the part

the
states

conditioned
what will

and
or

which
under

happen

is true

conditional

circumstances,
in
one

is called above the

the

Consequent.
^ *

Thus,
have

of the f eet of
^ '

examples Antecedent;

If

dogs
the
are

four

is

and

remainder

the

proposition: Consequent.
the
presence

*^they
The of
some

quadrupeds'^

is the

Antecedent

is indicated
term
as
:

by if,

conditional

supposing^

granted
were,

that, provided
etc., the

that,
sense

though, al-

had, meaning
word of

general
that has

and
little

such The

terms

being

of the
no

'^i/.''

Consequent

special

indicating
Jevons Rules I.

term.

gives

the

following

clear

and

simple
:

regarding
* ^

the

Hypothetical
be

Syllogism
the
con-

If the
may

Antecedent be affirmed.

aflSrmed,
the be

sequent
be

If
may

Consequent
denied.'*

denied,

the

Antecedent

Varieties

of

Syllogisms
;

173

IL

^^

Avoid
or

the

fallacy
the

of

afl"rming

the This

consequent,
is
a

denying

antecedent. fact the that the

fallacy

because

of the made in
one

tional condi-

statement
may

major

premise
the
con-

not

he

the The the is

only

determining
is
an

sequenf '^Affirming
the

following Consequent:" overclouded;

it is

example

of

^'If
the

it is raining, is In
clouded; over-

sky

sky
'^

therefore,
the
not

raining.
and

truth,

sky
be

may

be

overclouded,
The

still it may
more

raining.
when

fallacy
in

is still
as

parent ap-

expressed
is D of
;

symbols,
;

follows: A is B.'^ is Ea-

''If A
The shown dium is not

is B, C

i5 D

therefore,
the

fallacy by
were

denying following
it would

Antecedent

the

example:
be useful
is not
;

''If

cheap
;

Radium useful. is D truth

' '

cheap

therefore in

Radium
:

Or, expressed
A is not
B may
;

symbols
C

"If

A. is B, C D." In
n"5t

therefore be the
a

is not

Radium
Jevons

useful

although

cheap.
these he

gives

following examples
man

of

fallacies:

^^If

is

good

teacher,
;

thoroughly
Jones

understands

his

subject
his

but

John

thoroughly
he is
a

understands

subject; Also,
^^If
on

therefore,
snow

good
salt

teacher." it melts
;

is mixed

with

the

snow

174

Logical

Thinking

the

ground
not

is not melt/'
says:

mixed

with

salt; therefore

it does Jevons and

*^To that
as

affirm
we can

the

consequent
the
cedent, ante-

then is

to
as

infer bad

affirm the
an

breaking allowing
To
. .

third

rule

of

the

syllogism,
term.

and
.

undistributed the rule

dent antece-

middle is

deny
fourth
as

really
and

to

break
a

the
term

of

the in
mises/' pre-

syllogism,
the

to take

distributed
so

conclusion

which

was

not

in

the

Hypothetical
easily
cal reduced
to

Syllogisms
or

miay

usually

be

converted Jevons
says

into
* *

GategoriIn

Syllogisms.

As

reality,
are

hypothetical propositions
not

and which
a

syllogisms
we

different

from

those

have

more

fully considered.
venience

It is all the

matter

of

the For

con-

of stating
instead of

propositions.*^
*^If Eadium
we
"

stance, in-

saying:
be

were

cheap,
' ^

it

would

useful,"
be useful

may
or

say

Cheap saying
may

Radium
^ '

would If glass is

instead

of
we

thin, it

breaks

easily,

' '

say

^^Thin

glass breaks
Rule

easily." for

Hy-

slop gives the

in such
cases
:

following
^ *

Conversion
of the of

Regard

the antecedent
as

hypothetical

proposition

the

subject

the

Varieties

of

Syllogisms

175

categorical,

and

the

consequent
as

of

the

thetical hypoof the is

a

proposition categorical.
very

the
cases

predicate
this

In
one;

some

change
be

simple
a

in

others
''

it

can

effected

only by
The

circumlocution.
class of

third

syllogisms,
is the

known

as

The the

Disjunctive
law which and
as

8yllogism\y
holds that under in the
to

exception syllogisms
of the

to

all

good

must

fit in

come

the

Eules

gism, SylloNot it in be

stated

preceding obey
these

chapter. Eules,

only
fails
many
a

does
to

it refuse
resemble As

but

the Jevons
to must

ordinary
says:

syllogism
^^It would all good
of

ways.

great mistake
arguments
which

suppose

that the

cal logi-

obey
been

rules

the

logism, syl-

we

have

considering.
two terms

Only
gether toare

those

arguments

which of
a

connect

by
therefore A

means

middle need

term;, and

syllogisms,
many
are

obey

these which there

rules.
we

great
use

of
of

the

arguments
nature
;

daily
great
which until

this kinds been

but

are some

many

other
never

of arguments,
understood

of

have
recent

by logicians
kind of
gument ar-

years. known

One
as

important
the

is

Disjunctive
the

gism, Sylloof the

though

it does

not

obey

rules

176

Logical

Thinking

syllogism,

or

in

any

way

resemble

gisms/^ syllo-

The

Disjunctive

Syllogisml
in its

is

one

having

disjunctive proposition
The

major
also

premise.
in
jor ma-

disjunctive

proposition
the

appears

the conclusion

when

disjunction
more

in the

premise
terms.
seen,

happens

to contain

than
we

two

disjunctive
which

proposition,
alternative
the

have

is

one

possesses

cates predi-

for

the

subject

in which

conjunction
^^

*^or^^
appears.
or

(sometimes
As for

accompanied
instance
^^
^ ^

by

either^')
is sheet

Lightning
either either

forked

;'' or,
^^

Arches
are
' '

are

round

or

pointed;'^

or,
or

Angles
acute.

obtuse,

or

right angled,

The
are

different called
we

things
Alternachoose will
not
or

joined together by
"tives,the
between
answer

^^or''

term

indicating things,
and
we

that that

may
one

the
our

if

purpose

may

take be
more

the

other,
than

one

of

the

others

if there

one

other. The Rule

regarding
is that the that
^ ^

the If
one

Use
or

of Disjunctive
more

Syllogisms
be Thus if

tives alterna' '

denied,
we

rest
^ ^

may

still be affirmed.
or

say
or

is B

C,

' '

or

that but

' '

is either

C,'' we

may

deriy

the

still

Vabieties

of

Syllogisms

177

affirm
*^If the
we

the

C,

Some
one

airtliorities

also
we

hold

that

affirm

alternative,
but
this view

must

deny

remainder,'' by
other

is

vigorously
seem

disputed
to
^^

authorities.
in
as: cases
^*

It would

be

valid

rule

where
is either
an

the
B
or

term

either"

appears

C,"
that in
sibility pos-

because
one or

there the like

:

seems

to be

implication
be
true. may

other
^ ^

alone
or

can

But be takes
a

cases

is B

C,

"

there

of both latter

being
as

true.
an

Jevons the

this

view, giving
*^A

example
is
a

tion: proposi-

Magistrate Mayor,
it does
or a

Justice-of-the-

Peace,

Stipendiary
that be After the
one

trate,'' Magiswho
same

but
a

not

follow
may not
^^

is

Justice-of-the-Peace
a

at the

timie
one

Mayor.

He
we

states:
can

affirming
others

alternative be could
seem

only deny
between the
same

if
thM It the

there

such
not

difference
be
true at

them time/^
are

they
would
same

that

both

contentions

at

time

true, the
his

example

given by
and the

Jevons

illustrating
^^The

contention,
is either

tion proposior

prisoner

guilty

cent" innoother

illustrating the contentions

side.
A

of the

Dilemma

is

conditional

syllogism

whose

178

Logical

Thinking

Major

Premise

presents
defines it

some

sort

of

tive. alterna-

Whately syllogism major,

two

as:

^^A

conditional

with

two

or

more

antecedents

in

the

and

disjunctive
exclusive

minor.

'^

There

being
in the

mutually Premise,
one or

propositions
reasoner

Major
admit

the

is

compelled
caught

to

the

other,
horns of

and

is

then

tween be-

*^the

two

the

dilemma."

180

Logical

Thinking

another it also
agree agree

in known in in the

particulars,
and

it will
^^If

resemble

unknown;'^

two

things
also

several

particulars, they

will

in other is
a

particulars.''
between

There

difference and the

true

generalization
In inductive is true the rule of of in As

by induction, generalization
the
many

by analogy.
rule of is: ^^What

is is: have
^^

all;'' while
that have in
some

analogy
commion

things
other remarks in

things

things
^ '

common."

Jevons

aptly

Eeasoning
from that

by

ogy Analof

differs

only
called

degree

kind When in
a

reasoning
many

^Generalization.' each about other them

things
we

resemble
argue
a

few

properties,

zation. by Generaliresemble each

When other in many

few

things
it is
we a

properties,

case

of analogy."
say

Illustrating Analogy,
if

may

that
or

in

we

find called find

the
a,

qualities,
e,

attributes

properties
and called
then
we

h, c, d,
in B

f, g, respectively, qualities, etc.,

are

if

we

that

the

a,

b,
may

c,

d,

e,

respectively,
by analogy

present,
the

reason

that
to B.

ities qual-

/
Brooks
' '

and

must

also of this

belong
form

says

of

reasoning:
in

This

principle

is in

constant

application

Eeasoning

by

Analogy

181

ordinary visiting
in hence and is
a

life and

in

science.
says

physician,
ponds corres-

in

patient,
several

this

disease with

particulars correspond So,

typhoid

ver, fe-

it will

in all when with it

particulars, geologist

typhoid
a

fever.

the

discovers blunt

fossil

animal that

large, strong,
its food It

claws, he infers
or

procured
in the

by
was

scratching by analogy
aninaal
from

burrowing
that
a

earth.

Dr.

Buckland fossil of

constructed
and when animal found
ment argu-

an

few bones his

bones,
the

subsequently
were

the

entire
was

discovered,
be
or

construction
says:

to

correct."

Halleck
we are

^^In aided

reasoning searching
The

much

by

the

habit
. . .

of

for

hidden of
are

resemblances.
a

detection If
we

such
to

relation

tivates cul-

thought.
we sense

succeed
some

in argument,
a

must

develop
relations.

what
.

call The
.

sixth

of

such
may

study
in detecting
ing reason-

of poetry

be

made and the due

to

very

serviceable the

analogies
powers.

cultivating

When

poet brings

clearly
as an

to

mind

the

change
the

death, using

lustrat il-

caterpillar body

transformed with is

into
ease

the
over

butterfly spirit,moving flowering meadows,

he

winged

cultivating

182

LoGiCAx.

Thinking

our

apprehension
because the student

of

relations,
are

none

the

less

valuable But

they
must

beautiful.'* be
on

guard

against arising
says
:

the
from ^^In found
cases

deceptive Reasoning
many to
cases

conclusions

sometimes As Jevons.

by Analogy. Reasoning
uncertain mistakes killed

by

Analogy
In
some

is

be

very

guide.
are

unfortunate
are

made.

dren Chiland

sometimes

by

gathering

eating
that of
a

poisonous
can

berries, wrongly
eaten,
because
appearance,

inferring berries,
been

they

be

other

somewhat

similar and

have

found

agreeable
are

harmless. mistaken
not

Poisonous
rooms, for mushto
are

toadstools

occasionally

especially by people gathering

seldom
once

accustomed mushrooms but them when cooked of

theni.
and
a

In
are

Norway
not

seen,

eaten;
had

found
an

few

there amused

and

at

inn,

was

by the

people

the and

inn, who
wanted
a

went
me

and them

collected also.

toadstools This
was

to eat

clearly
analogy.
way every

case

of brute

mistaken animals The

are

reasoning
reason

by
same

Even
some

in the

in

degree.
there when

beaten few

dog dogs
to

fears

stick, and
run

which

will
up
a

not

away

you

pretend

pick

stone,

Eeasoning

by

Analogy

183

even

if there

be

no

stone

to

pick

' '

np.
are

Halleck manufao

says:

^^Many
and

false

analogies

tured,
expose
so

it is excellent The

thought
of

training
people
false

to

them.

majority
swallow

think
gies analo-

little that

they newly

these

just
small
.

as

fledged
into
to

robins
open
as

swallow mouths. others the

do

stones

dropped tendency

their think

This
" .

must

be
can

resisted be
no

somewhere

along

line, or
says:

there ^^The
but

progress.'*
from

Brooks is

argument
often

Analogy
Thus
to

plausible,
that since

deceptive.
swans are

infer the

American
swan

white,
a

Australian for John then

a

is white,

gives
So
nose

false

conclusion,
that because

it

is

really

black.
a

to infer

Smith

has Jones

red
who

and has
a

is
a

drunkard,
nose

Henry

also be

red

is also inference.

drunkard,
.

would

dangerous
this kind

Conclusions
. .

of

drawn

from

analogy

are

frequently
the Rule
says:

fallacious.''

Regarding Analogy,
which
are we

for Reasoning
^^

front
way in
we

Jevons
can

There

is

no

really

assure

ourselves

that

arguing
can

safely by analogy. given

is this ; that the

The
more

only

rule

that
two

be

closely
more

things resemble

each

other, the

like-

184

Logical

Thinking

]y it is that

they
in

are

the

same

in other

respects,
with be clear
never

especially
those about
to to rest

points
. .

closely
In
"

connected order
to

observed.
our

conclusions,
with the

we

ought

in fact but

satisfied
to

mere

analogy,
laws
to

ought

try
case.

discover In

general
we seem

governing
reason

the
one

analogy

from
selves our-

fact

to another

fact

without
or

troubling
induction.
we

either it is
not

with
a

deduction of guess

But
;

only by really

kind

that

do We laws

so

it is

conclusive

reasoning.
what

ought
of
ture na-

properly
are

to ascertain

general
facts

shown
infer
.

to

exist

by the

observed,
to

and these

then

what
. .

will We

happen
find

according

laws. is not
an

that

reasoning
unless and

by analogy
we

to be

depended
into the

upon,
causes

make of

such the

inquiry
in and

laws

things

question,
deductive

that

we

really

employ Along
inference

inductive the from be

not
same

reasoning.'^
says:

lines. Brooks
analogy,
like that

^^The tion, inducsion conclubut

from Its

should
must

used be

with

caution.
as

regarded
a

certain,
of
to
a

merely

as

reaching
inference from
a

high degree
a

ity. probabilpart,
no

The
more

from

part

than

part

to the

whole, is attend-

Eeasoning

by

Analogy

185

ed

with

any

rational

necessity.
that the

To

attain

tainty, cer-

we

must

show

principles
are

which

lie

at

the

root

of

the

process

either

sary neces-

laws

of

thought
of which

or

necessary

laws

of

ture; na-

both

are

impossible. only
a

Hence

analogy probability.
of

can

pretend
It
may

to

high
a

degree large
sity. neces-

of

even

reach

gree de-

certainty,
"We

but

it

never

reaches

must,
inference

therefore,
from

be

careful

not

to

accept
it is

any

analogy by
such actual

as

true

til un-

proved

to

be

true

observation

and

experiment,
as

or

by

an

application
doubt.

of

induction

to

remiove

all

reasonable

"

CHAPTER

XIX.

FALLACIES

A mode be
an

Fallacy
of

is:

^^An

unsound while is in

argument

or

arguing,
of
or a

whicfi,
question,

appearing
reality
not
so

to
;

decisive

argument

proposition
; a

apparently
statement

sound,
or

but

really fallacious
in which is

fallacious the
error

proposition,
and
or

is

not to

ent, appar-

which

therefore

likely

mislead

deceive;
In

sophistry.'* Eeasoning,
we

Deductive
of

meet

with

two

classes

Fallacies;
and

namely,

(1)

Fallacious We

Premise;
shall
now

(2) Fallacious
each is of in

Conclusion. these effect in

turn.
an ranted unwar-

consider Premise

Fallacious

assumption
most
common
^^

of premises.
of the the this kind of

One

of

the is

formis

Fallacy
the

known of

as

Begging
is

Question/^
of

ciple prinmental funda-

which

assumption
is not

premise

which

conceded that of which

the is to

warrantable un-

assumption proved
is to be
; or

of

be it

the

assumption
without

that

by which
it.

proved,

proving
186

Its

most

188

Logical

Thinking

it at

first,but
while
some

little consideration

will
may

show be

that

good
a

institutions

well

united, it
be
^^

is not

general truth

that

all should

so.

Begging giving
that

the
a

Question
to
a

''

also

often
and

arises
suming as-

from

name

thing,
the

then

we

have

explained practice by

thing. This people applying

in the

is

very

frequent try
An
to

with

many

"they
names.

explain

merely
kind
to

example
person

of this who
a

is had

case

of could
^^

the
see

tried
pane

explain why glass by

Or certain
ing say-

one

through
it is that

of

because

transparent."
the
reason
^*

when stance sub-

one

explains
breaks

easily is
the

because of
a

it is brittle." dumb The

Moliere

makes

father is dumb. is from

more

girl

ask

why
answers:

his

daughter
^^

physician
than to
plain ex-

Nothing
comes

easy

it; it
power

her

having

lost

the

of

speech."
the
power

^^Yes, yes,"
if you

objects the
she

father,
has

*^but

cause,

please, why
^ '

lost the

of

speech.
our

The

physician
will of

gravely
tell you the

replies:

^^AU

best

authors

tha;t it is the impeding

of the

action

tongue."
Jevons
says:

^^The

most

frequent

way.

Fallacies

189

perhaps,
is to

in which

we

commit which and

this

kind

of fallacy that
we

employ
of

names

imply
then

disapprove
because

something,
such and
two

argue

that
demned. con-

it is When

such,

it must fall

be
out

sportsmen
to

in

some

manner

relating
all
was

the

subject

of game, the
act

one

will, in
other

probability,

argue

that
'

of the

^unsportsmanlike,
have
correct

and

fore thereis to all

should
appearance

not
a

been

done.

Here

syllogism:
act
was

^^No John

unsportsmanlike
Robinson's John done. is the
act

should

be

done;

unsportsmanlike:
act

Therefore,
have been

Robinson's

should

not

^^This

quite
mere

correct

in

form;
of
an

but

it is

idently ev-

semblance
means

argument. sportsman

^Unsportsmanlike'
should whether definition
not

what
to

do.
act

The fell
was

point
within

be the

argued

was

the

customary

of what

unsportsmanlike.^^
the

Arising
in fact
a

from class in

'^Begging
of
a

Question,''

and

the

latter, is what
In of
a

is called
lacy of fal-

^'Reasoning
one assumes

Circle."
as

this

form

proof
or,
uses

proposition
conclusion
' '

the
to
man

proposition
prove

itself;

the

the

premise.

For

instance

This

190

Logical

Thinking

is

rascal

because he
summer

lie is is
a

rogue

and

lie is
warm

rogue

because it is

rascal.''
;

Or,
it is
never

**It is
suuiimer

because

and ^^He
never

cause beto in

it is warm.''
excess,

Or

drinks

because

be

is

intemperate

drinking."
Brooks is and
says
:

**Thus

to argue

that

party

good
that
are

because certain

it advocates
measures are

good

measures,

good
a

because

they
to

advocated
in
a

by

so

excellent when
true

party, is
argue

reason

circle.

So

persons one,

that
was

their

church

is the

because
argue

it that been
To

established it is the

by God,
true

and

then

since founded argue

church

it must

have

by God, they
that

fall into is
to

this

fallacy.
by

*the

will and which

determined define the the and

the

strongest
motive
to
as

motive' *that
in Plato
a

strongest

influences of

will,'is
prove he its

revolve

circle commits

thought
this
of the
error

nothing.
argues

when from
to

the

immortality
and afterwards its

soul

simplicity,
its
care

attempts
' '

prove

simplicity from
to

immortality.
for it. in
a

It needs

avoid
one

this

error,

it is

surprising
says
occurs
:

how *'The

easily

falls of

into

Hyslop
Circle

fallacy

Eeasoning

Fallacies

191

mostly

in

long arguments
without

where

it

can

be
.

mitted com-

ready
in
a

detection.
.

When

it

occurs

long discourse

it may

be

committed
to

without
occasioned taken
to

easy

discovery.
the
use more

It is likely
synonyms the
ception con-

be
are

by
express

of than not.'' when for

which

involved called
a

when Circle

they

do

What the
a con-

is

Vicious
one

is caused is used which

jclusion of
in
comes

syllogism

tion proposiits
turn
or

another
to

syllogism,
as a

in the

be

used

basis

for

first

original syllogism.
Fallacious
or

Conclusion irrelevant There which

are

is

in

effect

an

warranted un-

assumption
many

of

cal logi-

conclusion.

forms

of this
:

fallacy

among

are

the

following

Shifting ground,
of

which
one

consists while

in the in is

tence pre-

proving
a

thing
related is the he

reality being
cause be-

merely

similar In

or

thing
argument

proved.
a

this class is
or

that

man

profane
that the

must
a

necessarily
man

be the
an

dishonest;

because

denies
must

inspiration
atheist. Fallacious
more

of

Scriptures

he

be

Questioning, questions
are

in

which

two

or

related

asked,

and

the

192

Logical

Thinking

answer

of
:

one
' '

is then
assert
more

applied
that the

to tlie other.
more

For
a

instance

You the

civilized
to be

commnnity,
in hats

silk-hats
yon

are

found silk-

itr'
are

^^Yes.^'

^^Then,

state
cause

that
of

the
a

promoters
T
^

and A

tion civiliza-

in

community
so

question
an answer

of this kind

is often
the false the
on

arranged
or

that

either
lead
to

in
a

aflSrmative
or

the

negative

will For

fallacious
once

inference. asked
a

instance,
citizen

question
the

respectable
you

witness
your
or

stand: mother
was

^^Have T'
out

stopped
of either for
sition, ponor

beating
*^Yes'^

An

answer

^*No,"

of the witness

question,
in
a

it would

have for he

placed
had of
never

the

false

beaten
same.

his mother,

been

accused

the

Partial
or

Proof

in which
y

the

proof
a

of

tial par-

related
fact

fact
or a

is used related
argue

to infer
one.

proof

of

the

whole

For
a man

instance,
has been that

it is fallacious

to

that

guilty
he
was

of drunkenness
seen

by merely
a

proving

entering
to Public

saloon. in which the

to

Appeal
of than its

Opinion,
are reason.

udices prej-

the

public
or

appealed
In

rather and

judgment

politics

Fallacies

193

theological argument
It is
no

this is
or

fallacy

is

frequent.

argument,
to

and

reprehensible. Reverence,
in which
tain cer-

Appeal
the
reverence

Authority,
and

respect of the public for

to influence
or

persons

is used

their

feelings
For stance inand

in

place
:

of their
' '

judgment

reason.

Washington
it must be

thought right;"
or

so-and-so,

therefore
to

**It is foolish
or

affirm

that

Aristotle

erred;"
two
our

^*It

has

been

believed
or

by

men

for

thousand fathers

years,

that, etc;"
must

*^What

believed
may

be

true."

Appeals place, but

and
not

of this kind

have

their

proper

they

are

fallacies

nevertheless,

real

argument.
an

Appeal
made
the
ment. to

to

Profession,

in which
or

appeal

is of

practices, principles
rather
we

professions
or

opponent,
Thus
or

than argue
cannot who

to

reason
a

judg

may

that be

certain
or

losophy phigood,
con-

religion

sound it
are

because

certain
not

people worthy,
used

hold
or

not

sistent, or
argument opponent,
But
it is
or no

moral

sober.

This
an

is often and

effectively against against

him

is valid

personally.
his

valid

argument
he

against
may his
act

ophy philos-

belief,because
or

in violation

of

them,

he

may

change

practices and

194

Logical

Thinking

still adhere

to

Hs

beliefs"

the

two

are

not

joined. Appeal
is made the
to

General
to
same

Belief,
or

in

which

an

peal ap-

general
may

universal be

though belief, al-

unsupported
but
may

by
real
neous, erro-

proof.

This

is The

quite
common

common,

is

no

argument.
as

opinion
A few

be

history

proves.

centuries
used in

ago

this

argument

could

have

been A

favor
ago

of the earth it
was

etc. being flat,

half-century Today
It is it is
a

used

against
other

Darwin.
new

being

used

against
very to

ideas.

fallacy

by its

nature.

Appeal
made

Ignorance,

in which of the from It is

must

an

appeal
that

is his
to

to the

ignorance
may

opponent
his

conviction
prove

follow

inability
no

the that:

contrary.
^^

virtually
be

ment argu-

So-and-so that

true, because
As
no

you says:

cannot

prove argue
we

it is not/^ there is

Brooks material how the lacy falwe

''To because knows of Hume

that

world,
mind

cannot

explain

it to in
a

exist, is the

celebrated
The fact is
no

philosophy.
in
^ '

that

cannot

find it is not

needle there.

haystack

proof

that

Introduction

of New

Matter,

also

called

Nen

196

Logical

Thinking

together.
the

There is of

are

many
so

other

cases

where
where
see

confusion
numbers

not

evident, and
are

great
exact

people
' ^

unable

to

the

difference.

Arguing
in

froms the Collective

the

to

the

General,
that of
a

which

fallacy

consists of

of

arguing
whole of any

because
group

something

is true

the

of things, therefore

it is true ^MZZ
to

of

those in but
every
a

things. regiment
it is

Jevonssays:
may

the

soldiers
a

be to the

able
suppose

capture
that could

town,

absurd in

therefore

soldier
town

regiment
White

capture
eat
a

the

single handed.
more are

sheep

great
because

deal

than
so

black many

sheep; but
more

that

is

there

of them.^'

Uncertain
which

Meaning
arises Jevons

of
and

Sentence,
fallacious
^ '

from
ment argu-

confusion
may

spring.
way
:

says

There
must

is have
more

humorous
three than tails
no

of

proving
a

that has

cat
one

Because
;

cat

tail

cat

and has
a

no

cat

has

two

tails ; therefore, Here the lacy falof

any rests

cat

three

tails/'

upon

punning

interpretation

''no.''

Proving
attempt
to

the

Wrong

Conclusion,
conclusions is

in which

the with

confuse

made,

Fallacies

197

the the
was

result
case

that

some

people

will

imagine
' '

that This
was

is established. device with who of theft had

the
on

Jevons

says

the

Irishman,
the

who of

charged

evidence
him do who
was

three
posed proseen

witnesses,

seen

it;
had

he
not

to call

thirty

witnesses

him the

do
mian

it. who ^I

Equally
was

logical
a

the defense
and
a

of
who
ber.^ bar-

called
not
a

materialist,
I
am

replied,
''

am

materialist;

Fallacy of Unsuccessful
is

Argument,

irxwhioh
that
cause be-

attempted
a

the

illogical conclusion
has

certain

argument
is proven.

failed the fallacy

of is

site oppo-

conclusion
common,

This
cases

quite
One the

especially
to prove to

in

juries.
and

side

fails

certain conclusion be

contentions,
that the

jury leaps
contention

the

opposite
is

must

correct.

This the
case

clearly

fallacious, for
of
a

there

is always
In

possibility
of this
a

third

explanation.
are

the

claim

of alibi The

juries

apt to fall into attempt

in the

fallacy.
an

failure held

of the
to be

to establish

alibi the

is often

nature

of

proof of

guilt
that
to
a

of the failure the

accused.

Old
a

trial lawyers

assert

to establish

claimed
accused

alibi tends
more

injure

chance

of the

than

198

Logical

Thinking

direct

evidence

against
will
see,

him. is

Yet,
no

as

all

cal logi-

reasoners

there

logical
has

ity validwell

in any

such

inference.

As

Jevons in

said:
to prove

^^No
a

number

of failures

attempting
it J' At

proposition really disprove

failure the
rs case

the in

end the

of each
same

simply
the

stands

position
proven/'

before

attempt;

i. 6./^ not All

Violations

of the

Rules
may

of the Syllogism
be
one seen

constitute
a

fallacies,as
in violation

by forming
more

syllogism

of

or

of

the

rules. The

logicians, particularly
took

those

of and of
not

ancient
name

times,
new

great

pains
of

to

discover
many

variations

fallacies,
in nature,

which

were

hair-splitting being
we

and

worthy
of those be

of

considered have

seriously.
may

Some

which
open

enumerated

possibly
we

to many
common

the

same

criticism,
worst

but

have

ted omittical prac-

of the

offenders An of

against

sense.

understanding Eeasoning
all

of the

fundamental
to expose

Laws and unmask

is sufficient such the

fallacies, and
valuable than

understanding memorizing
which

is far of the would

names

more

of deceive

lacies hair-splitting fala

not

child.

Fallacies

199

In

addition

to

the

above there in

stated
are

fallacies

of

Deductive which Let

us are

Eeasoning,
met

other

fallacies

with

Inductive them.

Reasoning.

briefly consider
and False of this

Hasty

Generalization
class. in
a

is

mon com-

fallacy
see

Persons few

sometimes
of
a

certain
and

qualities mistakenly
class

individuals that all the these commit the

class,

infer
must

viduals indisame

in that

possess

qualities. fallacy.
States for

Travelers

frequently visiting
have
return

this United

Englishmen
a

few
upon

weeks their

been home

known

to

publish
the the based
most

books

making regarding being

ridiculous

generalizations
their

American
upon

people,
the

assertions
of
a

observation
not at

few

scattered

individuals,
Americans
errors.

often

all

representative.
commit
a

traveling
A

abroad

similar does

flying trip through

the
proper

country
for

not

afford

opportunity
Brooks
says:
as

correct

generalization.
should facts doubt
are

As be

^*No until
can

pothesi hythe
no

accepted
that

true

so

numerous

there

be

of its

being proved.'* of
Observation result
among

Fallacies
methods

from which

rect incormay

of observation

200

Logical

Thinking

be mentiotLed
or

the

following:

(1) Careless
and

servatio Ob-

inexact

perception

tion concepone

(2)

Partial
a

Observation,
of the

in which
or

serves obting omit-

only
the

part

thin^
thus

fact,

remainder,
and

and

forming
of the and

an

complet in-

imperfect

concept

thing
Conand

or

fact; (3) Neglect

of Exceptions
the

tradictory Facts, contradictory

undue

in which
are

exceptions

facts

ignored, thereby
to

ing giv;

importance of

the

observed
are

facts
not of real

(4) Assumption facts, or

which with
are

Facts

which of the

the

assumption

truth

things

untrue;

(5) Confusing
is most

of Inferences

Facts, which

unwarrantable.

Fallacies

of Mistaken
of
a

Cause
as a

result when

from

th^

assum|)tion
so, of which

thing

cause,
are

it is not
esatn-

the

following
the in
cause

familiar

ptes:
Cause,

Substituting
which consists for
a

Antecedent

for
a

the
tecedent an-

assuming
of that

mere

thing
Thus the
one

another the

thing.
of it

might
was

assume

crowing
because
cause

cock

the
or

cause

of
a

daybreak,
was

preceded
the in

it ;

that

comet

the

of
; or

plague
the

which
case

followed in which

its appearance
a

actual

child

reasoned observa-

that

doctors

caused

deaths,

because

Fallacies

201

tion

had

shown

tliat died of

they always
; or
a

visited failed

sons percause be-

before
a

they

that

crops

President

certain
a

political party
months before.
are

had Some

been

inangnrated
of

few

fallacies
as

everyday
those

reasoning
mentioned.

quite

illogicalas
the

just for

stituting Subwhich
mere

Symptom assuming
as

the
cause

Cause,
some

consists

in

symptom,
To
assume

sign
that
of

or

incident

of

the of

real

cause. were

the

pimples
would have

measles

the

cause

the

disease,
We which of

be

to

commit

fallacy

of this the

kind.

mentioned
assume

where elsesilkof

fallacy
the
cause

would

hats

to be
a

Civilizaiton, instead
latter. Politicians incidents
causes

being
are

mere

incident of

of the

fond
a

assuming
as

certain

or

signs of

period,
culture
reverse.

being
and

the

of of

the the with

prosperity, period,
equal
of
or

advancement One

the

might
were

argue,

force, that

automobiles

the to

causes

national the
more

prosperity,
automobiles

pointing
to be
seen

the the

fact

that the

better
hot

times. for

Or,

that

straw
reasons.

hats

produced

weather,
The
a

similar

Fallacy
resemblance

of Analogy
or

consists
where

in

ing assumex-

identity,

none

^^3

202

Logical

Thinking

ists.

We

have

spoken
says, too

of this in another ^^It

as

ter. chapto

Brooks carry
an

also: far ;

is

fallacy
from

analogy
of the God

to

infer

the

parable
woman

praying
resembles
we

of

the the

importunate
'^

that

unjust judge.
attention in which
^ ^

In
to

conclusion, following
the

would from

call your

the

words

Jevons,
:

he

expresses too

gist
to

of the matter remind

It is impossible

often

people

that,

on

the

one

hand,

all correct

reasoning

consists

in

substituting
that all which
are

like what

things for
is true
to

like things^ and

one

ferring inof
semblance re-

of

will be

true

similar

it in the the

points

of

concerned other

in

matter.

On consists there
purpose

the in is of
to
we

hand,
one

all incorrect

reasoning
another where

putting
not

thing

for

the

requisite
of
to

likeness. and far

as

It is the inductive

the

rules
us

deductive

logic
when

enable
are

judge
or

as

possible

thus

rightly

wrongly
''

reasoning

from

some

things

to others.

FINIS.

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