A

TEXT-BOOK

OP

DEDUCTIVE

LOGIC.

TEXT

-BOOK

OF

DEDUCTIVE
FOE THE USE OF

LOGIC
STUDENTS.

P. K.
PROFESSOR
OF

RAY,
AND

D.Sc.
PHILOSOPHY

(LOND. AND
IN
THE

EDINB.),
PRESIDENCY

LOGIC

COLLEGE,

CALCUTTA.

FOURTH

EDITION.

Honfcon

MACMILLAN
AND NEW

AND
YOKE.

CO.

1888 [The Right of Translation

is

reserved.}

Printed

and

stereotyped

by

C.

?.

CLA

and

SON,

January,

1886.

Reprinted

March

1886.

Corrected

and

Reprinted

1887,

1888.

PEEFACE.

THE

present
An

work

has

been has

mainly
been

prepared
made doctrines
to

for

the

use

of

students. and

attempt
the work
an

explain
of with of

clearly

concisely
The and

fundamental consists of The first then down the three and three

Deductive Intro Intro and

Logic.
duction duction

Parts,

an

Appendix.
in the and

first

chapter
of
to

the

treats,
of book

place, proceeds
its

the the and

definition

province
of the

Logic,
and

special
limits.

subject
The of

lays explains
The

scope

second Deductive of

chapter Logic.

fundamental

principles
treat

parts
Deductive
a

then

successively
In is the

Terms,
on

Propositions,
Immediate

Reasoning.
full
account

chapter
of the The

Inference,
forms.

given

generally
method in this

accepted
of

demonstration

by proving
"

circles,
both
use

so

extensively
and says

employed
mediate

work,
is aid
not

for
new.

immediate of of

inferences,
"

The

circles,"
the

Ueberweg,
of

as

an

in

the in

demonstration

doctrine has been Ger-

Syllogism, by

especially
modern and have

Syllogistic

proper,

referred

logicians

(e.g.
to

by

Mass,

J. But

D.

gonne,

Bachmann,

Bolazano)
rightly

Euler.

Drobish
to

[and Hamilton]

remarked

that,

according

VI

PREFACE.

the

testimonyof Lambert,

Job. Chr.

Lange, in

his Nucleus

Christ. and that circles, Logicce Weisiannce, 1712, uses was "Weise,Rector of the Gymnasium at Zittau (d.1708), Hamilton circles in his uses probably the inventor1." Lectures
to

illustrate and rules.

"

his

demonstration

of

valid

moods

by

canons

of circles in his

Ueberweg fullyadopts the method System of Logic and History of Logical by

this method alone the various

Doctrines," and
forms In
this work the

proves

of immediate
an

and

mediate has

inference.
been

account

totelian and

Scholastic
reader

methods

given of the Aris of determining valid usually Logic.

is

moods,

so

that the

will find in it all that

in manuals of Deductive givenon this subject of deductive it is held As regardsthe nature inference, that all deductive inference is hypothetically necessary, be true if the premisses that is,that the conclusion must
"

are

true.

The
treats

chapter on Probable Reasoning and of probablepropositions and inferences.

to

is shown proposition General proposition.

originin a either universal, such are propositions "All A is B," or proportional, Nine in ten such as as B." Universal treated of in or A's are are propositions dinary Logic ; proportionalpropositionsin Probability. fail to establish universal propositions, Where we can we rules of ordinary and inferences by the canons not draw
"

have

its

Probability A probable proportional

Logic;
we

but

if

we

can

establish

propositions, proportional
with the laws

may

still draw

inferences

in accordance

and

Probability. The Appendix is partlysupplementaryto the text, and additional matter to the reader. partlysupplies
1

rules

of

Ueberweg's Logic, English Translation,p.

302.

PREFACE.

VU

special

feature
at

of

this of

work almost

is

the every

large

number
or

of im

examples
portant

given
division laws and

the
a

end

chapter,
in

of

chapter.
of

Repeated
to
concrete

practice

apply
is the
as a

ing
most

the

rules

Logic

examples regarded
this

important

part
and

of

the it of is

study
with space

of
a

Logic
view been
to

mental that
so

training; large
an

practice
to

amount

has of have

devoted and

the

exercises. of the

Most

of the of

examples

propositions,
been in have

many from in

examples

syllogisms,
and their

selected the form

well-known which from

authors,
occur

given

exactly
Some from have

they
other

in
on

writings.
and The
some

been

taken and

works

Logic, Papers.

University
been

College

Examination for this thanks for work.

rest

especially

prepared My
Dacca from

best

are

due very

to

Mr

A.

W.

Garrett, Principal,
I have On received many and his im the

College,
him in

the

valuable of this

help
work. the

the

preparation
both had
to

portant
matter

points
of the
are

connected I have due

with the

language
of

work,
also Normal

advantage
Bandhu

help.
Head

My

thanks Dacca

Mr

Jagad
and Mr

Laha,
Kant have

Master,
Assistant revised

School,

Rajoni
who

Ghose,

Master,
the

Dacca and

Collegiate School,
assisted
me

kindly

proofs,

with

their

suggestions.

DACCA

COLLEGE, September,
1883.

PREFACE

TO

THE

SECOND

EDITION.

THIS and

edition additions

has have The

been been

carefully revised;
made
on

and

alterations

wherever

they
of

appeared

desirable. and the

chapter
of

"The

Theory
has

Predication
in of

Import
The

Propositions"
"

been,
Kinds

part,
Terms

re

written. has
"

chapter
to

on

The

Various

"

been

subjected
and

careful of

revision.

Appendix
as

E,
as

The

Nature foot-notes

Province and

Objective
have been and
some

Logic,"
added. additions
of whom

well I
are

some

references

ought
due have

to to

add the

that

some

of these
of my

alterations
to

criticism in the

reviewers,
of the

referred

body

Work.

DACCA

COLLEGE,
November

29, 1885.

THIRD

EDITION.

IN

this

edition,some
foot-notes
as

alterations
well
as

and text.

additions

have

been

made

in the

in

the

PKESIDENCY

COLLEGE,

CALCUTTA.

CONTENTS,

INTRODUCTION.

CHAPTER
The

I.
and

V
of Logic.
PAGE

Definition,
from

Province,
the Point Point

Parts

" 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.
-

Logic
From From The

defined the the third

Subjective
of
of

Point

of

View
.

1
.

Objective
Linguistic
not

View View
.

6 ..,.'.
7

tenable the

by itself
first
of

Hamilton Mill in

adopts
his the
"

8 Hamilton's
; and

6.

Examination
a

Philosophy,"
in but

adopts
he in 7.
8. 9.

first with the

qualification
of

his the

"Logic"
second 9

adopts reality

phraseology
.

the

third,
.

"

Spencer
The The The The View

adopts

the

second in this
to

10 work
.

adopted
of

:
" . . .

10 11
. . .

Eelation
End

Logic

other

Sciences
.

10. 11. 12.

and
of

Province

of

Logic
.
t

12
.

..

Parts

Logic
. .

1 i 15
. .

Deductive

Logic

"
.

"

CHAPTER

II.

The

Fundamental

Principles Identity
Contradiction Excluded Middle

of Deductive
"

Logic.
."

" 1.
2.

The The The

Principle Principle Principle

of
of

16

17
... . .

3.

of

17

CONTENTS.

PAGE

" 4.
5.

A Postulate

of

Logic

.......

20 20 22

Mill,Hamilton, and
Other

Ueberweg

6.

Principles

PART

I" CHAPTER

TERMS.
I.

The

Various

Divisions and

of

Terms.

" 1.

Name,
Tabular The

Concept, Conception,
View of various of Terms

Term

defined.
.

A
24
.

Divisions into

of Terms

2.

first division

Single-worded and
27 and Col
28

Many- worded
3.

The

second

division

into

Singular,General,
and Concrete

lective
4. 5. 6.

The The The The

third division fourth division

into Abstract into

30

and Privative Positive, Negative, and Absolute and

. .

36
36

fifth division into Correlative sixth division into Terms

of the various

7.

Connotative

Non-connota36

tive.
8.

The

Ambiguous Basis Objective

Divisions

of Terms

41
.

9.

Exercises

42

CHAPTER
The Denotation and

II.
and
a

Connotation,Division
and between Connotation of

of Terms. Definition,
defined Connotation 47
.

" 1.
2.

The The of

Denotation Eelation
a

Term and

46

the Denotation

Term the Relation and of Terms

3. 4.

The

Explanation of
on

by Diagrams
...

48 50 51 54

Exercises The Mutual

Denotation Relations

Connotation

5.

Exercises

6.
"**

The The

Definition Rules

and

Division

of Terms

....

54
55

7.

of Definition

Exercises
V

57 of Division
. .

8.

The

Rules

58

Exercises

62

CONTENTS.

XI

PART

II." PROPOSITIONS.
CHAPTER
I.

The

and Definition

Divisions

of Propositions.
PAGK :

"

1.

defined. Proposition

Its essential elements the

the Sub of 63

ject,the Judgment
2.
3. A

Predicate, and
View of various into

Copula.
of

Definition

Tabular

Divisions

Propositions

66

The

first division

and Conditional,ac Categorical 67

.

cording to Relation
4. The second division

into Affirmative

and

Negative,ac
70
Pro
. .

cording to Quality
5.

The

third division

into

blematic, according to
6. The fourth division into

and Necessary,Assertory, Modality

. .

71

Universal

and

Particular,ac
73

cording to Quantity
7. The
to 8.

Four

Forms Prepositional

A, E, I,and 0, according
75

Quality and Quantity

Mutual

The of

Relations

of A, E,

I, and

0,

or

Opposition
77

Propositions
fifth division into

9.

The
or

Analyticor Verbal, and Synthetic

79

Real, according to Import

Five Predicables: and
"

10.

The

Genus,
......

Species, Differentia,
80
...

Proprium,
11.

Accidens
on

Miscellaneous

Exercises

Propositions

86

CHAPTER
The

II.
the

Theory of Predication
of the

and

Import of Propositions.
93

" 1.
2.

Statement Dr James

Question
View

Martineau's View View

93 95 96 96
....

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Hamilton's Mansel's

Ueberweg's View
Mill Mill Mill
on
on

the

Import of Propositions

97
97

Hobbes's

Theory
or

on

the Denotative

Class

Theory

...

98

Xll

CONTENTS.

PAGE

"

9.

Mill

on

Hamilton's

Equational View

and

the Doctrine
...

of the
10.

Quantificationof the Predicate

View
on

98 101

Mill's
A

own

11.
12.

few Eemarks

Mill's View Views into

104

Classification

of the various

(1)Predicative,
106

(2) Denotative, (3) Connotative, (4) Denotative-Connotative

CHAPTER
The

III.

Meaning
The The The The

and

Representation of A, E, I, 0, by Diagrams.
and of Eepresentation of Kepresentation of Eepresentation A
E
. . .

"1.
2. 3. 4.

Meaning

....

Ill
.

Meaning and Meaning and

112 113

I
....
.

Meaning and Eepresentation of 0

114
. .

5. 6.

Eecapitulation
Exercises

115 116

PART

III."

REASONING
CHAPTER

OR I.
or

INFERENCE.

The

Different Kinds

of Eeasoninrj

Inference, with
118

Examples
CHAPTER II.

Of Immediate
" 1.
Immediate
Two kinds Inference defined

Inferences.
124
: a a

of Immediate

Inference from

(1) Immediate (2) Immediate

Different
2. 3.

Inference Inference of

Term.

from

Proposition.
125
.

forms

(2)are

"

I. II. III. IV. V.

Conversion Permutation or Obversion, .ZEquipollence,

.

129

4. 5.

Contraposition
Subalternatiou

..

.132 .135
.

6.

Opposition

..'-.-..

136

CONTENTS.

Xlll

PAGE

" 7.
8.

VI. VII.

Modal

Consequence
of Immediate

140 141

Change of Eelation
Forms Inference
.

9. 10.

Additional

146
.

Miscellaneous

Exercises

148

CHAPTEE

III.

Of Syllogisms.
" 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

6.

Syllogismdefined. Its essential characters Of CategoricalSyllogisms of Testing by Diagrams : the two Axioms The Method Kules The General Syllogistic The Division of Categorical Syllogismsinto Figures each The Subdivision of Categorical Syllogisms in
.

151
152

153

155
.

164

Figure
7. The

into

Moods of
.

167 the Valid Moods in the First 168 of the

,

Determination
.

Figure
8.

The

Determination
...

Valid

Moods

in the

Second

Figure
9. The

172
Valid Moods in the Third 175

Determination

of the

Figure
10.

The

Determination
..""*....

of the

Valid

Moods

in the Fourth 176

Figure
11.

Questionsand

Exercises

"

"

177

CHAPTER
The Aristotelian
and

IV.
Methods

the Scholastic Valid

of Determining

Moods.
et nullo
....

" 1.
2.

Aristotle's Dictum The Valid Moods

de omni

180

in the First

Figure determined
and

by the
181
181

Dictum
3.

Aristotle's Distinction Reduction Perfect

of

of Perfect in the

Imperfect Figures

4.

Moods

Imperfect Figures to the

.

182

5.

Ostensive Indirect

or

Direct Reduction
or

183 per deductionem

ad

6.

Reduction,

Reductio

impossible
7.
Exercises
. ,
.

187
" . , ,

100

XIV

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
The Various Kinds Divisions and

V.

of Syllogisms.
PAGE

"

1.

The The

various

Kinds

or

of

Syllogisms Syllogisms

192

Subdivisions

of Pure

Mixed

193

2.

I." Of Pure i.
"

: Syllogisms

Categorical

193 193

ii.
"

Hypothetical
Syllogisms :
....

3.

II." Of Mixed i.
"

4.
5.

ii.
"

iii.
"

Hypothetical-categorical Disjunctive-categorical the or Conjunctive-disjunctive,

....

195
200

Dilemma

202

6. 7.
8.

Exercises

-f

207 209
210

OfEnthymemes
Exercises

CHAPTEE

VI.

Of
"
1.

Trains

of Syllogistic Reasoning.
Ana
215

Train

of

or Syllogistic Eeasoning, Synthetical

2.

lytical The Synthetical and

ductive

the

Analytical Method

in

De 216

Logic

3.

4.
5.

Epicheirema, or Abridged Trains of Syllo gistic Eeasoning with Analyses SymbolicalExamples of Sorites,
Sorites and
. .

217
221 223

Questionsand

Exercises

CHAPTER

VII.

Of
" 1.
I." A A A General Tabular Tabular Fallacies A Tabular
2. II. A.
" "

Fallacies. 225 Fallacies

. . .

Outline View of Inferential of

225

View
........

Non-Inferential

but

Logical
226 Fallacies 227 227

View

of

Non-Logical or Logic

Material

Fallacies in Deductive

LogicalFallacies.
"

1.

Inferential.

(1)
"

Fallacies

of Immediate

Inference

228

CONTENTS.

XV

PAGE

"

3. 2. 4. 5. B. 6. 7.
8.
" "

(2) Fallacies
"

of

Inference Syllogistic

229

Non-Inferential.

(1) Semi-logicalFallacies
"

.231
233

(2) Fallacies
"

or

Faults

of Definition Fallacies.

and Division

Non-Logical or

Material

(1)" Petitio Pnncipii (2)" Falsityof Premiss (3) Ignoratio

"

234 236 238

Elenchi of

9.

(4) The
"

Fallacies

Many

Questions and

Non240

Sequitur
10.
Exercises
:
"

Directions
.
.

for
.

Arguments testing
'

241 242

Examples

CHAPTER
The Functions View
and Value

VIII.

of

the

Syllogism.
Value of the

I." Mill's

of the

Functions

and

Syllogism :
"
1.

The

Syllogism as
Syllogism as
Criticism

Test

of

Reasoning, and
....

as

an

In 250

of General terpreter

2.

The

Propositions a petitio involving princ ipii

:

252

II."

of Mill's View between

of

3.

The and

Distinction the

the

Psychology

of

Reasoning
254
254

Logic

Reasoning
to Mill's View Morgan's Objections

4. 5.

Dr Martineau's The

and De

hypothetically necessary
. .
.

character
...

of all Deductive
. .
.

Inference

259

CHAPTER
Probable

IX.
and

Reasoning
the

Probability.
of the Premisses
.

"

1.

Syllogisms accordingto
The The The

Modality
in

261
261

2.
3. 4.

Meaning of
Rules Rules
of

Probable

Proposition
Inference in
....

...

of Immediate

Inference

Probability
.

264

Mediate

Probability:
.

"

(1)Formal
6. 6.

and Rules

(2)Experimental
of Mediate Rules
.

265 265 269 272

The The

Formal

Inference

":".

Experimental
.

of Mediate
.

Inference
. .

7.

Exercises

......

XVI

CONTEXTS.

APPENDIX.
t

PAGE

A.

"

The

Canons

or

Axioms

of

the

Syllogism according to
so-called

Logicians : " 1.
Lambert's
gures
:
"

Canons His

for the

vindication

of their First

Imperfect Fi independence of,

. . .

and 2.
3.

with, the equality

Canons

Figure

274 278 279 279

Thomson's

Whately's Canons
Hamilton's Martineau's Canons Canons
on

4.
5.

the Predicative

View

of Pro

positions
6. Mill's Canons
on

281 the Connotative View of Pro 282 285

positions
B. C.
"

The Note

Dilemma Mixed of

accordingto Logicians

....

"

on

"c. Syllogisms (orHypotheticalSyllogisms, Inferences regardedas Immediate Logicians),

.

288

D. \f/

"

Note

on

the Reduction

of Inductive

Reasoning

to the

Syl296

V
E.
"

Form logistic The Nature and Province View

:
"

of

Logic : Objective
distinction of

" 1.
2.

Hamilton's

His

Subjective
302 of
302

Logic
Mill's

and

View

Logic Objective Two : phases

"

of

his

conception

Logic
3.

Spencer's View
of

"

His

distinction of Logic and

the

Theory Reasoning. Logic, like Mathematics, is an Objective Science,while the Theory of Rea Science soning is a Subjective
....

303

NOTE. Criticism 4. Lewes's

Mr of
"

Carveth

Read's

View,
of

Dr

Venn's 306

Spencer'sView
His distinction the different identification
. . .

View:

5.

meanings of the word Logic and his of Objective Logic and Metaphysics Summary

307
310

DEFINITION,
no

PROVINCE,

[iNTROD.
in accordance with

thought
The

is valid word

unless

it is conducted used

In three senses. in, at least, it means the widest mental state or phenomenon, sense any of knowing,, whether it or sense willing. In a narrower feeling, of perception, act or product of knowledge,whether means an imagination,"c. As used in logic, thought inference, memory, the process, and the product of sometimes sometimes means it stands for conception, or comparison : in the former sense judgment, or reasoning; and in the latter sense, it is a concept, a or a judgment, or reasoning. Logic treats of these processes

them.

thoughtis

and
must

and products, conform A

lays down

the

laws

and

rules to which

they

in order that

they may

be valid.

individual concept is the productof comparing two or more thingswith a view to find out the attribute or the attributes in that is, which they all agree. as a thought, Eegarded subjectively,
it is
an

idea

or

of attributes

to an corresponding possessed in common by a

' '

notion

attribute number idea

or

collection

of individual

things.
to those

For

example, the concept

are
*

man

is an
men
'

attributes in which attributes

'

all individual

corresponding Suppose agree.

the
two

that those

animality and
or

'

then rationality,' these

concept

'

man

is the idea

notion
*

correspondingto
'

the concept triangle is the idea or notion Similarly, to the attribute of being bounded by three lines,' corresponding is the possessedin common by all triangles ; the concept horse idea or notion corresponding to the collection of attributes in

attributes.

'

'

'

which

all horses

agree

; the

concept
or
l

'

animal

'

is the idea

or

notion

to corresponding

the attribute

attributes
'

in possessed

common

by

all animals

; the

concept

metal

is the notion is found

corresponding

to the collection of attributes which

in all metals.

A view

judgment
to affirm
or

is the

productof comparing two conceptswith a deny one of them of the other. Kegarded sub
a a

that is, as jectively, certain relation

of thought,it is a mental recognition according to some (agreement or disagreement,

notions between two or concepts. In the judgment logicians) and for example, there are two concepts, man is mortal,' man of a certain relation (agreeand there is a recognition mortal,'
' ' ' '

CHAP.

I.]
between

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

is perfect,' judgment 'no man there are two concepts, man of and a recognition and perfect,' in certain relation (disagreement) between them. a Similarly, the judgments 'all metals are 'all sensations are feel elements,' 'all material bodies are ings,' gravitates,' extended,''matter there are two and a recognition of a certain relation concepts,

ment)

them.

In

the
'

'

'

between

them. that
our

judgment does not include any concepts or judgments that are intuitive, or that is, not the result of experience, as they are called d priori, but due to the very nature,constitution, forms of the or original mind. defined above,does not inquireinto the truth as Logic, of these d prioriconceptsand judgments, the existence or falsity of which is affirmed by some It does not and denied by others. lay down the conditions to which these must conform in order that they may be true. It treats of the principles and conditions
concept
or

It is evident

definition of

of

to

which

those

concepts and
conform

judgments
that

which

are

products of
be free from

comparison must
error

in order

they may
two
or

and A

self-contradiction.
is the

reasoning
a

product of comparing
which It is the of recognition

more

judg
in
or

ments, with
warranted
two
or more

view them.

to arrive at another

is contained
a

by

relation between

judgments,or the establishment of a relation between two concepts, of a third. In the reasoning "All men by means are are men fallible, philosophersare philosophers ; therefore there are the three concepts, philosophers,' fallible," man,' and and a relation between the first and the last is estab fallible,'
' ' '

lished the

by

means

of the
a

second.

In

the

first judgment, there is the

two

concepts 'man' and fallible.' In the second, between philosophersand man.' In the third, between the result as philosophers and fallible,' of a comparison between the first two judgments. In the sim that is, in immediate a judg plestform of reasoning, inference, is inferred from ment another judgment, while in the most for instance, complex form, in induction, a judgment is the result of the comparison of a number of judgments. In the inference
' ' ' ' ' ' '

of recognition

relation

between

1"2

4
"All
men are

DEFINITION,

PROVINCE,
no man

[iNTROD.
an

mortal,therefore

is
"

example of

the former.

In the inference

immortal,"we have John is dead, James

is

of past ages have died ; therefore, all men now dead,all men living will die,or all men have an example of the latter. are we mortal," that is, in as something existing " 2. Kegarded objectively,

things

or

a objects, concept

is

an

attribute

or

collection
or

of

attributes

in which

number

of individual

things
viewed

agree1. For example, the concept 'man' that is,as something existing in men, is
tributes in which all individual
men

objects objectively,
at
con

the

aggregate of

agree. of

the Similarly,

is objectively the cept 'triangle'

1

attribute
Mr

'beingbounded

by
in

With

reference to this passage,

this work Keynes, reviewing that it "involves

a

Mind
of
to

for October, 1884, has

remarked and

confusion
to

phraseologyif nothing more,"

the student author
a

that "it is calculated which it is

suggest

metaphysical doctrine
himself holds." is
a

hardly probable
no

that of

the

There

is,I maintain,
in the

confusion word

phraseology;but
Logic is
an

there

change

concept necessitated
If

by

change in the
considered in that

meaning meaning of the

most
as

of the
term

Logic.
of

science objective

"formulating the

general laws
must

correlation
term

among

existences

and objective," be

if the
some

concept is to be retained

a concept science,

in thingsor objects. The concept,like the science itself, thing existing

must must

be be

objective;and what
an

is

an

concept? objective
in which

I hold
a

that

it of

attribute

or

collection of attributes Nor is the

number

individual

things agree.
great
as

change in the meaning

of the word
a

concept
"

so

I have

admitted.

Mansel, for instance, defines

collection of attributes united by a sign,and represent concept "jas_a ing a possibleobjectof intuition." The second charge brought against the passage is that "it is calculated it is
to

suggest to the student

the writer

meta

doctrine physical holds."

hardly probable that that the metaphysical doctrine here alluded to is the Hegelian doctrine of the Identityof Thought and Being or of by that passage, Logic and Metaphysics. If this doctrine is suggested this is not due to any accident but to great correspondenceor re semblance between the Logic of Hegel and the ObjectiveLogic of and Province The Nature of English Logicians. See Appendix E, Logic." Objective
I suppose
"

which

himself

CHAP.

I.]

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

5
collection Thus
of

three

the concept lines'; in which

'flower' the

attribute

or

attributes

all individual

flowers

agree.

eyery"

attribute or a collection o"_attributes, an concept is objectively idea or notion correspondingto that attribute and sv.ljectii'ely an
or

collection of attributes.
^

\ is, according to some judgment, regarded objectively, attributes ; according to others, two relation between a writers, two relation between a things; and according to others again, relation between a a thing and an attribute. For example, the

judgment 'all men variouslyconsidered

and tality' the

are as

has mortal,' objectively regarded,

a

been
'mor

relation

between

the

attribute

the between 'humanity,' and of things 'all men' two 'mortal,'and between groups and the attribute 'mortality'; the group of things 'all men' is affirmed of in that judgment the attribute 'mortality' that is, of things called 'mortal' the attribute 'humanity,' or, the group is affirmed of the group of things called 'man,'or, the attribute In of things called 'man.5 is affirmed of the group 'mortality' relation is expressed the judgment 'all metals a are elements,' between the collections of attributes, two namely, those of of things, between two metal,'and of element groups ; or "c. and Similarly,every judg 'elements,' namely, 'metals,' denial of a cer affirmation is an or regarded, ment, objectively tain relation between things and attributes. A reasoning, regarded,is the establishment of a objectively of a third, relation between two things or attributes by means two things or attributes or, the inference of a relation between from one more or given relations of things and attributes. For are example, in the reasoning"All men mortal,kings are men; kings are mortal," a relation between 'kings' and therefore, 'mortal' is inferred from two things, given relations between 'men' and 'mortal' expressed namely, (1) a relation between in the first judgment, and 'kings'and (2) a relation between 'men' expressed in the second judgment. Similarly, in all rea regarded,a relation universal or particular sonings,objectively between two a thing and an things or attributes or between collection of attributes
' ' '

6
attribute and

DEFINITION,
is inferred from
one or

PROVINCE,
more

[iNTROD.
of

given relations
between

things

attributes.
From this direct and close connexion

thought,and things and attributes, concepts, judgments, rea or, between the one relations of attributes on sonings, hand, and attributes, and things, and inferences, the other,Logic may be regarded on (from the objective point of view) as the science of the most universal relations and correlations of things and attributes, that is,the science of the principlesand laws to which we must conform in order that a relation established by comparison of things and inferred from or one or more attributes, given relations between them, may be true. in language by a singleword, " 3. A concept is .expressed of words, called a term or name. For example, or a combination the concept 'man,' or, the aggregate of attributes in which all
men

agree

as

well

as

the

idea

or

notion

or signified expressed by the word man. that is,both 'flower,' 'animal,' 'horse,'

is to it, .corresponding The concepts 'metal,' the

correspondingto those words, respectively. the combinations of words Similarly, 'round table,' 'red flower,' 'good man,' 'elementary substance,' or names are symbols for certain concepts. in languagein the form of a sentence, A judgment is expressed above called Eor example,the judgment explained a proposition. the two concepts 'man' and 'mor .a relation between "s expressing tal' is expressedin the sentence 'man is mortal.' A reasoningis sentences in language in a series of connected an called, expressed a rela argument. The reasoningexplainedabove as establishing the two and 'fallible' by tion between concepts 'philosopher' of a third concept 'man' is expressedin the argument means "All men are philo fallible, philosophersare men.; therefore, sophersare fallible." between the direct and close connexion From thought and language, between concepts, judgments and reasonings on the and one hand, and words and sentences, or names, propositions arguments on the other,Logic has been regardedas conversant
butes

and

the

ideas

aggregatesof attri them, are expressedby

J
CHAP.

I.]

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

the science of the use of names, propositions, as language, and rules to the science of the principles and arguments,that is, be rightand free in order that we conform which we must may about from and self-contradiction in fallacy and arguments. sitions, Logic has been thus denned from view. the
use

of names,

propo

three

distinct

points of
from from the the

Tfre first definition

we

have

or subjective point of psychological

given above is view, the second

or

pointof view,and objective

point of view.
These

the third

last from also the

the linguistic relations of

definitions

reveal

Logic to
or

the other sciences of these three

other

accordingas it is regarded from one it among stand-points.The first places

it dependent upon the

the mental

and makes sciences, second

psychology

of cognition.The and makes

it the most laws which

sciences, placesit among the objective of all sciences, of those general treating
are

and principles

phenomena and both mental and material. The third placesit among things, and makes it dependent the linguistic or sciences, philological and languagegenerally.On the first view,Logic upon grammar treats of the processes and products of conception, judgment, and reasoning. On the second, it treats of the most universal that is, of the most relations and correlations of things, general of their fundamental and of relations relations, aspectsof things, relations ; on the third, that is, between it treats of language, of the use of names, propositions and arguments, or rather of words
true equally

of all

and

sentences.

have adopted one or other of these views logicians A philosopher of mind will to the exclusion of the other two. naturally adopt the first view and its appropriate phraseology. scientific man will adopt the second A and its appropriate with a a practicalman, phraseology knowledge of ; while mental well as of physicalscience, will try to as philosophy combine_the first or the third with the second. He will adopt' the phraseology of either of the former, but constantly refer to the second for its real meaning, signification, or import. The third view cannot be held by itself, and though Whately really

"

4.

Most

N/
DEFINITION,
seems

PROVINCE,

[iNTROD.
parts is,that

to have
""

maintained

it from what what he

he says in many

meant really Logic does not treat of reasoningapart from, but only as ex pressed in,language. "If any process of reasoning," says he, "can take place in the mind without any employment of lan

of his

nevertheless Elements'^,

such a process does not come or within mentally, guage, orally the province of the science here treated of 2." Whately really of adopted the subject-matter of the third. This phraseology nition of the first

view, and
from

only

the

is also evident also

as

his defi-;

/ reasoning.' adopts the first view, and defines Logic as " 5. Hamilton the science of the laws of thought as thought,or the science of the formal laws of thought, the science of the laws of the form or that is,as the science of those universal laws or of thought3," to which thought must conform in order that its pro principles be valid. ducts,viz., concepts,judgments, and reasonings, may the word valid to mean free from inconsistency /Hamilton uses and by laws of thought he means" onlythe o^seLF-contradictjon, fundamental of consistency, that is (1)the Principle principles of Identity, of Contradiction, and (3)the Prin(2)the Principle that A is A, that a cipleof Excluded Middle. The first means thing is what it is,that while 'A* is 'A,'it cannot be anything be both B and not-B,at else. The second means that A cannot and in the same the same place, time,in the same respect. If

Logic 'as

the science and

the art of

"

the
1

A' proposition

'

is 'B'

be

"A true, then the proposition

is

conversant Whately writes,for example: "Logic is entirely about language." Again, "It (Logic) therefore (when regarded as is, the the for art of employing language properly an art), purpose of and truly what is properly an reasoningand of distinguishing argu from imitations of it." Elements, 9th Edition, ment spurious p. 37. 2 Whately'sElements,9th Edition,p. 37.
" "

Lectures,Vol.
defines

in.

pp.

25, 26.
'the

See also pp. science

4, 17, 24.
the

On

p. 24 of

Hamilton

Logic

as

of the necessary

forms

and thought,'

afterwards
text.

given in the
form of

this definition into developes By 'thoughtas thought' Hamilton

expression
'the

means

thoughtto

the exclusion of the matter'

(p.15).

10

DEFINITION,
'

PROVINCE,

[iNTROD.

be a concept of something of tilings.' A concept must reality to real,and must agree with the real fact which it endeavours represent,that is, the collection of attributes composing the exist in the objects marked concept must really by the classbe a true judgment, that is, the A judgment must name.' objects judged of must really possess the attributes predicated
'

of them.' In the

reasoning

must

conduct thus

to

true

conclusion1.' the

work

referred

to Mill

adopts really

subjectnoticed

second matter_o"the The above

view, and jmly the phraseology of the first.

introduced qualification has

by

him

into the firstview

as

the effect of changing it into the second2. really of the In his System of Logic Mill adopts the phraseology third view,but always refers to the second for the real import or

meaning
holds be what

of his names,

the second it is

and arguments. He, in fact, propositions, view, and takes the subject-matterof Logic to that

of view, though in his treatment the phraseologyof the third2. the science he freely uses " 7. Herbert Spencer adopts the second view, and defines formulates the most generallaws of Logic as the science which

accordingto

"

correlation science nexions other

the as objective," certain con which "contemplates in its propositions involved with certain which are predicated, necessarily among existences
as

considered

connexions the Non

in isting
we

given ; regarding all these not it may be, under ego

"

connexions the form

as

ex

in which

know

them,
We

but in

some

form3." ourselves
to any

"
But

8.

shall not

confine

of these

views.

or immediately concerned with regardingLogic as primarily to an end,with language as a means or thought,and, secondarily, with attributes and ultimately in which thought is expressed, and things,mental or material,real or imaginary, the objectshall freely of all thought,we matter adopt the phraseologyof desirable for purposes this seems of any or all of them, whenever and illustration. explanation
1 2 3

Mill's Examination See

of Hamilton's

4th Philosophy,

ed. pp.

564,470.

Appendix

E.
n.

2nd ed. Vol. Spencer'sPrinciplesof Psychology,

p. 87.

CHAP.

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

11
sciences is shown in

the

" 9. The relation of Logic to tabular views : following

"

the

other

I.

LOGIC. MATHEMATICS.

J
Material Sciences.
Mental Sciences.

Physics. Chemistry. Geology. Botany. Zoology.

Psychology. Logic as a Mental

Science. ^Esthetics. Ethics.

Religion.

Anthropology.
II.

Logic.
Mathematics.

Physics. Chemistry. Geology.

Biology

C Botany. \ Zoology. Logic as a

/

Practical Science.

Psychology Sociology.
In the
V

./Esthetics.
1 Ethics.

Eeligion.
mental and the

first table the two

material
and

sciences

are arc

placed in

and separate series,

Logic

Mathematics

12

DEFINITION,

PROVINCE,

[iNTROD.
to equallyapplicable placed above Mathe

placed above
the sciences

both,as
in the

their
two

are principles

series.

matics,as
its
"

it is the

most

Logic is general and abstract

Mathematics

of all
as

as sciences, as

are principles

to applicable

well

to

the

other sciences. In the

second

table

the

same

relation
next

is shown The

by placing
other sciences

Logic at
are more more

the

top,and

Mathematics

to it.
one

the arranged in order of generality, generalthan the one lying below. the latter more than Physics, general
so

lying above
Mathematics

being
is

Thus

generalthan

Chemis Science in the

try,and
second
i

forth.

The the

dependent upon
table. The far
as

Logic as a Practical Psychology of Cognition is shown

relation of

"
truth

10.
so

end

of

Logic as denned
be obtained

here

is the attainment

of the

truth

can

that is, by thinking, by

processes

generalization, classification, naming, definition, by supplied "c.,employed upon the data,or materials, inference, Some intuition. direct observation, experiment, perception,or logicians (Ueberweg, for example) have indeed made all truth
of the end of

Logic,and
human

defined it

as

"

the science of the

of all knowledge1,"that is, and mediate. immediate intuitive and inferential, But, following I have defined Logic so as to the British Logicians in general, exclude intuitive truth from its scope and province. According a to Ueberweg, perceptionand part of percepts are as much while all British judgment, and reasoning, Logic as conception, other points, be on their differences may Logicians,whatever of principles agree diction
,i

regulative knowledgeboth

in

excluding intuition of Logic2.

is the

and

intuitive truth from

the

juris
is said

Truth

agreement

of

thought with
is real when either

its the

and object,
mental.

|fto be either formal or real. It exists, is something actually

"

objectof thought
or

material

It is

1 2

Ueberweg's Logic, English Translation,p.

See

1.

Ueberweg's Logic, pp. 1, 17, 77, 78

; and

Mill's

Logic,Vol.

i.

pp. 5,

6, 8.

CHAP.

I.]
when the from

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

13

formal
what

whether object,

actuallyexistingor

not, is

simply free
Material

The latter is the end of any self-contradiction. is called Formal Logic, and the former of what is called

Logic. In Formal Logic, the concepts,judgments, and reasonings to the It is sufficient if they conform need not be really true. laws of thought,as they of consistency fundamental or principles
are

and called,

be

free from

any

inner

contradiction

or

incon

sistency. In Material Logic,also called by Mill the Logic of and correspond to the realities Truth, they must be true or right, but also be valid not only formally, actually existing ; they must be free not only from really ; they must any self-contradiction, that is, but also from any inconsistency with reality, a concept
must

be

an

attribute

or

collection of attributes

exist actually

between true concepts, two a judgment, a relation ing in things, and a reasoningmust lead to a conclusion that agrees with fact. of truth in The end of Material Logic is thus the attainment while the end the stricter and proper sense, that is, of real truth, selffrom of Formal Logic is merely consistencyor freedom contradiction.

Logic,and also the Logic of definition of Logic, as given above, is Consistency. Hamilton's a definition of Formal Logic,while Mill's and Spencer'sare defi
Formal

Logic is often

called Pure

with Logic. In the latter we are concerned and arguments that have reference to actual terms, propositions, while in the former we concerned not with what are existences, is actual,but with what is possible, is real in not with what Nature, but with what may be realized in Thought. Formal nitions of Material

Logic includes or reasonings,

does not The

in its all

sphere all possible judgments, and notions, and and their relations, possibleattributes,
is actual
or

confine itself to what definition which that of Formal

to
mean we or

real in Nature. the

have

given at

beginningof

this

chapter is
word

of Material
mere

valid is taken

or consistency, means

agreement with
or

merelyformally valid

Logic accordingas the of conformity to the principles that is,according as it reality, and If the true. really _valid

14

DEFINITION,

PROVINCE,

[iNTROD.

'

products of comparison, namely, concepts, judgments,and rea are things required to agree with the actually existing sonings, the and phenomena, then our definition becomes definition of the contrary, Material Logic. If, on they are required simply to then our the definition becomes be free from self-contradiction, definition of Formal Logic. of three parts, regardedas consisting " 11. Logicis usually of the process and products of conception; the first part treating
"

the

of reasoning or inference. second,of judgment; and the third, be added To these three parts may a fourth,namely, Method, of a series of reasonings of the arrangement or disposing treating
an

in of

essay

or

discourse.
a

Method

has

been

defined for

as

"

the art

well disposing when

we are

series of many

thoughts,either
for there
are

discovering
others when of

truth it is
one

or ignorantof it,
"

provingit to
two

alreadyknown."

Thus

kinds

Method,
of
we

for

discovering truth,which
which other may for
; and

is called also

or analysis,

the method method when

of

and resolution^ the

be termed
to

the others

invention have

it explaining
or synthesis,

found

which it, which may

is called

the method

of compo

and sition,
"

be 'also called the method Professor

a

of doctrine1."
"

Without of under

stepping," says
conceived
name
as

bounds
ment

Logic
the'

formal
or

Robertson, beyond the a fourth depart doctrine,

be added to disposing may the three departments regularly assigned conceiving (simple reasoning; and this would consider how judging, apprehension), when employed continuouslyupon any matter what reasonings, effect upon be set forth to produce their combined ever, should of mere is formal,beingone The question' the mind. exposition, of method
"

and

concerns

the teacher

in relation to the learner.

How

should

attained by results, of a learner 1 Upon

were

continuous
a

line

be set before the mind reasoning, the course representing by which they

wrought out, or always in the fixed order of follow actually preliminaryassent is ing from express principlesto which all teaching becomes and synthetic, required? If the latter,
1

Professor

Baynes' Port Royal Logic, pp.

308"9.

J
CHAP.

I.]
a

AND

PARTS

OF

LOGIC.

15

to conclusions, even progressiveroute from principles when made discovery(supposing discovery foregone) was by of to principles, which analysisor regression expositorymethod
no

follows

better illustration could

demonstration said that the

be

given than
'Elements.'

the On

practiceof
the other

Euclid
it

in the may which be

of his

hand,

line of any

the

truth

about
same

discovery is itself the line upon best be expounded or question can

that
was

understood

for the

reason

found

successful

in

has before (now of the learner) it something quite definite and to start from ; upon specific which of exposition should be analytic or view, the method to principles, the discovery took at least wherever regressive The that route. is blending of both methods, when possible, doubtless
stances
"

namely, discovery,

that

the

mind

most

effective ; otherwise

it

depends

upon

circum

the character of the learner, but chiefly of the subject in respect of complexity, which ferred, when one alone is followed1."
"

also the nature should be

pre

"

12.

identical

Deductive Logic is regarded logicians By_ some Logic ; brothers _sts a part of Material with_JFonnal_

/is

itself with it does not directly concern Logic. According to all, the real truth or falsity of its data,but with their formal correct freedom from inconsistency, and with the legitimacyof ness or the results from them. In this work it is proposed to treat of the the

followingsubjects:
"

The

fundamental

the principles;

name,

concept, the

term

and

its divisions ;

extension,comprehension; the their divisions; the predicables;the theory of predicationand the import of propositions; division; inference,rea definition, inference and its divisions ; soning and their divisions ; immediate its divisions, the syllogism, its canons, its its rules,its figures, moods, its function and value; reduction; fallacies;probable reasoningand probability.
1

connotation, denotation, the judgment, and proposition,

Vol. Encyclopedia Britannica, 9th edition,

i.

p. 797.

CHAPTER

II.

THE

FUNDAMENTAL

PRINCIPLES

OF

DEDUCTIVE

LOGIC.

"
to

1.

THERE

is

great

difference
name,

of

opinion
and

among in
a

logicians
Treatise

as

the

nature,
of what

number,
we

origin,
called be

place

on

Logic,
Deductive

have

here may

the

fundamental
as

principles
:
"

of

Logic.
"A
to

They
"A

stated is what is what

follows is." it

(1) equal
the

is

A."

thing thing
of in
must

it

"Every
This
means

thing
is

is

itself."
or

"Every
Axiom
we

is."

called the
un

Principle
with
;

Identity.
Deductive 'abide
or

It

really
Logic,

that remain

data,
altered

which

start
we

must

that, by
If
a we

them have

in

all

our

deductions
a

and

reasonings.
possesses have in used that

granted
we

assumed

that admit
must

certain that
;

thing
if
use we

certain
a

attribute,
in
or a

must

always
we

term

certain notice and

meaning,
when their any

always
is

it In
are

meaning, Logic
to

give

change
or

made.

Deductive

things

attributes,
and of the the
same

thoughts, thing
attributes. have

supposed always
nature,
which
no

be

unalterably
as

fixed;

same

must

be
no

regarded doubt,
did
not
a

possessed

In

thing

may possess;

change
but It

and Deductive
on

attributes

it

originally
such

Logic
the

takes

cognizance
all

of

changes.
their relations

assumes,
are
as

contrary,
fixed and

that

things
as

and
are

absolutely
of

permanent Figures.
unalterable
Deductive that

the

properties
or

and axiom
nature

relations of of

Geometrical
this in

And
or

the

principle

identity things, thing

what

expresses

absolutely

fixed that be

postulated
is what it it

Logic,
cannot

by

stating
and

"Every
other than

is,"
can

is, it

change

is, nor

18
be false, at the
If the
term term

FUNDAMENTAL

PEINCIPLES

OF

[iNTROD.

same

time,of
not true true

one

and

the

same

individual thing.

B
must

be

of the

individual

thing A,
not-B

then
true

the of

not-B

be

of it ; if the term In other

be not

words, two contradictory both be false;taking A as before to mean and the same individual thing, and using the term B in the one in both, the two sense same propositions'A is B5 and 'A is not-B' and cannot both be false; if one are contradictory be false, the other be true; that is,if the proposition must 'A is B' be false, then the proposition'A is not-BJ must be be true. then 'A is B' must true, and if 'A is not-B' be false, For example, the two and 'a leaf 'a leaf is green,' propositions, is not-green,' both be false;a leaf is either 'green'or cannot then its be not true of a leaf, not-green':if the term 'green' be true of it; that is,two con must 'not-green' contradictory
true
*

then B must be it, cannot propositions

of it.

and the same terms both be false of one cannot tradictory and 'notand 'not-yellow,' thing. Similarly, 'liquid' 'yellow' and the both be false of one cannot liquid,' 'good and not-good' same a sample of water, or any thing,such as a piece of gold, other these

individual

thing:

if

one

of them

be

false of any

one

of

be true of it. In other words, then the other must things, "a leaf is green" and "a of the two contradictory propositions leaf is not-green," both cannot be false ; if one the other be false, must of the contradictory "this be true; similarly, propositions and "this sample of water is not-cold," sample of water is "cold," "this piece of gold is yellow," and "this pieceof gold is notand "this piece of chalk "this piece of chalk is solid," yellow," be false, both cannot be false: if one the other is not-solid,"
must

be true.

Principle of Contradiction,two contra be both be true, that is, must cannot one propositions dictory of Excluded false ; and, according to the Principle Middle, both According
to

the

of them

cannot

be

that is, one false,

must

be true.

Of the two

'A propositions, contradictory

to
sense mean
an

is B' and

'A

is not-B'

(taking A

individual thing,and
must

in

one both),

be false

using A and B in the same according to the former,and

CHAP.

II.]
must

DEDUCTIVE

LOGIC.

19
if is, the propo is not-B} must

one

be true is B' be

accordingto
true, then

the latter ; that 'A proposition

sition 'A be

the

be false; if 'A is not-B' be true, then "A is B' must false; 'A is B' be false, then 'A is not-B and if the proposition must be true. then 'A is BJ must be true; if 'A is not-B5 be false, the truth of one con therefore, According to the two principles, of the other,and the proposition impliesthe falsity tradictory the truth of the other ; that is, of two con of one implies falsity be true by the Principle must of one propositions tradictory Excluded Middle,and the other must be false by the Principle
'

of Contradiction. We the and

same

have

taken

above

to

mean

an

individual

one thing,

and

thing; and,
cannot

not-B

in that case, two contradictory B terms both be either true or false of A ; or, in other
con

'A is B' and 'A is not-B3 are words,the two propositions and cannot both be either true or false. But tradictory, class of things, that is, if A be a general term a signifies
name

if A
or a

for each

individual

of

number

of

then things,

the two

B and not-B might both be true or false of terms contradictory B individuals and false of others, A. all might be true of some to A,'so that the two propositionsA is B and A is belonging
' ' ' t ' '

not-B

'

would
'

both

be false in

one

sense, and

true

in another

"

if false

'

is taken

that is, if universally,

true

stands

for all the

individuals of the if A Let stands

us

and class,

if ' A

'

is taken

for

part,or
' '

at

least

one

that is, partially, of the class. individual,

* '

and the two name man take,for example,the common and terms wise not- wise.' Now, man contradictory as a class is not either 'wise' or 'not- wise'; in other words, the two pro is wise and is not- wise are both false, if man positionsman
' ' ' '
'

the term

'man' both
or

be taken

to universally 'man
'

denote

all men,

while denote

they are
some men

true if the term at least

one

be taken
two

to partially

terms contradictory the two propositions A is may be both false of a class ; that is, B and A is not-B be a generalterm if A may be both false, In other words,the two contradictory or common name. pro then A is B' but 'all A is and 'A is not-B,' are positions not.' B,'
man.
' ' ' ' ' '

Hence

2"2

20
and
'

FUNDAMENTAL
'

PRINCIPLES

OF

[iNTROD.
be neither
true

some

is not

; and

of

both these,

can

false (Law of Excluded nor Contradiction), Middle); one and the other true. be false, must If all the things belonging to the class A are, however, individually that is,if considered,

(Law

of

'A}

be

taken

dividual be
true.

standing, at the same time, either 'B' only,then, of that individual,

as

for
or

single in
must

'not-B' of
a

Thus

'wise' that other the

or

'not- wise' every

man

must

be

true
as an

single
be

individual man,

of is,

considered

individual
must

thing,one
class of

or

of these

two

terms contradictory

true, though, on

wise,and that we shall give here is a pos " 4. (4) The next principle tulate of Logic. It is thus stated by Hamilton The : only of Logic which is requiresan articulate enouncement postulate the demand, that before dealingwith a judgment or reasoning expressedin language, the import of its terms should be fully understood ; in other words, Logic postulates to be allowed to in language all that is implicitly contained state explicitly in the
"
"

individuals may others to the class of not-wise.

whole, some

belong

to the

thought1:" that is,given or thought expressed by it,

in any other form of

or term, proposition,

argument, the
may
same

its

meaning
which

and

import

be stated

words,

expresses

the

thing.

the logical of a pro characters of a term or Thus, in describing it is allowable to make in like, position, any verbal changes we order to reduce it to the logicalform, provided the meaning remains any the

testingan argument we may form of words we please, provided the thought constituent propositionsor in the argument
same.

the

In

state

it in in

contained
as a

whole

remains

unaltered.
Mill
"

" 5.
tulates. every He

regardsall the
is true of words

four in
one

given above principles

form of words the
same

as

pos

Whatever form

is true

also in

other

which

conveys

meaning2."

of Identity, Principle regardsit as the most of Logic, and calls it a first Principle of universal postulate

givesthis

for the

1 2

Hamilton's An

Lectures, Vol.

in.

p. 114.

Examination

of Hamilton's

Philosophy, p.

482.

CHAP.

II.]

DEDUCTIVE

LOGIC.

21
have

Thought.
is included

According to
in this.

him

the the
"

we postulate

given above
assertion

For

Mill Principleof Contradiction, The affirmation of any

: postulate givesthe following

and

the denial of its and

it is allowable

which are equivalents, logical contradictory to make of as mutually con use indispensable affirmation of the assertion
"

vertible1."
may

For

the

"A

is

B,"
B
"

we or

substitute the denial of its contradictory A

affirmation the
'

is not
"

for the stitute

of the of
'

assertion

"

is not

we
'

may that

sub

denial A is B

its

contradictory'A
assertion of its

is B

is,the
'

denial of
not

and

the

A contradictory

is

For the Principleof Excluded the same. logically Middle, Mill gives the postulatethat it is allowable "to sub stitute for the denial of either of two contradictory propositions, That the assertion of the other2." is,of the two propositions B3
are

'A
one

is B

'

and

is not

B,'we
:

may

substitute

the

assertion
we

of

for the denial of the other the assertion of 'A

for the denial of 'A is B' is not

substitute

B'j
*

and

for that

may of the

latter the assertion Mill calls his

of the former. three

postulatesthe universal postulatesof which ought to be placed, at the earliest, in the second reasoning,' essentially part of Logic the Theory of Judgments ; since they' involve the ideas of truth and falsity, which attributes of are
"

not judgments only, not

"

of

names

or

concepts. This
of words is true

remark of

seems

to applicable

his first postulate (thatfor the Law in

one

: Identity

Whatever form

is true of

form

also in

every

words, which conveys" the same meaning") as we and for stating in logical requireit for making verbal alterations, form the meaning of a term, before describing its logical charac Still less is the remark ters. to the postulatewhich applicable We have given above. we require the aid of that postulatein order to state explicitly the thought that is implicitly contained in a term, and, in the case of an ambiguous term, to recognize its different meanings and treat them such. It is hardly neces as to describe the logical characters sary to say that it is impossible
1

other

Ibid. p. 488.

Ibid. p. 490.

22
of
a

FUNDAMENTAL

PKINCIPLES

OF

[iNTROD.

its fully understandingand explicitly stating meaning or meanings, the thought or thoughts,the attribute or here thing,signified are by it. For this reason, all the principles term

without

placed in
of Terms

the Introduction
or

before the first part of Logic treating

first three

Concepts.
calls the

Hamilton laws of

the principles
'

'fundamental

to call the second the Law of Non thought/and prefers the absence of contradiction as an "as it enjoins contradiction,' condition of thought1." indispensable Axioms of Inference, or Ueberweg calls them the Principles and places them at the beginning of the part treating of Infer
ences.

To

these

three he

adds

fourth,namely, the Axiom

The statement
to be the

of

the

or (determining

Reason. sufficient)

of this is
as

or Principle

Axiom

by

Leibnitz of this

seems

best,and
that
no

follows be

:
"

"

In virtue

we principle

know
a

fact

can

found

no real,

proposition true,without
rather than in another."

sufficient reason,

why
Axiom

it is in this way
to

According

Ueberweg
Middle the
:
"

the Axiom may be

of Contradiction

and

the

of Excluded

namely, principle,
The formula that 'A' cannot and that it must

Principleof
c

comprehended in a general Disjunction. Contradictory

or

of this is

is either B and
"

which is not^B,'

means

be both 'B'

not-B'

(Law

of

Contradiction),
Middle).
is B is

be

one

or

the other

(Law
:
"

of Excluded

of

Ueberweg givesalso another Consistency. He states it as

attribute which
a as

axiom follows

which
'

he calls the Axiom A which

B,
as

i. e., every
serve

to -belongs

the

subjectnotion
axiom

may

to predicate

the

same.'

He

regards this
should
be

allied with the Axiom

" 6.

To
"

the

Identity2. given above principles

de omni
et

of

added

the

: following

(5) Aristotle's Dictum

affirmed
1 2

nullo3.

"Whatever
be

is
or

or

denied

of

class

distributively may
in.

affirmed

Hamilton's

Lectures,Vol.

p. 82.

Ueberweg'9 Logic, English Translation, pp.

See below, Part
in.

231, 275, 281,

283, "c.
3

Chapter rv.

CHAP.

II.]

DEDUCTIVE

LOGIC.

23

denied
to

of

every class be it laws.

thing

belonging
to
a

to

that

class" Some Laws

or,

"what

belongs
maintain
while

higher
it
can

belongs
deduced

lower."
the three axiom

logicians
of

that others from

from

Thought,
of

regard
those

as

an

independent

incapable

deduction

(6) given bert, by

The

fundamental

axioms

or

canons

of

Syllogism
Lam

as

different

logicians "C.1).

(Mill,

Martineau,

Thompson,

Whately,
The

(7)

Mathematical
that than
"

Axioms

"

(1)
is

that

of

Argumentum
than
a

fortiori,
which axiom is

namely, greater
"

thing
is
to

which

greater
than the

second, (2)
to the

third, equal
of
a

greater
the
same

third";
are

that and

two

things
axioms

thing
nature.

equal

each

other";

other

similar

See

below,

Appendix

A.

PART
r

L"

TERMS.

CHAPTER

I.

THE

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

"
More

1.

name

may it is of

be
a

defined

as

sign

for

thing
of

or

things. signi

accurately,
some

word,

or

combination

words,
or

fying
mental noumenal.

object
or

thought,
substantive
the
names

or

something
or

real

imaginary,
or

material,
For
'

attributive,
'

phenomenal
*

example,
chair'
are

words of

animal,' things,

plant,'
while

flower,'
words

'table,' 'paper,'
'

real
names

the for

centaur,'

golden
the

mountain,'
words mental

"c.,

are

standing

imagi
are

nary
names

objects;

'mind,' things
'

'soul,'
or

'spirit,' 'self,' "c.,

while the

signifying
'

substances, "c.,
are
*

words for
'

'

gold,'

silver,' things
'

'

mineral,'
the words
'

copper,'
'

names

standing
'

material

sensation,' "c.,
'

pleasure,'
are names

pain,'

per

ception,'
attributes

imagination,'
of

memory,'
'

expressing
'

mind,

while

solidity,'

colour,'
matter

'

figure,'
the

hardness,'
'

"c.,

are

words

signifying

attributes

of

words

think
names

ing,' 'perceiving,3 expressing

'

'feeling,' phenomena
'

'wishing,'
of

'hoping,'
while
are
'

"c.,
words

are
'

acts
'

or

mind, "c.,
words
names

the words

moving,' phe
'

melting,'
or

expanding,' changes
'

cooling,'
;

signifying

nomena

of

bodies

the
are

thing-in-itself,'
noumena

mator

ter-in-itself,'
realities which

mind-in-itself,'
are

expressing
all

believed

to

underlie

phenomena

and

the

20
attributes

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PARTI.

things, such as men, is a generalconception or animals, trees, flowers, individual conception is an individual an Objectively regarded, it is an idea of the thing. while,subjectively, thingitself, The process of forming concepts may be regarded as consist ing of the following steps: (1)the observation of individuals;
common

in possessed

by a

number

of individual

of each of them (2)the analysis (3)the comparison of them with the attributes in which those in which of these
common

into
one

attributes ; another,in order to find out

its constituent

they all agree, and to separate these from if possible, they differ; (4)the mental unification,
that is, the thinkingof attributes, them

together the making of the aggregateof them a single of thought ; or object of this aggregate, or or (5) the expression single symbolization of thought,by an audible, other sign, or visible, object usually by
For term or words, called a name example,in forming the concept metal,' (1)different individual metals,such as gold,silver, platinum,"c.,must copper, mercury, be observed and experimented upon; (2)the attributes of each of them methods must be found out by physicaland chemical ;
a or
.

word

combination

of

'

(3)they must
the attributes

be

when (4) these attributes, be thought of together;and (5)symbolized for found out, must to others, well as for communication reference afterwards as by a other sign. The concepts man,' horse,'plant,' word, or some 'flower,' '.element,' "c., are formed in 'animal,''book,''table,'
' ' '

compared with one in which they agree;

another

in order to find out

the

same

manner.

term, in the wider

a

sense,

is
an

name.

It is the
or

expression
In
a

in language of the
narrower

concept or
it is the

of

individual
the

individuals.

sense,

or subject

of predicate

propo

is that is, that of which something is said, or sition, For example, said about something,in a sentence or proposition. and the combinations the words man,' horse,' plant,'flower,' 'elements of words 'floweringplant,''elementary substance,' animals that live in water,' heat and electricity,' that conduct
' ' ' ' ' '

that which

the smell of
narrower

are flower,'

terms

in the wider

sense,

but

not

in

the

sense, in which

they must

be either the

or subject

CHAP.

I.]

VAKIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

27

the

predicate in
denied is
name,

affirmed
or

that is, either they must be proposition, denied of something, or something must be affirmed or of them; in other words, a term, in the narrower
a a

sense,

part of
whether

sentence, while, in the

a

wider

sense,

it

is

Every term or though it may not actuallyform, is capable of forming name, of a proposition, either the subjector the predicate that is, some be affirmed or it may or thing may be affirmed or denied of it, denied of something ; and this is the best test by which a term be distinguished from a mere word combination or name or may
a

part of

sentence

or

not.

of words.

Terms
are

are

divided

by logiciansinto
in
a

certain
:
"

broad

which divisions,

given below
I.

tabular

form
man.

(Single-worded,e.g., (Many- worded,

e.g., (Singular,

e.g., man

of business.
sun.

Socrates, the

II.

"

General, e.g., book.

a
x

(Collective, library. e.g.,

(Concrete, e.g.,
III.
man,

book.

TEEMS IV.

(Abstract, e.g., redness. /Positive, e.g.,

"

water.
v

Negative, e.g., inorganic.blind. and

'Privative, e.g.,
V.

(Correlative, e.g., husband

wife.

(Absolute, e.g., metal,

(Connotative, e.g.,
VI.
man.

God.

(Non-connotative, e.g., squareness.

of terms is into consists of
a

"
while For

2.

The

first division A

single-wordedand
of
a

many-worded.
a

term single-worded many-worded term consists

singleword,
of words.

combination

'man,' 'metal,''animal,''paper,'are example, the terms 'wise man,' 'rational animal,' worded ; while the terms singleA many-worded white paper,'yellowflower,' are many- worded.
* '

term

may

consist of

of any

number

of words of
a

from

two
or

It may

consist

nearly the whole

some

sentence

upwards. paragraph,

provided that it expresses of which something may

be

objectof thought,or something affirmed or denied,or which may be

28
affirmed sists of bination
or

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TEEMS.

[PART I.
is A
a

denied

of

something. Every
word
is is not
a

term

word

or

con

words, but
of

every

term.

word, or

com

capable of beingemployed by itself as while a word, or combination of a term, is called categorematic, words, which must be joinedwith other words in order to form a
: thus term, is called syncategorematic

words,which

while all categorematic, For junctions, adverbs,"c.,are syncategorematic. interjections, example, the words man,' animal,' rational,' running,'white and the combinations of words a good man,' a rational ness,' "c., while the animal,''a flowering "c., are categorematic, plant,' words of 'and,' 'but,''of,' 'when,'"c., and the combinations words 'instead of,' 'with reference to,' 'on the subjectof,' 'very are "c., sincerely,' syncategorematic. It should be observed that the distinction of categorematic and syncategorematic is applica
are
' ' ' ' ' ' '

and verbs

substantives, adjectives, con articles, prepositions,

ble to the words of worded singleand

and combinations
and manyworded of

those words

combinations

words,while the distinction is applicable to terms, that is, to words which are categorematic.
of

and general. " 3. The second division of terms is into singular that is, of an individual thing, is a name A singular term a name in the same which is applicable, thing. For example, sense, to one the present Emperor of Germany,' the Metropolis the terms of 'the Ganges,' 'the sun,''the moon,' 'Socrates,' India,' 'Plato,' the 76th Regiment of Foot in the British Army,' are all singular, signifyingeach an individual thing or object of thought. A is a name of each of two or more term individual things, general which is applicable, in the same that is, a name sense, to each of indefinite number of things. For example, the terms an man,' flower,' animal,' metal,' element,' sensation,'state,'body,' are 'idea,' 'feeling,' general,standing each for every one of an of individual things or phenomena; the term indefinite number for every individual of a largeclass or group of is a name man flower is applicable to every indi things called men ; the term vidual of a group of things to feeling is applicable ; the term each of a large number of mental phenomena ; the terms idea,' each to likewise applicable are 'sorrow,' 'thought,' 'hope,' 'joy,'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

CHAP.

I.]
one

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

29

every every

of

group is
a

of mental
name

things or
mental.

phenomena.
of
a

Thus,
of

generalterm general term

is
a

of each
or

individual

number

things or phenomena, material

A

should for
a

be group

from distinguished of

collective

term, which

regarded as generalterm
tive term

and things taken together, a one as singleobject of thought. Thus, while a of things, to each of a number is applicable a collec
name
"

cannot

be

appliedto
'

each

individual

of

multitude

only to all taken together. Thus, 'a library,' collective terms : each of are a regiment,'a nation,' a forest,' taken together, of a collection of many them is a name things, for The term and regarded as one a complex whole. library,' is applicable to a largecollection of books, and example, signifies
but separately,
' ' '

all of them

not collectively,

to any
a

one

of them

separately ;

regiment not tively,

that such and
not

'

is

term
one

to applicable

multitude

of soldiers collec should be noticed

to any

of them
as
' '

It individually.
'

collective terms
term

are "c., general library,' regiment,'

'

inasmuch it is as library is general, libraries throughout the of the numerous world ; the term forest is likewise general, being applicableto the terms 'nation,' 'army,' any forest in any country.; similarly, both collective and general 'a few,''a crowd,' are 'multitude,' because each of them is applicable to a number of collective, things taken together and regarded as a whole; and general, indefinite number because it is applicable to each of an of such

singular ; the to any one applicable

*

'

"

wholes.

On

the Foot

other

hand,

such

collective terms
'

as

'the

76th

Regiment of
'the Bodleian

in the

British

'the Library,'

Army,' the British Museum/ 'the UniversityCollegeLibrary,'

and not general, inasmuch each singular, as of them is applicable to a single collection or complex whole, and not to more than Some one. logiciansregard 'regiment' as and collective ; nation a regiment as general, and as general, that is, a nation as collective, accordingto them, a collective
' ' ' ' ' '

are English people,'

term

denotes

an indefinitely

individual

collection

of

things or

and this should be expressed by the indefinite article objects, to it. This distinction in language between a collective prefixed

30
and and
a

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
than
one

generalterm
not

appears

to be

good on

more

ground,
a

should It should

be overlooked1. that
a

be observed

general term

is

to applicable

number
ment

of in
an

things,not
attribute
or

but arbitrarily,

in virtue

of their agree It

collection of attributes.

impliesthat

the

things to which it is applicable agree in an attribute or attri butes. It is, in fact, of a concept as well as of individual a name things. In technical language it is said to denote or signify the things to which it is applicable, and connote, imply directly
or

the attribute or attributes signify indirectly In other words, a general term is a name agree.
connotes

the

attribute

or

attributes which

they all of a class, and characterise it,and

and
a

in1which

denotes

the individuals The

which

belongto
of
an

it.

"
An

4.

third division of terms is

a name

is into concrete
or attribute,

abstract.
of

abstract term

collection

attributes, apart
word

from

the used

substance

in

which
sense

it exists.
to
mean

The any

attribute is here

in- its widest of substance

or a or quality, thing, and, also, property, any relation of things and qualities.For example, animality,' all abstract "c., are humanity,3 'whiteness,' 'triangularity,' attribute or a group of attributes apart an terms, each signifying from the substances in which it exists. Equality,' succession,' 'coexistence' abstract terms, each signifying relation of are a the other on things apart from the things. A concrete term is, of a substance, The word or a class of substances. hand, a name substance is here used to mean individual thing mental an For or 'the sun,' 'the earth,' material. example, 'Socrates,' * the table,'man,' animal,' plant,' "c.,are all concrete terms, and not merely attri individual things or substances, signifying butes. The term is concrete, inasmuch it is a name of man as things and not merely of the attribute 'humanity' pos many sessed in common For the same by all individual men. reason, inasmuch of are as generally adjectives they are names concrete, of attributes: the adjective things and not merely significant
' 4 ' ' ' ' ' ' '

accident

See Hamilton's

Lectures, Vol.

n.

pp. 281"2.

CHAP.

I.]

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

31

for example, is white,'

"

name

of all

not 'whiteness,' a name this it is also evident that adjectives every white object. From are generaland not singularterms. All adjectives are regarded by Mill and Jevons as concrete land general,that is,as names denoting or signifying directly

colour

thingswhatever having the but of merely of this quality,

and things

implying attributes ; but it is evident and imply attributes that some of them attributes, signify may and be thus general and abstract, of those attributes, and, also, attributes that they may, in some only, and be cases, express be applied to thus abstract or attributive. For an adjective may attribute as well as to a concrete it may an thing,that is, qualify both abstract and substantive nouns. For example, the adjective 'boldness.,' 'great'may qualifythe abstract terms 'goodness,' size,' extension,' firmness,' strength,' beauty,' generosity,' "c., as well as the concrete terms 'man,' 'philosopher,' 'poet,' 'small,' 'picture,' 'equal,''greater,' "c.; the adjectives 'large,' well as things ; in as less,' "c.,may likewise qualifyattributes, such cases, adjectives should be regarded as general, and abstract rather than concrete. And, when an adjectiveis affirmed of a it suggests to the mind an thing,or of an attribute, attribute, connoting
or
' ' ' ' ' ' '

and

not

any

thing ;
white

for

example

in

the

proposition

'

snow

is

suggestssimply the attribute whiteness ; and not any thing or class of things; in the proposition gold is the adjective yellow,' yellow suggestssimplythe attribute 'yellow
'

the white,'

word

of attributes only, are adjectives significant and not of things. This is, however, a matter in which logicians differ,some (Mill, Jevons, "C.1) maintainingthat all adjectives of things,implying attributes, that is,concrete are and names general; others (Martineau,Fowler, "c.2)holding that they are of things,but attributives, not names that is, words which
cases
"

ness'; in

such

"

See Mill's Logic, Vol.

i.

pp. 25, 31, "e.; and

; and

Jevons'

Lessonst
Deductive

p. 21.
2

See Martineau's

Essays, Vol.

n.

p. 345

Fowler's

Logic, 6th Edition,pp. 13, 18.

32
press

VAEIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
from any

characters them."
terms

or

as attributes,

such, apart

objects

having

Abstract

are

sometimes

into singular and distinguished

general.
'

of a definite in singularabstract term is a name For example, milkwhiteness,'visibleness,' dividual attribute. "c.,are singularabstract terms, signify squareness,' equality,' A
' ' '

ing
of

each

an

attribute

definite perfectly
term

and

incapable of
of each of
a

any

division.

generalabstract
name

is
can

name

group
same

that is, a attributes, of

an

which

be

in affirmed, For

the

sense, of each

example, the terms 'colour,' 'virtue,' 'pleasure,3 'figure,' 'pain,' "c., are time, general,each of them and, at the same abstract, being
to applicable

indefinite number

of attributes.

every

one

of

number of

of attributes

'

colour

'

may

stand "c. ;
'

for any

or variety for any kind figure,'

shade of

for any species of 'virtue,' benevolence, "c. Whenever its name or species, variety, become

colour, red,blue,yellow, indigo, "c. ; figure, triangle, quadrilateral, it,justice, veracity,temperance,

any may attribute stand admits for of

degree,

general. A concrete term is of in the same accordingas it is applicable,

or

these, and thus course or singular general thing only sense, to one

to

more

than

one.

however, differ in this matter ; and I wish, there Logicians, to note the different opinionswhich they hold : fore, and (1) Some Logicianshold that the distinction of singular
"

generalis
terms

not

should

to abstract terms; applicable be placedin a class apart. Mill

and

that

abstract

indicates this view

in

one

passage.

He

says

"To

avoid needless

logomachies,the

best

neither as probably be to consider these names in a class apart1." Mr and to placethem nor individual, general solution however is to satisfactory Keynes says, "A still more not applying to as consider the distinction of generaland singular
course

would

abstract do not

names

at

all2".

So far

as

Mill's passage All that

is he

concerned,I
says about

think

it carries any

weight.

1 2

Logic, 8th Edition, Vol. Formal Logic, p. 12.

i.

p. 30.

34
notion
an

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
abstract idea
"

of the

idea that I have

of the figure makes part of

desk

before

me

is

an

the total notion my in attention,

of that order

body,and
to consider
same

on

which

concentrated
idea is

it

This exclusively.

but abstract,

it is at the

time

individual ; it representsthe figureof this of any other body V not the figure

desk, and particular

to generalconception (inopposition the with the individual conception) is not to be confounded abstract (inopposition to the concrete, see " 47). Tht- divisions

Ueberweg

says

"

:
"

The

cross

each

other.

There

are

concrete abstract

and

abstract

individual

conceptionsand
It is evident

concrete

and the

V general conceptions the distinction

of

that

question whether

be to abstract terms cannot general is applicable solved without statingclearlywhat is meant by satisfactorily If a singular is term a singularand what by a general term. and if a general term to one a name object of thought, applicable to each of a number is a name of objects of thought, applicable then the distinction is certainly to abstract terms : for applicable

singularand

attributes

as

well

as an

phenomena
abstract

and

substances
like
a

may

be

objects
be
a

of thought ; and
name

term,
a name

concrete,may
"

of one object of thoughtor objects of thought. The abstract

of the desk

before me,"
this

"

the

of each of a number of terms, for instance, the figure colour of the rose near me," the
"

solidityof
"

stone," as

well

while the abstract attribute, terms relation,' quality,' quantity,' figure,' attribute,' to each of a number virtue,' "c.,are each of them applicable of
c ' ' ' ' '

each of them are 'visibleness,' "c., to a single definite individual

'equality,' 'squareness,' to one object applicable ofthought

as

that is, to objects of thought, for example, tion,'

ever,
"

each

of

class of attributes any relation

'

rela

is

name

to applicable

what

succession, coexistence,resemblance, difference,"c,;

a

is 'quality' whatever.

name

to applicable

any

quality of

any

object

1 2

Lectures, Vol.

n.

p. 287"8.

Logic, p. 127.

See also pp. 114"115.

CHAP.

I.]

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

35
when In

According
become

to

some

abstract terms, Logicians,

terms.

they
other

general, pass
is
no

into the class of concrete absolute

words, there
tween

distinction according to them, be

abstract and
same

concrete

terms,between
abstract from
one

attributes and

things.
and

The

term

may

be

point of
one.

view

concrete from abstract and

can

another
concrete

point of view; and

terms

the distinction between

is

onlya
what
as

relative

not

be
an

solved satisfactorily abstract

a

without

question what is statingclearly

a

This

meant

by

term

and

by

concrete

term.

The of

definition
course

of

concrete

term word
or an

'the

name

of
mean

is thing,' either
a

ambiguous ; for the stance, or a phenomenon,

attribute.
an mean

thingmay
an

sub

attribute abstract
; for

possessinganother
as
'

The
'

definition of

term

the

name

of

attribute

is also

attribute possessinganother simply an attribute of an an or attribute, attribute, apart from the sub stances or phenomena in which they exist. Terms expressiveof phenomena are usually regarded as concrete. A It phenomenon is a thing as it appears to us. is a change of a thing, thought of with reference to the thing. It is, in fact,the thing in that particular state of change. The 'the risingof the sun,''the boiling terms, for instance, of water,''the anger I felt yesterday,' which 'the present state of my mind,' "c. are concrete : the risingof the sun the sun in the state of rising; the boiling means of water
' ' ' ' ' '

ambiguous or an attribute,

the

word

attribute may

means

'water
are

in

the

state

of

If boiling.'

the from

of

things thought of, or signified, apart then they really become the attributes of those things. Terms of mere expressive or circumstances, aspectsapart appearances, should be regarded as abstract : the rising from things, of the if it simply meant sun' would the circumstance be abstract, of or aspect of risingapart from the thing sun ; the boiling would be abstract, if it simply meant the appearance water or this is a state of boilingapart from the thing 'water.' But be difference of opinion; and until matter which there may on the terms 'concrete' and 'abstract' are more defined, definitely
' ' ' ' '

appearances the things,

3"2

36
I do
not

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART
of

I.

think

there

can

be

any

solution satisfactory

the

difficulty. negative, " 5. The fourth division of terms is into positive, of an the presence term and signifies privative.A positive attribute or a substance;a negative term, its absence; " privative the the presentabsence of an attribute and implies term signifies and human are positive capacityfor it. For example, man ;
' ' ' '

blind,' lame,' negative; and is positive, The term 'pleasant' 'not-pleasant' "c.,are privative. while 'unpleasant' would seem to be positive as signify negative,
'

not-man

and

'

not-human

'

are

'

ing not merely the absence of pleasurebut the presence of some and inconvenient,' positive pain ; convenient,' not-convenient,' and 'immoral' likewise positive, are 'moral,' 'not-moral,' nega and positive and inor tive, respectively.Organic is positive are ganic' negative; 'metallic' and 'metal' positive,while and non-metal non-metallic are negative; wise is positive and not- wise while negative, ignorant might be regardedas It is evident negative or privativeaccordingto circumstances. from the examples given above be con that these terms may crete when or or abstract, concrete implying the presence absence of things or substances, and abstract when of attributes
' ' ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '
"

only.

" 6.
solute. A

The

fifth division of terms is

a or name

is into of
an

correlative
or

and

ab

correlative term

attribute It each
'

substance another

implying another
term

attribute it. Both

substance.
to

implies
other
'

related

to

in relation
' '

are

called
'

correlatives.
' '

and example, father and child,'husband murderer and and wife,'greater and less,'cause effect,' member of a pair one murdered,'are all pairs of correlatives, the other absolute term, is, An on implying the other member. of a substance does not imply which or hand, a name attribute, another substance or attribute as water,' air,'horse,'tree,' 'man.' 'the solar system,''gold,' 'body,' 'flower,' bird,' 'silver,'
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' , '

For

" 7.
and
a

The

next

and

last division of terms

"

is into connotative is
one

non-connotative.

connotative term

which

denotes
meant

and implies an subject

attribute.

By

is subject

here

CHAP.

I.]

VAKIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

37

anything which possesses substance,a phenomenon,

attribute.
A connotative

attributes1."
or an

attribute

be a subject may possessing another

two or has, in fact, significations that is, to things or meanings, one direct as applied to subjects, and the other indirect objectsof thought possessingattributes, For example, the term as is conno implying attributes. man inasmuch it signifies as tative, directlyeach of an indefinite number of things or substances called men, and connotes or at the same implies, time,an attribute or collection of attributes, term
* '

which which
a same

is

possessed,in applied to
of substances attribute

common,
; the

by
term

all men,
'

and

in virtue

of

it is

them

metal

likewise ', signifies

number

taken
or

and separately, which other

as

implies,at
are common

the
to

time, the
which
' '

attributes from much

them, and
term
a

them distinguish in
as as

substances; the
for each of

colour

is connotative such

it stands

number

of attributes
or

and

connotes

at implies,

the

bluen redness, same time,an

ess, greenness,

"c.,

attribute

in which

the terms 'animal,''horse,' Similarly, 'mineral,' 'house,' 'table,' 'figure,' 'flower,' 'paper,' 'tree,' 'plant,' all connotative, are having each two significa quality,' virtue,' called the denotation, and the other indirect, direct, tions,one those attributes agree.
' '

called the
on

connotation

of the
"

term.

non-connotative

term

is,

a signifies subject only or an that is,it has only one either of attribute only," signification, and does not imply anything else. a thing,or of an attribute, For example, the terms squareness,'visibleness,' "c.,signifying

the

other

hand,

one

which

'

'

each

an

attribute the class

only,are

non-connotative.
terms
" -

: belong the following all generalterms or (1) All concrete terms that are also general, also concrete; for example, 'man,' 'bird,' that are 'fish,' 'river,' indefinite number 'nation' signifying an directly 'library,' 'lake,' of things,and implying attributes which they possess in com connotative2. are (2) All abstract terms that are general, mon,

To

of connotative

Mill's To

Logic, Vol.

i.

p. 31.

this head

when belong also adjectives

used

that substantively,

38
or

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
abstract names,"

all

generalterms
be

that the

are

abstract.

"Even

says

Mill,"though
may

names

only

instances

justlyconsidered
have attributes may

themselves
which

in some attributes, may as connotative; for attributes ascribed to them; and a word
connote
an

of

denotes

attributes As
an

attribute of those
term

attributes1." denotes
or

example,

he

gives the
'

which 'fault,1

and connotes a or signifies directly quality, signifies another attribute an as indirectly quality, namely hurtfulness,' of that quality. The general abstract terms 'virtue,' 'beauty,' 'relation,' 'colour,' 'quantity,' 'quality,' 'modality,' 'figure,' "c.,
are

connotative2.
and

Each

of these the

terms

denotes

number

of

attributes

connotes

for example,denotes 'Virtue,'

connotes

they all agree. and justice, veracity, temperance, "c.,

' '

attribute in which

Relation denotes they agree. various kinds of relation, likeness or unlikeness, succession or coexistence, equality or inequality, dependence or reciprocity, and
connotes

the attribute in which

the

attribute

in

which
or

general terms,
Whenever
to
a

whether is

concrete

all Thus they agree. connotative. are abstract,

name

term
a

that is, a general, of

which

is

each

of

number

of thought, whether objects

applicable the objects

it is con thought be substances,phenomena, or attributes, notative of thought of each of which it denoting the objects is a name, and connoting the attribute in which the different objectsof thought agree. A term cannot, in the same sense, of objects of thought, unless be appliedto each of a number of
"

these The
common

each of thought resemble objects various objects of thought will be attribute the

other

in

some

attribute.
the

and the denotation,

the
term.

connotation,of

(3)

Certain

as is, or

concrete

names general

or

names

of

thingsimplying an

attribute

attributes.
1 2

Logic, Vol.
To this head that
as is,

i.

p. 33.

names,

when used as abstract general belong also adjectives of attributes, names implying other attributes. For
' '

example,the adjective great may denote an and connote the attribute thing, greatness,
'

attribute

as

well

as

CHAP.

I.]

VAKIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

39

or imply at singularterms which denote things,and connote information or tributes belonging to those things, convey some For example, the singularterms, 'the sun,' 'the about them. of John 'the first Emperor of Borne,''the only son Stiles,' the present Prime the author of the Iliad,' father of Socrates,' 'the present Viceroy of India,' of England,' "c. are Minister
' '

inasmuch and connote as they denote individuals, connotative, or imply certain attributes belonging to them, or convey some information
terms

that

the British

belongalso the collective such as the 76th Regiment of Foot in are singular, 'the English College Army,' 'the University Library,'
about them.
'

To

this head

"c. people,'
To the class of non-connotative
terms
: belongthe following definite indi signifying
"

(1) All singularabstract terms or terms vidual attributes, such as milkwhiteness,' 'equality,' 'square the of the desk before me,' the smell ness,'visibleness,' figure of the rose near "c. me,' 'the colour of this piece of chalk,'
' ' ' '

(2) Those singular terms, vidual things or substances any attributes belonging to
names

if there

be

any,

which

denote
or

indi

only,and
them.
"

do not

connote

imply
"

According to

Mill all proper

belong to
connotative
;

this class.

Proper names,"
or

not

they denote
not

the individuals

says who are

Mill,
as

are

called

by
be the
are

them; but they do

indicate

imply
we

any
name

attribute
a

longing
name

to

those
or a

individuals.

When
name

child
names

by

Paul,
marks

dog by
to

the

Coesar,these
individuals
names

simply

used

enable Whenever

those the

to

be

made

given to objects that is,whenever they have properly convey any information, they denote but any meaning, the meaning resides not in what in what they connote. The only names which connote nothing these have, strictly are speaking,no signifi ; and proper names A proper cation. is but an name unmeaning mark which we in our minds connect with the idea of the object, in order that whenever the mark meets to our our thoughts, eyes or occurs think of that individual we we object. When predicate may we (or affirm)of any thing its proper name j when say, point-

subjectsof

discourse.

40

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
a

ing
that

to

man,

this is Brown
we

or

Smith,
so

or

it is any

York,

do

not, merely by
about

pointing to doing, convey

those
are

city,
the their

to

reader

information

them

except that

names1." This view

Jevons. with "The of proper
names

is contended of
a

connotation

the

meaning etymological
a

againstby Professor name," says he, "is confused the or circumstances,which

one

caused
name

it to be affixed to

no thing. Surely,

who be

uses

the

England and knows and the peculiarqualities

form the connotation

what

it

can denotes,

ignorant of

circumstances of the

of

the

country, and

Thus, accordingto Professor Jevons, all proper names, such as John Smith, Dart mouth, De Morgan, France, Socrates,Plato, "c., are connotative,signifyingdirectly things, and implying the attributes them from or qualities belonging to them and distinguishing
these other

term2.'

individuals.
Professor Jevons has
nor

Neither proper view among

;
names.

Mill stands

alone in his view followers in the difference of

same

of

Each
the

and predecessors
to note true

and

student

ought

the

opinion
names.

in regardto the logicians According to one school, they are

meaning

of proper

non-connotative, being merely while according meaninglessmarks put upon individual things, to the other, they are connotative,denoting individuals and belongingto those individuals. The question ponnoting qualities
is
a

and philological Mill's view

psychological one,
if
as a

and

cannot

be discussed what it

here.

is true

proper
a

name or

always means
sign for
an

does,when thing. At
But
as our

it is first used that

symbol

individual the
name.

stage no

attribute of the

is associated

with

knowledge

individual which

associate its attributes with

not
name

the name,

we thing increases, afterwards suggests

only the

individual thing,but also the attributes.

proper
con

to be at first without would, therefore, appear but it seems of attributes, notation or signification

any
to

acquire
becomes

this

as signification

our

knowledge
2

of

the

individual

Mill's

Logic, Vol.

i.

pp. 36"37.

Jevons's Lessons, pp. 42"43.

42
others rise to
not

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
other, gives knowledge of

are

so

connected

and The

do not fact

imply each
that
our

the

Absolute

Term.

that we first come to know attribute one things is progressive, of a thing or of a group of things and then another,givesrise to the Connotative Term rather the fact that the name given ; or to a thing or a group of thingscomes with the progress of our knowledge of the thing or things,to be associated with this additional knowledge, and becomes afterwards a sign for it, gives rise to the The

distinction

of Term

Connotative shows that

and

Non-connotative be named the in

Names.
not
case

Negative

things may
are

onlyby
; that

the attributes

which but be

they actually possess (as in

absent virtue

of Positive
names

Terms),
as

them

absence that
as

of

some

may well

by those which applied to things in

also presence

of the

as

of the

of other

attributes ;

into classes by thingsmay be distinguished well as by their positive qualities. " 9. Exercises.
In the logical characters describing be followed What its is
:
"

their

negative

of

method term, the following

should I.

given is

word
see

or

combination it is

of words.

Ascertain
em

meaning,

and

whether

capable of being
a

ployed by
tion. it is II. In the

itself as

the

subjector the predicateof

it is
term.

proposi
then is,

If it is not, then

syncategorenaatic ; if it
describe
"

that is,a categorematic, latter case, in the it

proceed

to

the

characters logical

of the term Whether Whether Whether

order1 : following is single-worded or many-

worded.

it is

singular or general.
or singular,

it is collective and

collective and

general.
iv. Whether it is concrete
or

abstract.

I have

not

categorematicas
words should rather be than

given here the distinction of categorematic or syncharacter of terms, as it is applicable to a logical

to terms.

Singlewords

and

combinations

of words

and syncategorematic, and into categorematic distinguished

not terms.

CHAP.

I.]
v.

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

43

Whether Whether Whether

more

it is

negative,or privative, positive,

or

vi. vii.

it is absolute

correlative.
or

it is connotative than
one

non-connotative. then describe the

most

m.

If it has

meaning,
then in

its

logical
or

characters, first in accordance

usual

with

obvious the

meaning, and
or

accordance

with

other

meaning

meanings in order of importance. Examples.

1.

Man

'

"

worded categorematic ; single-

general;

concrete

positive ; absolute ; connotative.

2.

'Mankind':
concrete

"

categorematic; single-worded; collective

and

positive ; absolute ; connotative. worded 3. The Sun : categorematic ; many; singular ; con absolute. crete; connotative; positive; Beautiful 4. : categorematic (accordingto some syncategoresingular ;
'

'

"

'

'

"

matic; because
and
a

the

complete
after

term

consists
as

of the

word

'beautiful'

word

understood

it,such

or 'thing,'

'person,' "c., for

is

example 'that
that 'that

picture is beautiful':
a

pictureis

beautiful

complete sentence thing'); single-worded; general;con

as

here

the

absolute (correlative, if 'beautiful' is regarded crete; positive; connotative. plying 'ugly'); 5.

im

'Equal':
"

its

logical characters
it is

are

the

same

as

those

of

'beautiful,' except that

that is

equal

to

i.e.,it implies something correlative, it. 'Larger,' 'greater,' 'upper,' "c., are also cor
the

relative. 6.

'Lame,' 'dumb,' 'blind,' have

same

logicalcharacters
when collective,

as

'beautiful,' except that they are privative.

7.
means

'Army':
some one

"

worded categorematic;singlearmy,

it

in the i.e.,

sense

of 'an

army,' but general possessed

; connotative.

when
in

it means

different armies, and

connotes

the attributes

common

by them
'Rational

; concrete

positive ; absolute
water':

8.

animal,' 'floweringplant,' 'metal

conducting heat

and

'animal electricity,'

worded;
9.

categorematic; manygeneral; concrete; positive;absolute; connotative.

"

living in

figure of this body,''the luminosityof smell of this rose': categorematic; many-worded; stract ; positive ; absolute ; non-connotative.
'The
"

this

flame, 'the

singular; ab

44
10.
'

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

[PART I.
ab

Quantity

'

"

categorematic ; single-worded ; general ;

:

connotative. stract; positive; 11.

'

Humanity'
;

tive ; absolute

categorematic ; single-worded ; abstract general and connotative,if humanity admits

"

posi
any
'

'

'

of

varietyor division ; singularand non-connotative, if humanity is that is,incapableof any variety division. or something individual, it is very difficult to describe the logical characters of a Sometimes difference of opinion as to from arisingchiefly term, the difficulty the real nature of the thing signified by the term," as to the real
'
"

meaning

Take, for example, the term meanings of the term, "c. It is general; connotative; concrete; positive;but 'phenomenon.'
or or

is it absolute

correlative?
of

According
do
not

to

implies the
while
noumena,

existence

'noumenon,' and
who

it philosophers, is, therefore, correlative,

some

according to others
it is absolute.
to 'substance'
or

believe

in
'

the

existence
'

of

relative

the term Similarly, absolute according as 'Cause' is

to
'

attribute

is either
of the

the

existence
to

latter is believed and 'effect

'

in

or

not.

evidentlyrelated 'consequent,'and
or

'effect,'

to 'cause.'

'Antecedent'
'

the latter

to the former.
or

Are

'

time

and

'

space The

abstract
answer

concrete, singular
this

absolute general,

or

correlative? different

to

question will

be

givendifferently by

philosophers.

Examples for Solution.

Describe I. the characters logical of the
: following
"

(3)human, (4)humanity, (5)humani good man, (1) Man, (2), whom I saw tarian, (6) humanitarianism, (7)A man yesterday.

II.

(4)five bodies,(5)these (3)five attributes, (1) Five, (2)fifth,

five metals.

III.

IV.

V.

(1) Good, (2) the good,(3)goodness,(4)goods, (5)the highest good, (6)a good quality, great goodness. (7) Encyclopaedia, library, (5)Ency (1) Book, (2) (4) (3)a library, clopedia Britannica. (4) organism, (5) an (1) Organ, (2) organic, (3) inorganic, organism, (6) organicbeing.
nation nationality, (4) (5) (1) Nation, (2) a nation,(3)national, alities.

VI.

CHAP.

I.]

VARIOUS

DIVISIONS

OF

TERMS.

45

VII.

(1) Strong,

(2) strength, (3)

of

the

strong,

(4) strong
man.

man,

(5)

strength
VIII.

character, (6) this strong

(1) Element,

(2) elementary,
substance,
element.

(3) elementary
'Elements

attribute,
of

(4)

elementary
a

(5) the

Euclid,' (6)

chemical

IX.

(1) Plant, (2) figure, (3) inconvenient,

ness,

(4) blindness, (5) busi

(6)universe, (7)heat.
(2)
the first emperor,

X.

(1) Multitude,

(3) irreligious, (4) virtue,

(5)mind,
XI.

(6) matter,

(7) body, (8) form.

(3) life,(4) force, (5)

(1) Atmospheric time, (6)

air, (2) organization,

space,

(7) cause,

(8) motion,

(9) substance,
circle of

(10)

being, (11) something,

XII.

(12) nothing.
sciences,
sen

(1) Sense,

(2) rest, (3) speed, (4) law, (5) the

(6) gravity, (7) spirit, (8) higher, (9) right, (10)

sation, (11) knowledge,

(12) feeling, (13) perception, (14)

(3) Her
passage

smell, (15) vision, (16) taste, (17) colour, (18) relative.

XIII.

(1)

His

Majesty, (2) His elementary atoms,

of

Honour,

Serene of
water

Highness,
to

(4)

(5) the
in water,

the

state

ice, (6) soluble

number the of

(7) the
the

surfaces
gaseous

of

bodies,

(8)
en
un-

the

the

metals, (9)

envelope

circling

earth, (10) the

of

theory
to

of

ideas, (11) the against

of any

dulatory theory
these the kinds
of

light, (12)

reason

of

evidence, (13) the known,

yellowness
the

gold, (14)
of the

lightest substance
world,

(15)

perception

external XIV.

(16) consciousness.
the wisdom of the the
or

(1) (2)
(3) (4) (5)

"The

place which
for the

policy

of

antiquity

had

destined
To

residence
to

Abyssinian
of
our

princes."
minds.

attend

accurately

operation

The
A A

ignition of phosphorus.
of nature.

just interpretation
series of electric

discharges.

XV.

(1) Co-existence,

(2) succession,

(3) identity, (4) resemblance,

(5) causation, (6) equality, (7) relation, (8) subsistence.

CHAPTER

II.

THE

DENOTATION

AND

CONNOTATION,
OF

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION,

TEKMS.

"
terms

1.

IN

the
or

denote

preceding chapter, we signify directly things,

that
one

have
and

seen

that
or

most

connote
same

imply
other of the

attributes

belongingto them,
of which The to each

is,have,
their of the

at the

time, two
the

meanings,
their individual

is called

denotation, and
a

connotation.

denotation of which of
a

term

consists the
same

things

term

in is,

sense,

applicable. The
or

connotation

term

consists

of the

attribute

collection of attributes
of the individual of
'

each

implied by the term, things denoted by it.

'man'
now
'

and
For

possessedby example, the

individual of all

denotation

the

term

consists

of

all
"

the

things,called
in

men,'
the

whether term

living or
is

dead,

things,

its conno applicable ; while tation consists of the attributes, and 'rationality,' say 'animality' The deno implied by it,and possessed in common by all men.

fact,to

which

man'

tation books

of the

term in

'

book'

consists

of

all the the

various

kinds
while

of its all

written

all

languages throughout
of the

world,

connotation
books
'

consists in

attribute
and which

or are

attributes

which

possess The kinds

book.'

ferent while
mon

implied by the term all the dif term triangle'in denotation signifies of triangles,the individual things called triangles,
common,
'
"

in connotation

it

the signifies the

attribute of

by

all

triangles, namely,

attribute

possessedin being bounded

com

by

three

lines.

CHAP.

DENOTATION II.] term

AND

CONNOTATION

OF

TERMS.

47

i.e., has for its deno an signifies individual, tation only a singleobject or thing,its connotation is the group of attributes possessed by the individual thing,and signified by the sun' has for its denotation For example,the term the term. individual thing only,while its connotation consists of the one
When
a
'

attributes
term
an

possessed by
'

that individual

; the term

the

presentPrime
and
connotes

thing,and impliedby the Minister of England' denotes

'the

individual Minister
a

person, of

attribute of
of

being the
Socrates'

Prime denotes

England' ;

the
'

term

'the father

implies the attribute of being Socrates's have both a denotation father' ; thus all singularterms and a connotation,proper names alone,according to Mill, being experson,

and

cepted.
among

We

have

already alluded
this and other.

to

the
not

difference here revert of

a

of

view

on logicians

and need point,

to it. have term

a

" 2.
increased

The

denotation
to

the connotation

term

close relation
or

each

When

the denotation is decreased is increased If you add

or or

of

is
;

its decreased, the connotation is decreased

connotation of
or a

increased

again,when
of
more a

term

'decreased,
new

its denotation

increased.

group
one

thingsto
class

the group denoted by a attributes from its connotation.

term, you
Include
a

subtract
new

or

class within
a

signified by
that

term, and

its connotation

will lose

its the than

meaning,
before.

individuals

is,the attributes possessedin common of the enlarged class will be fewer

term
*

part of by all
number

in

The

man'

has

for its denotation the two is

the group

of animals

called men,

and

for its connotation

attributes,

and 'animality'

If 'rationality.'

its denotation
or

enlargedby
than

includingin
man,

it 'irrational will

animals'
no

all other

animals

its connotation

consist bers of
'

but as longer be the same before, of that attribute only which is possessedby all the mem the newly formed enlarged class, namely, the attribute thus lose the other lose
an

and animality,'

attribute attribute
"

'

The rationality.' 'three

term
"

will 'triangle' its

likewise

sidedness'
as

'

new or connotation,when groups and added quadrilaterals' are multilateral,'

'

from

such classes,

to its denotation.

The

term

'animal'

will lose such

attributes

as

locosensibility,

48

DENOTATION

AND

CONNOTATION

[PART I.

motion, "c., from its connotation,when its denotation is en the new in its sphere, denotation largedso as to include plants3 and connotation term giving rise to the new 'organizedbeing.5
'

when its connotation, denotation of inorganicthings,' the is and the decreased connotation increased denotation giving rise 'material to the term includinginorganicas being'or 'body,'
term
'

This

will

again lose a part of enlarged by the addition

its

organicbeings. Thus, we see that addition to the deno tation of a term implies subtraction from its connotation,and that the new class thus produced is generally signified by a new
well
as

term

with

smaller

connotation. of
a

that,when
connoted

the denotation

term
a

it can be shown Similarly, is decreased, its connotation

new
a

is increased.

Again, if
a

you

add

attribute group of

to the attribute

by

term, you

subtract

examples we have of the term Add the attribute 'organization3 to the connotation of material body,'the attribute to the connotation sensibility' to the the term being,'the attribute 'rationality' ''organized the attribute 'three-sidedness3 of the term connotation animal,' rectilineal figure3 of the term to the connotation ; and, in each of the corresponding that term is decreased, case, the denotation number of things possess the added attributes ; and a smaller is, and the decreased denotation the increased connotation give rise it can be shown term. to a new that,when the con Similarly, notation of a term is decreased, its denotation is increased. " 3. The relation between the denotation and the connota tion of a term may be explainedby figures follows : as Let A, B, C, D, be four generalterms, their denotations being representedby the circles A, B, C, D, and their connotations
denotation.
* ' ' '
"

The

things from its just given illustrate this.

^X
a

J- \

/*~*\ \
a

50
will neither

DENOTATION

AND

CONNOTATION

[PART I.
increases

increase

nor or

if the decrease,

circle A

by

the

birth,manufacture, the attributes a, b, c

The denotation Both

discoveryof
the

new

individuals possessing

of the class.

and
may the

connotation
or

of

term

are

not abso of

fixed. lutely knowledge.

more or more
'

increase

decrease with
of
a

the advance

Given

connotation

less indefinite.
or

Given

term, its denotation is the denotation, the connotation

the term three attributes

is
4

less indefinite.

Suppose,for example, that

the
a,

metal

has for its connotation its denotation ?

6, c, what

is then those but

three

attributes.
that

Every individual thing that possesses Not only the metals at present known

all substances

three

will attributes, circle representingthe with the on increasing

some

hereafter be found to possess those may be included in its denotation; thus the denotation progress
are now

of the of

term

'metal'

may

go

in chemistry. Or discovery metals may

turn

substances
to be

that

recognizedas
the circle may

out

compound
progress the

; and

thus

decrease in extent
the other defi

with

the that

of chemical

analysis.Suppose,on
term
(

hand,
and

denotation of
a a

of the

metal

'

is fixed and

nite,that is,consists
is

certain

number

of known is then
term
*

elements,
its
conno

represented by
The
common

certain

what circle,

tation ?

attributes

connotated

by

the

in possessed these

by
may

all the substances in number

term
'

denoted with
'

metal,'and by it. Now,

progress
come

attributes

increase the

the

of

chemical
to connote

and knowledge,

metal

may

afterwards

both

attributes which it does not at present. Thus, many the denotation and the connotation of a term may vary with

the increase of knowledge.

"
1.

4.

Exercises:
the

"

Describe

change

in the denotation
as

and

connotation

of each

of the terms from

as

in the
to the

series following

you

pass from

the 1st to the 2nd,

reverse

the 2nd pass i. ii.

3rd, and

so

and, again,in the forth,

so on.

order,

you

from

the last to the last but one, and

Element, metal, gold, Animal,

man,

Englishman, rectilinealfigure, iii. Eight-angled figure. triangle, triangle,

CHAP.

II.]
iv.

OF

TERMS.

51

literature in Literature, English literature,philosophical

v.

English. the Force, gravity,

earth.

mutual

attraction of the

sun

and

the

vi. vii.
2.
more

Solid, stone,preciousstone, ruby, Eock, igneousrock, volcanic rock,pumice.

as

Give
terms
a
"

many

examples

as

you

can

of series of

four, or three,
stands

each, in which
denotation and

each

term

of

greater extension
of
a

before
3.

term

of less extension. the connotation

term

The

vary

inversely."
may

Explain and
4.
Can increase whose

criticisethis statement.

you

give
any

any

example of

terms

whose

denotation

without

connotation

change in the connotation, and also of terms increase without change in the deno any may
the denotation and
a

tation ? 5.
Has

What
every

determines
term
a

and the connotation

of

term?

denotation

connotation?

"

5.

If

number this

of terms
" "

be

related

to

one

another

as

in represented if the that is, A

figure,

denotation

of

be contained in that of if the denotation

B, C,
be

and be and
as

of B of

contained

in that

if their connotations

shown

the

figureby then C is small letters,

a

in the

called

B,

and

genus in relation to in rela B a species genus in re and A a species

a : NOT-C

tion to C ; B lation to

A,

in relation to B and containing

that

the is,
term
are

the contained relation to each

called respectively genus

The
term

and
them

in species

other.
same

distinction between
may be
a

is however

relation to one, B instance, is

a

for the relative, in and a species

genus

genus

in

relation to

another; here, for

in species relation

in relation to

A, and

4"2

52
to C.

DENOTATION

AND

CONNOTATION

[PART I.
species

The

attribute

'

'

is called the

differentia of the

B in relation to the genus C, and the attribute ' c ' the differentia of the species A in relation to the genus B. The differentia of a is that attribute which species being added to the connotation of the genus 'b'

gives the connotation

of the

species;here the
of the is thus
a

attri

bute

being added

to

'a' the of the

connotation

genus

C,
the

gives ab, the

connotation

species B, and
the differentia

differentia of the
from distinguished genus;

speciesB.
the other for

By

species is
the
same

species contained
two
are
'

in

as

genus,

example,contains

speciesB

and

not-B, that is,those

not-B
;

C's that

and

by

the

differentia ' b

B, and those C's that are the speciesB is distinguished

in the
same

from
The

the other
two

speciesnot-B

contained

genus

C.

speciesB and not-B included in the genus C are called co-ordinate species. In the figure on page 54, the three sub classes A, B and C contained in the class G are, similarly, co-ordinate speciesof the genus G; and the terms A, B, and C
are

called co-ordinate
to

in relation

to

each

other

and

subordinate

in relation

G, while G
not-C
are

is called called

them. not-C
cover

C and

in relation to super-ordinate terms or contradictory concepts,

includingeverything except
the every whole

and
not-

A,

B
are

sense, of

sphere of thought and thought is included in either C or not-C. A and and not-B in their widest and not-B, taking not-A the whole also contradictory sphere terms, and cover
existence.
Two
terms contradictory
are nor

is, C and not-C existence; every thing

that

thought and

so

re

lated to each
of be the and
same

other,that both can and the same thing,that one be false, the and if one false,
same
*

be neither if
one

affirmed

denied
must

be
must

true,the other
be

other

true,of
of
one

one

and

thing.

For

example,both

the terms be

'organized being'
and
the
'

being3 cannot not-organized

affirmed

being thing,nor can both be denied of it ; if * organized be affirmed, being' must be denied,and if the 'not-organized be denied, of a thing ; for the former must latter be affirmed, other of the two or thing must fall into one every possible comprehensive classes
which divide between
them the

whole

CHAP.

II.]
of

OF

TERMS.

53
included
existence be that be
so

sphere
or

thought
two
nor

and

other

of the

existence; a thing not has classes, all-embracing

But be if two
terms cannot

in

one

neither
to

in nature each

in

thought.
both

related may

other,that

but affirmed, if be
one

both

be

thing,that denied,of one and the same if one be false, must but, not conversely,
be true, of
of the
two must

true, the other

other
must

the false,

then it,
terms

they are
'black'

called and

contrary terms.
'black'

For be

example,

'white,'if

the same and denied, of one must be denied, 'white' if 'black' conversely, the thing in question it,for both may be denied of it,that is,

'white'

be

affirmed, thing, but, not be affirmed,of

colour
or

may of
no

be

neither
at

black
all.

nor

white, but
'cold' and

of

some

other

colour and

'virtue'

terms, while
and
terms

'hot,''up' and 'down,' contrary 'light' and 'darkness,'"c., are 'vice,' 'hot' and 'cold' and 'not-hot,''light' 'not-cold,'
Thus Two terms. contrary contradictory the whole sphere of thought and completelycover
are

'not-light/"c.,
do
not two

existence,while
between the whole and ed then

them

may

be

do. contradictory terms thus shown by diagrams

The
:
"

difference
that

Suppose

sphere of thought
is represent

existence

by

the

largestcircle D, contrary terms

'white' the
two
are
re

the two

'black'

and

presented by A and circles,

side each

small

B, lying out other, but both

under the circle of falling colour C, and jointly cover ing only a part of the largest while the two contra circle, 'black' and dictory terms and 'not-black' and the of
are

represented, by respectively,
of the

the

small

circle

A,

remainder

largest coveringthe circle, jointly

whole

thought and existence.

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION

[PART i.
of Terms.
of

Exercises 1. terms Give

:
"

on

the Mutual

Relations

the

genus,

species,and

differentia

the

following

(1)Plant, (2) Figure, (3) Triangle, (4) Body, (5)Metal, Mind. Book, (8)Flower, (9) Element, (7) Kock, (10) (6) 2. Give a subordinate, and a co-ordinate of the a super-ordinate, terms : following Bock, (5)Substance. (1)Animal, (2)Solid,(3)Virtue, (4) Give the contradictory 3. and a contrary of the followingterms : (1) White, (2) Simple, (3)High, (4)Liquid, (5)Good, (6) Moral, (7) Mind, (11) Matter, Vice, (8)Mortal, (9)Animal, (10) Beautiful. (12) Form, (13) 4. Has every term a genus and species ?
" "

" 6.
ment

Division

and

Definition of Terms
of
a

"

The

state orderly

of the

denotation

term,

or

the

grouping of
or

the deno

tation into smaller

or

classes

to according

the presence

absence,

is the division of the term. varying degree of an attribute, forth of the connotation of a term is its defi the setting And nition,or the definition of the things or class denoted by the definition is more The less completeaccordingas the term. or connotation of
a

term,
more

or
or

the

group

of attributes in The

which

the of
a

things agree,

is

less exhaustive.

definition
a

term, being
its any The

statement

of

varies with connotation, change in the latter.

division of

term

like

wise varies with

its denota increase in

tion.

With

the the

denotation increase
tent.

sub-classes
or

in number

in

ex

in extent

as

represented by

the

A, B, C are smaller classes under G, and if G is enlargedinto G',A, B, G will the whole no longer cover extent. They must increase the larger dotted lines, class or
If

CHAP.

II.]
be

OF

TERMS.

55
and

must

divided

in

different

way,

give rise
or a

to

new

sub

classes.
The and the like concept,
or

the

term, has its

The

content

comprehension,
its content the is

its extent

extension.

extent

of in

concept consists of
of

individual
The
or

conceptions or
of
a

things

which

found.
notions The

content

concept
or

consists

ideas which in words

constitute of all and

its very any

essence

statement

of these

elementary and meaning. elements,is the

individual

definition

of the

concept ;

the

grouping

of the

to their resemblance conceptionsinto minor divisions according is the division of the concept. The extent and and difference, and the relation between the content of a concept, them, may be and capital and small letters of the alpha representedby circles, bet, just as in the case of a term. " 7. Definition as a logical process is the process of deter in mining the connotation of a term, or the attributes possessed It implies obser common by the things denoted by the term. vation,analysis, abstraction, comparison, and even generaliza and is a most tion, important process in science. A definition as a product of thought is the product of this process. In a deserve most a complete treatise on Logic,Definition would prominent place. Here I shall give only the rules to which a definition ought to conform, noting, by the way, the faults to

which form

the violation of them

to the

gives rise.
or

A
:
"

definition should

con

rules following it be
an

conditions

(1)
the
term

That

statement analytical

of the connotation
one

of

defined.
a

This

rule includes

the

given by
et

the older

that logicians, that

a is,

definition should
of the genus is

be per and
a

genus

differentiam,
term.

statement

differentia of the

the definition is partial stated, and if the whole the definition is or of it is stated, incomplete; to distinguish if it serves complete.An incompletedefinition, the things denoted by the term from others belonging to the same higher class, corresponds to a definition per genus et difa

If

part of the connotation

while a complete definition corresponds to a definition ferentiamj The violation of this rule givesrise to per genus et differentias.

56
what

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION

[PART I.
a
as

has been

called

an

accidental

or definition,

mere

descrip

tion of the

things denoted

by

the

term

as

well

to redundant not

and

incompletedefinitions. When any all the denoted the by things by term,

its when is connotation,
some

stated

in the

possessed not forming a part of or it is accidental; and definition,

its connotation
are

attribute

attributes

that follow from

stated,

it is redundant.

For

bounded

by

three
to

is a figurewhich is example, 'a triangle and which has all its angles straightlines,
'

definition ; right angles is a redundant is a liquidsubstance water is incomplete; man is a cooking and animal iron is the cheapest metal accidental ; and are a is an plant organism having roots,branches,leaves,flowers, is a mere fruits, "c.,' description.
two
' ' ' ' ' ' '

togetherequal

(2)
of the

That
term

it

exactlycoincide
In

in extent

with

the

denotation

words, it should not include should it exclude any nor things other than those to be defined, of them. The violation of this rule givesrise to the fault of too For example, the definitions 'man great width or narrowness. is a sentient being,' metal is a solid substance,' a too wide ; are is a civilized animal,' a metal is a heavy element,' while man
' ' *

defined.

other

are

too

narrow.

(3)

That

it do

not

contain

the

term

to

be

or defined,

any

of its synonyms. fault of the

The

violation of this rule

circle in definition.

'man is a as by itself, 'life is the sum of the vital functions,' or organism,' vegetable is defined by a second term, and the second when a term again rational 'man is the 'a a as animal'; and, again, ra first, by is an is a human 'matter tional animal extended sub being,' stance';and, again,'an extended substance is a material body.' this rule it is evident that a term connoting an elementary From

defined

gives rise to the For example, when term is a human 'a plant is a being,'

attribute the
term

cannot

be defined.
or

For

its definition will contain

or

either
it.

itself

its synonym,
as

be

of merely a description

Hence
'

'feeling,' 'consciousness,' 'pleasure,' 'pain,' be cannot "c.,connoting elementaryattributes, colour,'smell,'

such
'

terms

defined.

The

definitions

or

rather

and analyses that descriptions

58

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION

[PART I.
its

is a three-sided figure, equilateral triangle having all equal to each other. angles and sides respectively is a figurebounded lines. by three straight (9) A triangle knowledge. (10) Logic is the science of human

(8)

An

(11)

Gold

is

precious metal.
is
a

(12) Diamond (13) Oxygen

kind

of carbon.

is

a a

supporter of combustion.
hard substance.

(14) A rock is

(15) Inorganicsubstances are dead material bodies. (16) Mind is a thinking substance. life. (17) A plant is a being possessing vegetable is a river of ice. (18) A glacier
II. Define the terms following
:
"

(1) Student,(2)College, (4)Library,(5)Class, (3) University, (6)Term, (7) Mind, (8) Matter, (9) Thing, (10) Food, (11) Plant, (16)Flower, Bird, (12)Lake, (13) Book, (14)Tree, (15) Animal, (18) Virtue, (19)Keligion, (20)Science. (17)

" 8.
from
tion of

division is to be distinguished, the one on Logical what is called physical the analysis or or division,
an

hand,
separa

individual what

thing into

from other, of
an

is called

component parts; and, on the the analysis or division, metaphysical

its its constituent
or attributes, qualities,

individual

thing into
of
a

properties.
The division

plant into

its

roots,trunk, branches,and

of an animal into its head, trunk,limbs,"c.,is physi or leaves, which constitute a cal; while the division into the qualities plant or an animal is metaphysical. The division of a pieceof while the division or gold into two or more parts is physical, rather the analysis of it into the qualities, a certain yellowcolour, are "c., which gravity,a certain form, size,solidity, specific

possessed by every
every

of it, is metaphysical.Similarly, particle

into its com be divided physically object may into its qualities, or ponent particles parts,and metaphysically

individual

or properties,

attributes.
.

But

both

these

kinds

of

division be

should

be

from distinguished

which division, logical

cannot

CHAP.

II.]
an

OF

TERMS.

59
a

to applied

individual

but only to thingor attribute,

class of

thingsor attributes.
The conform

rules
are

or

conditions
: following
"

to which

division ought logical

to

the

(1) That
vidual.

what

is to be

divided

be

class and
cannot be

not

an

indi

In other

words, a singularterm

and divided,

of logical division. The violation is capable term only a general to meta or of this rule gives rise either to physical partition, 'a physicalanalysis.A collective term, such as 'a nation,' 'the animal 'the universe,' (a forest,' kingdom,' being library,' divi of logical in signification, is also incapable singular really

sion.

(2) That the absence,or upon

division the

be

founded

upon
a

the

presence

or

of varyingdegree,

certain

attribute ; in other words, that there be of division. The divisionis or principle

only one
violation

fundamental fundamentum
of

this rule

givesrise

to the fault of cross-division.

(3)
same

That

the

name

of the class divided be

of the

in applicable,

the

sense,

to each

sub-divisions
The
to

or

smaller

classes into

which rise to

the whole

is divided.

violation of this rule also

gives
class

or partition, physical

(4)
divided. should divided
of

That

the

analysis. metaphysical sub-divisions be together equal to the words, the

violation denotations with of the the denotation of

In other

dividingterms
the

together exactlycoincide
term.

The

of this rule

(toonarrow incompleteor over-complete

(5)
exclude

That each

the

sub-divisions do
In other

not

gives rise to the fault too wide) division. or overlap,but completely

included included in in

other. of
one

the denotation the denotation

words, any individual dividingterm, should not be

The

of another.

violation of this rule

givesrise
"

to the fault of

division. over-lapping
above rules

examples : (1)A is into (i) division of rectilineal triangles isosceles, equilateral, (ii) divided is general; the princi the term scalene. Here and (iii) ple of division is the equality or inequalityof the sides; the subto each 'rectilineal triangle' is applicable divided term
I shall illustrate the

by

few

60

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION

[PARTI.

division ; the sub-divisions taken together coincide exactly with the class divided ; and they exclude each other. In this division
an

isosceles

is triangle

denned

as

having only two

the

sides

equal,
the

otherwise

the

second

sub-division will include

and first,

division involve
lineal

the fault of

is into figures (iv)six-sided, (v) more-than-six-sided ; here the divided term is of the of division is the varying number general; the principle sub is applicable to each sides; the term 'rectilineal figure3

overlapping.(2)A division of recti four-sided, five-sided, three-sided, (i) (ii) (iii)

all the sub-divisions are division; together equal to the whole class; and they exclude each other. (3) A division of plane obtuse ; this also con and (iii) angles is into (i) right, acute,(ii) forms
to the five rules.

From
without
a

the

examples given
of the the
to

above

it is evident

that

we

cannot,
a

knowledge

division conforms division logical called

kind

ascertain whether things divided, rules. There however, one kind is, from the form. In

of

in which

this is evident

It is this

Dichotomy"
a

the

dividing or
Excluded

cutting into

two.

of division to the

class is divided

into two

which, accord parts,

ing

of Principle

whole.

Its nature

the Middle, completelycover will be evident from the following examples:"

(1)

ANIMALS

Vertebrate animals

Invertebrate animals

I Mammalia
Vertebrate other

animals
than

Mammalia

Birds

Other

than

birds

Eeptilia

Other

than

Reptilia

Amphibia

Other than

Amphibia

(Fishes)

CHAP.

II.]
MATERIAL

OF

TERMS.

Cl

(2)

BODIES

J
Solid bodies Not-solid bodies

Liquids
Gaseous

Not-liquidbodies

other than solid, Not-gaseous (i.e. and gaseous bodies) liquid THINGS IN THE WIDEST

}) EXISTENCES,

OR,

SENSE

(man)

(loweranimals)

examples of division by Dichotomy, the rules given above hold good. In Deductive Logic,we can, strictly speaking, of Logical Division. treat only of this kind For, in no other kind of it, feel perfectly can we specialreference to sure, without that the rules hold good : that the sub-groups the thingsdivided,
In these taken whole
more

less than the for example, are neither greaternor together, not divided ; that they do not overlap; or that there are The reader can easily principlesof division than one.
.

himself satisfy for himself

not:
"

of the truth the

whether

remark, by tryingto find out or logical followingdivisions are strictly

animals
into

of this

1.

The

Division

of Invertebrate

(1)Protozoa,

(3)Annuloida, (4)Annulosa, (5)Mollusca. (2)Ccelenterata, Division Phenomena of Mental into (1) Cognition, The 2. (3)Volition. (2)Feeling,

G2
3.

DIVISION

AND

DEFINITION

OF

TERMS.

[PART

I.

The

Division

of

Plants

into

(1) Monocotyledons, (2)

and (3)Cryptogams. Dicotyledons,

4.

The

Division

of Rocks

into

(1)Igneous,(2)Aqueous, and

(3)Metamorphic.
Exercises I. 1.
2. 3.
on

Division.
:"

Test

the

Divisions following

and Scalene. Trianglesinto Equilateral, Right-angled,

TernH
Terms

into into

Abstract,Absolute, and

General.

and Singular, General, Collective,

Distributive.

4. 5.

and Figures into Triangles, Quadrilaterals,

Circles.

Quadrilateral Figures into Parallelograms, Squares, Oblongs,

Rhombuses,
and Rhomboids. Flowers The into

6. 7.
8.

Petals, Sepals,Stamens, and

into into into

Pistils.
America.

World

into

and Asia, Africa,Europe, Australia, and Terms, Propositions,

Deductive
A

Logic
Chalk

Inferences.

9. 10.

pieceof
animal the

Whiteness, Extension, Solidity, Weight.

the

The

body

Lungs,

the

Heart,
the

the

Stomach,
the

Senses, the Brain, the

into

Muscles,

Bones, and
Abstract.

Ligaments.
II. 12.

Terms Houses

Positive,and Concrete, Singular,

into

Brick-made, Stone-made,

One-storeyed, Twoand Parsi.

13.
14.

and Huts. storeyed, Religioninto Christian,Mahomedan, Virtue into

Hindu,

15.

Truthfulness, Justice,Benevolence, Temperance. and Sciences into (1)Theoretical and Practical, (2)Material
and Mental, (3)Mathematical, Physical, Moral. Substances into

16. 17. 18. 11.

Material, Organic,Inorganic,and Mental.

Logic into Deductive, Inductive, Formal, and Material. Immaterial, Sentient and Insentient. Things into Material,
Divide
the following terms logically
:
"

(1) Name,

(2) Proposition, (3) Book, (4) House, (5) Student, Man, Phenomenon, (10) Act, (8) War, (9) (6)Examination, (7) Taste, (14)Touch, (15)Sound, Colour, (12)Smell, (13) (11) State, (16) Force, (17) Energy, (18) Body, (19) Mental Paper. (20)

PART

IL"

PROPOSITIONS;

CHAPTER

I.

THE

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

"
denial of two
or

1.

A
a

PROPOSITION

may

be

defined

as

an

affirmation It thus

_or

of

certain and

relation of
a
a

between
or

twoj^rms. of
a

consists

terms

word,

words, or part
or

word That

expressed
which is it is
as

understood, as
or or

sign of

affirmation

denial.

affirmed affirmed
a

denied
denied

is called the is called the

or

Predicate, that
that

of which which

Subject,and
is called the

stands propo

sign of

affirmation For

denial in the

Copula,

of the

sition. 'all men'

example, sign of

is the the

"All men are proposition and subject,'mortal' the predicate, affirmation

; in the

mortal,"
'are' Some the
men

copula
are
'

or

proposition

"

not not

wise," 'some
'

men'
or

is the the

subject, 'wise' subject,'rise'

the
a

the

predicate, proposition predicate,

of the pre
an

are

the

copula
' '

sign
is the

of denial ; in the the

"The and

sun

'the rises,"
s

sun'

the letter of the

is the

dicate

subjectis
word

copula; here expressedby

'rise.' When
"

affirmation

called slightalteration,

inflection

of the

fully expressed, the

is in rising,"
same

last

propositionstands thus
of affirmation is

"

The

sun

which
as

the

sign
first

stated,and explicitly
a

is the

in the

example given above. The subject or the predicateof singleword

or

proposition may

consist

of

of any

combination

of words

constitutinga

term.

64
In the
"

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PARTII.
virtuous
are

propositionsChalk
"

is white,"" The
is known
not

happy,"
To know

That

all

men

are

mortal

to

" everybody,"
' '

"c., chalk,' the virtuous,3 easy," ' that all men to know are mortal,' are, any subjectthoroughly' the subjects, and to every white,' happy,' known respectively, the predicates. body,' easy are, respectively, The copula of a proposition, when stated in the logical form, consists usually of the parts of the verb to be with or without the negativeparticle not.' It should be carefully noticed that the copulamerely expresses a certain relation between the subject and the predicate, and does not imply the existence of either. For example,in the symbolical 'A is B,' 'A' is the proposition 'B' the predicate, and 'is' the copula which, in the subject, affirmative form, merely expresses the presence of a particular relation between A and B, and does not imply the existence of either the subject the predicate.Similarly, in the proposition or 'A is not B,'the copula'is not' is merely a sign of the absence of a particular relation between A and B, and does not signify
any
' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

is subjectthoroughly

either

the

existence
as

or

the

non-existence

of A

or

B.

The

verb

verb from the same copula should be distinguished used as copula and predicate in a proposition. In the latter case, it impliesthe existence of the subject.In the proposition, 'A is,' for example, is means to is existing.' exists and is equivalent
' ' ' ' '

'to be' used

the verb to be is ambiguous ; for the words also, 'is,' 'are,' 'existence,' "c., "c., like 'exists,' 'being,' 'existing,' to context,mean in Thought, that either existing may, according in Nature, that is, or is,free from self-contradiction, existing
'

In this sense,

'

selfand free not only from existence, contradiction but also from disagreement with fact or reality. The proposition, 'A is,' mean simply that the idea or con may or fact corresponding cept A exists in Thought without any reality to it,or it may that the idea A exists in Thought and mean
to corresponding

actual

agrees

with

fact

or

reality.The
senses.

exist in neither circle is in Nature

of these

subjectof a proposition may "A In the proposition, square

circle' has existence neither

'a not,"the subject

nor

square

in

Thought.

66
tion between

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.

thingsmay be considered (1)in without thought or any mode of our itself, any reference to our of any mode thinking of it, (2)as thought by us independently in language,and (3) as thought and expressed by of expression in language. A judgment is the relation as thought by us. us is the relation as thought and expressedby us in A proposition logiciansit is regarded as the objective language. By some in language without relation itself, or expressed any reference to our thought or any mode of our thinking of it. " 2. The Divisions of Propositions. to a simple or to in Logic usually A proposition corresponds while a compound sentence in a complex sentence in grammar, of propositions to a plurality in Grammar generally corresponds Logic.
two
or

attributes

SYMBOLICAL
I.

EXAMPLES

OF

PKOPOSITIONS.

Propositions(single).

1.
2. 3.

A is
A

B,

simple sentence.
B,
a

that is C is

complex sentence. D,
a

A that is C is B that is If A

complex sentence.

4.
5.

is,B is,a compound sentence.

or

A is either B

C,

compound sentence.

II.

Combinations 1.
2. 3. 4.

called Compound Propositions). of Propositions(also and

D
are are

A is B A and A and

C ;

or

A is B
or

as

well
as

as

C.

B ;

as

well

D is B.

B and

C.
are are

A that is A that is A is A is

E, and D that is F, E, and

D

B. B which is G.

5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

that is F,

B, and

C is D.

B,

but C is D.
nor

A is neither B Neither A
nor

C.
is C.

The

various

divisions of

aspectspossessedby every divisions is given below :

"

founded are propositions proposition. A tabular

upon view

certain of the

CHAP.

I.]

OF

PROPOSITIONS.
A is B, A is not f Categorical: B is. ( Conditional: If A is, B.

67

I. Eelation

...

II. Quality

f Affirmative: A is B.
.

Negative:A

is not B. A must is B.
:

J III. Modality.. Propositions.

IV.

(Necessary
( Problematic

be B.

A Assertory:

may

be B.

f Universal Quantity I Particular

r

All A is B.
:

Some

A is B. All
men are

Verbal, Analytical :
animals.

I V.

Import

Eeal, ']
v.

Synthetical:All

men

are

mortal.

We

shall now
Division

these to explain proceed of

divisions in order.
Eelation.

" 3.
The called

to according Propositions

first division of

is propositions

into

(also (1)Categorical

and (2)Conditional (alsocalled Hypothetical, or Simple), Complex),founded on the relationbetween the two terms,or on the A categorical is one nature of affirmation or denial. proposition and the predicate the subject in which is the relation between is simply af a unconditional one, in which the predicate simple, firmed or denied of the subject, without any condition being laid down. For example,in A is B," All metals are elements," B
" "

is affirmed of metals
'

'

'

elements unconditionally, without

"

'

'

is affirmed restriction
are
'

of
or

'

all

under

all circumstances the

any

con

dition.
* '

men proposition Some wise is affirmed absolutely of or unconditionally A conditional proposition, the other hand, is one on

in Similarly,

wise,"
men.'
an

some

in which

affirmation

or
"

denial is made

under

certain condition.

In the
'

proposition if A is B, C is D," for example,the assertion C is D depends on the assertion A is B,'or D is affirmed of C, pro vided B is affirmed of A. The truth of the second clause depends the latter is called the antecedent, upon that of the first. Hence or condition, reason, and the former the consequent. The de the conditional nature of or pendence of the one upon the other,
' '

5"2

C8

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PAET II.

the affirmation in the

before

the

is expressedby the word 'if proposition, antecedent, and 'then' or 'therefore' understood

replacedby consequent. The word 'if is sometimes words such as or 'when,' 'where,''provided that,''suppose,' their equivalents. In the proposition A is either B or C we have conditional affirmation : B is affirmed of 'A,' if C is denied of A C is affirmed of A,' if B is denied of the ; or
" " ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

before the

latter.

and the proposition assertion, is, other of the "if in fact, to one two propositions, or equivalent (1) A is not C, A is B ; and (2) if A is not B, A is C." Conditional propositionsare divided into two classes, (1) and (2)Disjunctive, accordingas Hypothetical (or Conjunctive) the two members clauses are or or then,' conjoined by if B is," or.' The propositions If A is, disjoined by either If A is B, C is D," If A is, B is not," belong to the first class, A is B .or C and the propositions "A is either B or C," "Either is D," "c.,belongto the second class. Thus there is
one really
" "
.

'

....

'

"

....

"

"

Disjunctive and hypotheticalpropositionshave been also called Complex and even Compound^ because they apparently consist of more than one proposition. In reality, however,they and express each but are as simple as categorical propositions,
one

affirmation of

or one

denial

"

the

affirmation

or

the
more

denial

of the

dependence
one

assertion

upon

another,or,
The

of properly, clauses of
a

many-worded term upon propositionare hypothetical

worded
case

another.

two

of

really equivalent to two rnanyin the as propositions terms, and not to two categorical B a compound proposition. In the proposition If A is,
" ' ' ' '

the antecedent A is and the consequent B is are not two is," assertions in which the existence of A and that of B independent but parts of a conditional affirmation, affirmed, are, respectively, the truth of the one part depending upon that of the other. two are They are, in reality, many-worded terms, like that men 'to live happily,' mortal,' "c.,and mean simply 'the existence of and the existence of B the relation A respectively ; and is that of dependence of the latter by the proposition expressed in the proposition If A is B, C is Similarly, upon the former.
' ' ' ' "

CHAP.

I.]
antecedent

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

69
*

D," the
event
'

'A and

is B' the

means

A
*

being B,' 'the

C is D
'

fact C

or

of A

being B/
fact
or

consequent
of C

means

'

being

the D,' or expressedby the

to

being D '; and the relation the proposition is the dependence of the latter upon likewise be shown The disjunctive former. proposition may be really simple, though apparently consistingof several
event

propositions. logicians(Hamilton, Thomson, Boole, According to some the Ueberweg, Bain, and Fowler), in a disjunctive proposition, truth of one clause or alternative member depends on the falsity of another,and vice versd. Thus in the proposition A is either B or C," the truth of A is B of A is C,' depends on the falsity of A is B and the falsity the truth of A is C ; the truth of on
" ' ' ' '
'

'

'

"

is

C,'on
"

the

of falsity is B.'

"

the truth B
or

of 'A is thus

The

of A B,'and the falsity "A disjunctive proposition

one

is

'

is

C,'on

is either

to equivalent
"

or

other

of the

four

hypothe

: propositions (1) If A is not C, A is B, (2) If A is C, A is not B, (3) If A is not B, A is C, (4) If A is B, A is notC. According to other logicians(Whately, Hansel, Mill,and in a disjunctive of one the falsity alterna Jevons), proposition, tive member implies the truth of the other,and not vice versd. above they would Thus, of the four hypotheticals recognizeonly the first and the third, and reject the other two as not implied by the disjunctiveproposition. According to them, the truth of member does not imply the falsity one of the other, and both

tical

may The

be true.

Mill illustrates this view

"

in the
a

followingway
"

"

proposition (1)if he knave, he

to

He

is either
a a

fool
a

or

knave Its

does

not

mean

that he cannot is that

not
seems
a

be both is not is
a

fool and he fool, This

knave.
a

fool.

knave, and the view is, also,

of the
two

is

explicit meaning that (2) if he is given above and

views. On the
to be
seems

be

the

more

reasonable

whole,however, the

difference between The

the two

views

merely a

verbal

one.

question is,Are

the two

members

70

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PARTII.
or

or' disjoined by 'either they are, then Ueberweg'sview

....

exclusive alternatives
is true. is If

not?

If

theyare not,then

Mill's

view is true.
usage, and ternatives not. For
an

Which
seems

of the two that usage

...

true,may

be determined

by

it

sanctions both ; sometimes

the al

or' are exclusive, and sometimes disjoined by 'either in the propositions, "This organism is either example,

plantor
two

animal,""The
are

soul is either mortal

:

or

immortal,"the
possess the

alternatives

exclusive

the

same

cannot subject

attributes

expressed by them.
a

metal is either
"

conductor

of

"This propositions, of heat," or a conductor electricity

In

the

in presence of a higher, is either a lower prefers pleasure immoral or imprudent," A mental phenomenon is one either of the alternatives are not exclusive : or willing," knowing, feeling, the same subject may possess the attributes expressed by them. He who
"

In
ence

this book is

we

shall

recognizeboth
we

the

views,though prefer
with Mill's
name.

given to
second

the view

have

connected

"
and

4.

Division

The

accordingto Quality. is division of propositions

into

(1)Affirmative

that is, accordingas (2)Negative,founded on their quality, is affirmed or denied of the subject.An affirmative the predicate in which the predicate is affirmed of the is one proposition in which the attribute signified that is, subject, by the predicate

belongs to
denoted

the

subject ;

or

in which

the

individual

or

the

class

by the subjectis included in the class denoted by the there is an agreement between the ideas predicate ; or in which the notions of the subjectand the predicate;or in which or attribute connoted by the predicate accompanies the attribute
connoted
in which, as in the case of the subject;or lastly the consequent depends on the antece proposition, hypothetical the other hand, is one in A negative proposition, dent. on does not belong to which the attribute signified by the predicate the subjectas a class is excluded from the subject; or in which as a the predicate class;or in which there is a disagreement

by

the

in or subjectand the predicate; the attribute connoted by the predicatedoes not accompany in which, as attribute connoted or by the subject; lastly

between

the ideas of the

which

the
in the

CHAP.

I.]
of the

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

71
does not

case

depend on,

the consequent proposition, hypothetical or is independent of,the antecedent.

SymbolicalExamples
A is B.

^
is.
'

If A If A Either A

is,B
is A

Affirmatlve'

B, CisD. is, or
B.
is not.
not
or

is.

J
1

is not

If A If A Either

is,B
is A

B, C is

D. B is not.

Neeatlve'

is not,

Concrete All metals If it

are

Examples:
men

elements

; All

are

mortal.

)
"- Affirmative.

rain,the

ground will be
a

wet.
a

Hydrogen is either
No
men are

metal

or

non-metal.
i

perfect.
blow
from

If the wind

the north, it will not

men

be hot. mortal" that

) the

In the affirmative 'mortal' is affirmed

"All proposition of the

are

predicate
is the

subject 'all men,'

is, the attribute

agrees with

is 'mortality' included

affirmed

of the

things called 'men,' the class "man'

in the class
or

'mortal,'the idea of 'mortal'

idea of 'man,'
'

the attribute

accompanies the attribute 'mortality'

humanity.'

"

5.

Division

to Modality. according

is founded on their modality, propositions and is into (1) Necessary, (2) Assertory,and (3) Problematic. The modality of a propositionis a specialdevelopment of its the predicateis affirmed or quality. According to the latter, denied of the subject the former depends the specialcharac ; on ter of the affirmation or denial, whether the relation affirmed or denied between the subjectand the predicateis a necessary, If the relation or connection assertory, or problematic one. between A and B, the subjectand predicateof a proposition, be founded their very nature that is, one and constitution, on one The third division of and necessarily universally true,the modality of the

proposition

72
is necessary
must
:

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.
sides of
a

"A

must

be

B."

'

"

The

two

triangle

togethergreater than the third." If the connection be established one by experience,and true as far as experience not implying necessity, the modalityof the one extends,that is, are mortal"; propositionis assertory:"A is B"; "All men
"All material bodies If gravitate." the connection be

be

uncertain, if A may and not under others, true under certain circumstances, is said to not be B, then the modality of the proposition or may be problematic rain to-morrow," ; as in the propositions It may He may be wise," He is probably The modality a good man." of a proposition thus consists in the degreeof necessity, certainty, relation between the subject of the connection or or probability must and is expressedby such words and the predicate, as be,
" " "

most necessarily, certainly,

be, "c. probably, probably, may that Dr Venn, in his work the Logic of Chance, argues on treated of in Pure be satisfactorily cannot modal propositions but only in the Logic of Proba Logic,or the Logic of Certainty, bility1.Hamilton, Mansel, and others exclude modality from from logical Logic. Hamilton excludes it altogether propositions. and keeps the copulafree from Fowler confines it to the predicate all words of time, place,"c.,as well as from and all adverbs degrees of conviction or certainty. Aristotle, gives three kinds or varieties of Ueberweg, following modality : (1)Necessary or Universal : A must be B. (2)Asser A may be B. tory: A is B. (3) Contingent or Problematic: that assertoryand necessary maintains Dr Venn propositions while problematic full belief or conviction, the same express that the so propositions express all the degreesof conviction, into two and not three distinct classes. This division is really Is the subjectneed not be discussed here : but the questionis,

phrases expressive of
"

the

such as all the mental conviction of propositions or certainty the three angles of a triangle are together equal to two right kind and degree as that of propositions like of the same angles," all men are mortal," all material bodies gravitate 1
" " " "

See

below, the Chapteron

"Probable

Seasoning and Probability."

74
class of

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PARTII.

"A German while the proposition particular propositions, whom I had met at Leipzigwas there is a singularproposition, to the class of universal belonging propositions. One metal is liquid" is a singularproposition belonging to the former class, while is a singularproposition "Mercury is a liquidmetal" when belongingto the latter class. In like manner, by any words, or demonstrative descriptive pronouns, any individuals of of a proposition a class forming the subject are definitely pointed "These out, the propositionis universal and not particular: three men were there," These metals belong to the Copper solid substances," are Group," "All metals except mercury Those metals that do not rust are noble metals," The following
" " " " "

fifteen elements
We have

all universal propositions. are non-metals," explainedabove the quantity of categorical propo
are

subjectis taken in its denotation or extent. when the subject is taken in two-fold division, We get the same for the attribute signified its connotation or intension, by the the attribute connoted by the predicateB may accompany under all circum subject A in every case, or in some cases, under circumstances contin stances or particular universally, gently.In the former case, the proposition A is B is universal, and in the latter case, it is particular.For example, the propo and means, when the mortal" is universal, sition "All men are that mortality accompanies subject is taken in its connotation, that wherever humanity under all circumstances, humanity is, wise is particular, are mortalityis. The proposition Some men when the subjectis taken in its connotation, that in and means, wisdom accompanies some cases, or under certain circumstances, humanity, that in at least one case, where humanity is,wis
when sitions, the
"

"

"

"

"

dom

is. The

hypothetical propositionis universal, when, in every is followed by the consequent; and it is case, the antecedent in some the consequent follows the antecedent when particular, universal proposition If A The case. cases, or in at least one B is," In all cases, if A is, means explicitly, is,B is," or, more that under whatever circum'A' exists 'B' exists, that wherever
" "

CHAP.

]
'A'

OF

PKOPOSIT10NS.

75
the

stances

and
means

the

happens, it is followed by proposition In some particular

"

happening
cases,

of

'B';

if A

is,B is,'

that,in
the existence

at least

one

case, the

existence

of 'A' is followed

by

of

'

B.3
EXAMPLES.
I.

Universal.

1.
2. 3. 4.

All
No

men
man

are

mortal.

is

perfect.
of 760 mm.,

If mercury is heated, it rises in temperature. is heated to 100" C. under If water a pressure

it

boils.
5. 6.

This The

animal
soul

is either

vertebrate,or
or

an

invertebrate.

is either mortal
or

immortal.

7.

Space

is either finite

infinite.

II. 1.
2. 3. 4.

Particular,

Some
Some
In
some

men

are

wise.
are

elements
cases, cases,

not

metals.
is

if water

heated, it contracts.

5. 6.

In many In some Some

men

cases,
are

if there is a sensation, there is a if there is a sensation, there is no either

or prophets. philosophers

perception, perception.

"

7.

The

PrepositionalForms

according
and

to

Quality

and

Quantity. divided are Propositions ing to their quality. The the negative, again be may accordingto
or

into affirmative affirmative divided Thus

negativeaccord
well
as

as propositions,

into universal
we

and

particular

their

quantity.
"

get

the

followingclasses

forms

of

: propositions

PROPOSITIONS

I
Affirmative

I
Negative I
Universal No
A is B ;

I
Universal
All A is B ; In all cases,

Particular Some In
some

is B ; cases,

Particular A is not B ; Some

In
some

In all cases, if A is,B is not.

E

cases,

if A

is,B is.
A

if A

is,B is.
I

B if A is, O

is not.

76 Every
universal

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.
called

universal

affirmative

is proposition

A,

every

negative propositionE, every particularaffirmative propositionI,and every particular negative 0, that is, A, E, I, propositionsof those classes The words the whole,' any,' each/ every,' all,' respectively. 'a few' and 'certain' used definitely, 'no/ 'none/ "c., are signs of A or E. The words some/ not all/ at least one/ not none/ certain used indefinitely, and a few many/ most/ "c.,are signs of I or 0.
are
' ' ' ' * ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

and

the

symbols

for

the

The

qualityand quantityof
from its form.
we

cannot proposition
a

always be
subjectthe pro from

determined

Without
cases,

knowledge
whether

of the

matter,
or

cannot, in many
or man

say

it is universal

affirmative particular,
"

negative. For
learned
"

example,
seem

position Every
its form, but
means men

is not its
men

would

to

be E

from
some

meaning
are

that
are.

not

0 or I, that is,it really learned,and impliesthat some it is

Thus

it may I ; but in

be

taken, from
"

0 or differently

negation of
as

rather

Logic,it is the proposition All men the propositions than I. as "Every Similarly,
a
"

meaning, to be in regarded as a mere usually and treated are learned,"

its

proof of ignorance," Some of the most valuable books both physics and meta know seldom are read," "Few "All elements is not gold," not are "All that glitters physics," to be regarded "All scientific books are not difficult," are metals,"
mistake is not
as

0,

rather

than
seem

as

I. from of

The

proposition Some
"

acids

have

no

oxygen"
"

would

its form
some

oxygen

being affirmed
means
"

"having no affirmative, it is nega but, in reality, acids,

to be
"

acids. 'having oxygen' is denied of some Similarly,None were there," Nothing is annihilated," Many should be objectsof imaginationhave no objectiveexistence," and tive,
that
"

as regarded negative rather than as affirmative. the modalityof a proposition Similarly, cannot,in

every

case,

be determined
"All

from

its form three from

have triangles appear

angles" would

only. For example, the proposition angles together equal to two right its form to be assertory, but, in

it is necessary. reality,

CHAP.

I.]

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

77

Exercise.

Eeduce

each

of the

to propositions following

the

logical form,

and

that is,state in respectto each whether give its quantityand quality,

it is A, E, I, or 0

:"

(1)

Two

lines straight is

cannot

inclose

space.
can

(2)

Matter
or more

anything whose
of
our senses.

existence

be determined

by

one

(3) A nail driven into wood is not a true case of penetration. .(4) Liquids have no shape of their own. and expansive. (5) Gases are eminently compressible only appliesto the atoms (6) Strictly speaking,impenetrability
of bodies.

(7)

Two
same

portions of portion of
of water

matter space.

cannot

simultaneously occupy
alcohol
two

the

(8)

If

pint

and

pint of
occur

be mixed

together,.the

volume

of the mixture

is less than

parts.
in the free state.

(9) Very
(10)
No

few of these elements

rest is known

in nature

absolute
a

in the universe.

(11)
(12) (13) (14)

Inertia is

purely negative property of matter.

involves

Consciousness The
To

judgment.
at

province of physicsis
have the is in it and
our our

present much
of
a

more

restricted. think

essence objective

thing is

to

clearly

what

omit

what

is not.

(15)
(16) (17)

Not Some

all

ideas consist of the ideas

of

of things. essences objective represent only the partialor accidental

affections of
If you

things.
a

know
a

what

circle
out

is,and what

square,

you

cannot

make

compound

of them.

" 8.
of Two

The

mutual

relations

of

A, E, I,and 0,

or,

Opposition

Propositions.

but subjectand predicate, propositions having the same in quality, said to be opposed to each other,and are differing their mutual relation is called opposition. The relation of A and E to each other is called Contrary two universal propositions Opposition. That is, having the same and .subject but predicate, in quality,are differing said
to

be

78

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS their mutual

[PART II.
relation is

contmrily opposedto
called The relation of A

each

other,and
0
to each

Contrary Opposition.
and
A
.......

E Contraries.......
..

: : other,as well as that of E and I to each : other, is called Contradictory J ''""" """"' two propositions g *"" J" Opposition.That is, g. and predicate, ^ having the same ^ subject " but differing both in quality and quan*" | ^ ^

are tity, posed to

said to be each

contradictorily optheir mutual

:
"*

^
'""
...

and other,

relation is called

Contradictory Opposi0
to each

I.

Subcontraries.

Subcontrary having the Opposition.That particular propositions and predicate, but differing in quality, said to are same subject and their mutual relation be subcontrarily opposedto each other, is called Subcontrary Opposition.
is, two
The and

The

relation of I and

other is called

relation of A

and

I to each

well as other,

as

that

of E pro
same

is called Subalternation. two That is, other, and predicate, and the having the same positions subject but differing in quantity, said to bear to each are quality, the relation of subalternation ; the called the
one

0 to each

other

of universal of

and subalternant, both

are

the other

quantityis particular quantitythe

Subalternate ; and
The

called Subalterns.

of three kinds ; Opposition of Propositions is, therefore, and (1) Contrary; (2) Contradictory, (3) Subcontrary. Subalternation is, called a kind of opposition also,sometimes ; but there is no oppositionbetween the subalternant and the subboth of which have the same alternate, qualityand differ in

quantity only.
Exercise. Give the alternant
or

the contrary,or Subcontrary, and contradictory, of the following : subalternate, propositions

"

the sub-

(1) Every metal conducts (2) Every planetmoves

heat. round the

sun.

(3)

Matter

cannot

change its own

state of motion

or

of rest.

CHAP.

I.]
(4)
All

OF

PKOPOSITIONS.

79

plantshave
elements

not
are

flowers.
not
are

(5) Some
(7) Heat

metals.

(6) All material bodies (8) Gold

is

extended.

expands bodies.
a

metal
can

only be in a sentient being. elastic. are (10) Gases and liquids perfectly (11) Liquids have no shape of their own. is an immediate knowledge. (12) Consciousness (13) In nature, relative motion and rest are alone presentedto (9)
A sensation
our

observation.

(14)
(15) (16)

If all

impeding
sometimes

causes

were move

removed,
for
ever.

body

once

in motion

would Water

continue

to

contracts

A sensation

is sometimes

by heat. not accompanied by

l.
we

perception.

" 9.
The founded

Division

accordingto Import
of of the

last division
on

which propositions, connotation

need

notice,is
of

the

relation

of the the

predicateto

that of the Essential

subject, or,

in other

words, on

old distinction

and

Accidental

or Essential, Analytical, or Accidental,

and is into (1) Verbal, Predication, and (2)Real, Synthetical, Explicative,

the connotation of the pre Ampliative. When dicate of a proposition is the same the connota as, or a part of, the proposition is called Verbal or Analytical. tion of the subject, of the predicateis When, on the other hand, the connotation the proposition is called Real not a part of that of the subject,
or

In Synthetical.
1

the former

case, the

predicate merelyexplains,

into (1)Verbal, Analytical, "c., and propositions their import, "c., is here given as founded on (2)Real, Synthetical, for the

The

division of

meaning
to
one

or or

import of
the
on

is proposition

different

accordingas
also be
an

it
re

belongs garded

other
the mode

of the two

classes.

It may

as

founded

of
as

their

formation; for

analytical

proposition may
into parts of the

be

regarded

formed of the of

connotation

union or positionby the synthesis and the

or resolution analysis and a synthetical subject, pro the of the connotations subject

by

the

predicate.

80
or

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.

meaning, or a part of the meaning, of the information to imparts no new subject; and the proposition those who already know the meaning of the subject. In the and the latter case, the proposition imparts new information, attribute connoted by the predicate is a real addition to that
states

the entire

"All men ra are by the subject.Thus the proposition tional" is verbal, because the attribute is a part of the rationality' attribute or group of attributes 'humanity,' while the propo larger All men mortal is real, sition because the attribute are mor talityis not contained in the connotation of the subject 'man' ; it is something different from, and new to, humanity ; and the proposition expresses the conjunctionof these two attributes. " 10. The Five Predicables : Genus, Species,Differentia, the predicate, Proprium, and Accidens : In a verbal proposition, in relation to the subject, is either a genus, a species, or a in relation to the predicate, differentia. In a real proposition, is either a proprium, or an accidens. In other words, the subject, in relation to the subject, if the predicateof a proposition, be a is verbal,that is, the proposition or differentia, genus, species, of the predicatemust be a part of that of the the connotation be a proprium, or subject. If,on the other hand, the predicate the connotation the propositionis real, that is, of an accidens, is not contained in that of the subject. the predicate If the subjectof a verbal propositionbe an the individual, in relation to the subject, is called a species. If the predicate, in relation to it,is called a subject be a class,the predicate, the subject, in relation to the predicate, a species. genus, and and species, thus entirely The two terms, genus relative to are and one has a meaning only in relation to the other. each other, related to each other as genus and species, Given two terms the

connoted

'

"

"

'

'

"

connotation

of the the of

latter minus

the connotation

of the former

is

to equivalent

differentia of the

bute

which attributes, the three terms Thus others belonging to the same genus. and differentia, implying each the other two, are genus, species, correlatives. Further, just as a genus impliesthat there are
or

group

that is, to the attri species, that species from distinguishes

82

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PAKT II.

the Differentia /. SocraticityHumanity -f the Differentia; of Socrates SocraticityHumanity. the group of at By the 'Differentia of Socrates' is meant tributes by which he is distinguishedfrom other individuals
= =
-

belongingto
The
to
a

the

same

species
a

'

man.' like that of of the

a

differentia of

genus,

in species, minus
'

reference the
con

is the connotation higher class, notation of the higher class. Thus

to

genus

the differentia of
=

animal'
"

in

relation attribute
as
a

of

sentient In

higher class 'organic being' animality the being organised being defined ; or sentiency ; animal organizedbeing.
included in the
genus,

the

extension,a speciesis
in the

and

an

in

dividual

'animal' contains 'man'; and species. Thus 'man' contains 'Socrates';'metal' contains 'gold'; 'organism' contains A differentia, when taken in extension, is a animal.3 largerwhole than the species. Sometimes, however, it coincides with the extension of the species ; but the comprehension of the differentia being smaller its extent is than that of the species,
'

theoretically greaterthan
The relation of

that of the latter. genus may

and individual, differentia, species,

thus be

represented by diagrams :

The for
man.

dot in the centre

The outer

stands

for Socrates.

The

inner

circle

circle for rational

in the first of animal

diagram,and
rational is

for animal shown

in the

second,the relation

and

in the third.

CHAP.

I.]
attribute which

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

83

A any

of Proprium (orproperty) follows

or causally. If it ductively the genus, the property is and if from species, specific;

individual is or species, from its comprehension either de follows from the comprehension of
a

genus,

called that

if generic;

from

that of the indi object,

of the individual may have

vidual.

Thus,

an

individual

thing

its individual

from the its specific property,or a property following property, and even a generic to which the individual belongs, species pro its speciesbelongs. the genus to which from perty following in the specific This last may be included property. A species from its differentia, and one following may have two properties, and the other from its genus. The former is called the specific, the latter the genericproperty,of the species ; or both together are simply called its property. Memory,' for example, may be either from the genus regarded as a property of man, following animal,or from the differentia rational ; power of judging'is likewise a property of man from the differentia. The following of the triangle, as properties proved in the Elements of Euclid, follow partly from the comprehension of its genus figure, partly from that of triangle, and partlyfrom those of specialkinds of triangles. of an An Accidens (oraccident) individual, genus, or species is any attribute which is possessedby it,and which does not its comprehension. If an accidens follow from, or form a part of, if it belongsto all the mem or always belongsto an individual, it is called an inseparable bers of a genus, or species, accidens of that individual, the place or date of birth genus, or species ; as of a particular the blackness of the person, the hair of man, of snow, "c. If, on the other hand, an crow, the whiteness
l '

accidens

is sometimes if it

present and

sometimes

absent

in

an

or individual,

belongs to a part onlyof a species or genus, then it is called a separable accidens of that individual, species, of a particular or genus sitting ; as the walking or person, the wisdom of man, the solubility in water of salts, the opacity of
gases, the of learning the
man,

"c.
a

When

of predicate

is proposition

proprium, or
6"2

an

84
of accidens, the

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PARTII.
is included in the

the latter in subject,

extension

the extension of the accidens or proprium, when former,that is, taken a as general term, is a greater whole than that of the subject; while, in comprehension, the predicate expresses an attribute not contained in the connotation of the subject, that information about it ; and the propo new is,it imparts some belongsto the class of real. In the proposition sition, therefore, Water boils at 100" C.,under a pressure of 760 mm.," the attri
"

bute

expressed by
water.

the

is predicate

not

part of

the

connotation

of the term The accidens dicated

"

five terms
are

"

genus,

species, differentia, proprium, and

whatever may

called

because predicables,
a

be pre

propositionis,in relation other of the five. A predicable is thus to the subject, one or in relation to the subjects. It of a class of predicates a name the one should be distinguished, on hand, from the word pre
a
'

of (affirmed)

subject in

which means dicament,'or 'category,' and predicates, both subjects and, on which 'predicate,' Given
a means

most

the

general class of other,from the word

denied

what

is affirmed of

or

term

whatever
a

be affirmed

tion to the

is subject,

the it, that is, it predicable,

subject. in rela predicate,

a

of

is either

genus,

differentia, proprium, or accidens ; and the subjectas species, must well as the predicate belong to some category or other. Aristotle gave four predicables, viz., proprium, genus, definition, added differentia Later logicians and accidens. species and
' ' '
'

to Aristotle's
came

to

definition from it. Thus and removed list, have explained above. be the five predicables we
'

'

there

Some

further additions to the list. Professor logicianshave made designation,' Fowler, for example,gives synonym,' definition/ in addition idion (a Greek word a peculiar signifying property),
' * *

to

the

while five, of the five

other
'

regard them as adopted by predicables

others

under falling them

:
'

one
'

or

synonym

and

be regarded by some of them for example, would designation,' included in accidens,'definition' as a compound of genus as either differentia and 'idion' as coming under and differentia,
or

property.

CHAP.

I.]
the
summum

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

85
older

Besides the which of its

or a

terms

explainedabove, the
to
mean a

logicians use
or a

term.'

genus

highest genus

genus

cannot

be

kind,and kind,

the

being the highest and species, to mean term a injima species

be
a

most

lowest

general species

class which

cannot

genus

to

of

its

while

the

intermediate genera
as

another,being the lowest and species are genera species.'Substance,'for

genus,

called

by

them

subaltern

and
a

example, is regarded by them infima species, an incapable of and and body,' livingbeing,'
' '

summum

'man'

as

further
'

subdivision
'

into

species,
and

animal

as

subaltern

genera

species.
The
two terms

containing and
called popularly
a

'genus'and 'species' express the relation contained. Any class containing another
genus in relation
to the

of
is

species. In the Sciences Zoology, for example, groups

in relation
to
are

which is called latter, of Classification, in Botany and of a particulardescriptionare of

an

called genera which

others

definite nature, equally relation old the of

species. In order to express the containing and contained,we not only use the two but also many and species, others accordingto genus
of the groups in
a

called

terms,

position
ex

system of division

or

classification. For

kingdom and sub-kingdom, class and sub-class, order and sub-order,genus and sub-genus,species and sub used in Zoology and Botany, variety and sub-variety, species, the relation of containing and contained mark as the clearly as two words, genus and species. ample, the
terms
Exercises.

I.

State

whether

the

are followingpropositions

verbal

or

real,
to the

or and whether the predicatein relation analytical synthetical, subjectis a genus, species, differentia, proprium, or accidens:
"

1.
2. 3.

Oxygen
Water Platinum

is

an

elementarygas.
C.,under
metal.
a

boils at 100" is
a
rare

pressure

of 760

mm.

4. 5.

Sugar is
The

sweet.
a

atmosphericair is

mixture

of

nitrogenand

oxygen.

86
6. 7. 8. 9.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15.

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PAKT II.

Copper
All
men

conducts have
are

heat

as

well of

as

electricity.

the power

All animals All the Heat The

sentient

thinking. beings.

flowering plantshave fruits. expands bodies.

of

leaves

plants are

green. many salts in solution. known.

Spring-watercontains Hydrogen
London Milton Give
was

is the

substance lightest

is the

largestcity in England.
he

blind when

composed

the "Paradise

Lost." accidens of

II. each

the genus,

differentia, species, proprium, and

"

terms : following line, (2)Circle,(3)Straight (4)Square, (5)Eight angle, (1)Triangle, Animal, (10) (G) Element, (7) Force, (8) Material Body, (9) Chalk, (11)Eock, (12) Virtue, (13) Volition, (14)Knowledge,

of the

(15)Pleasure.

"
In method I.

11.

Miscellaneous

Exercises

on

Propositions.
of
a

the logical characters describing should "What

a

the following proposition,

be followed is

"

given is

sentence. of
a

Ascertain

whether

the

sentence

consists of
II.

or single proposition

of propositions. plurality it is
"

In the former i. ii. iii. iv.

case,

state whether

or Categorical, Hypothetical, Disjunctive,

Affirmative

or

Negative.
Problematic,

or Necessary, Assertory, or Universal, Particular,

Indesignate; Singular and

Particular.

Uni

versal, or Singular and

v.

Both
at
once

or Eeal (orAnalytical) (orSynthetical). the qualityand quantityof a proposition also be may by saying whether it is A, E, I, or 0.

Verbal

stated

III. and

In the latter case, of them

as

state the

of propositions

which

it

consists,

treat each

detailed above. and quality, quantity, its form other

or

IV.

Sometimes
not

the

characters
manner

of

are proposition

quite evident from

cases,

the

of its to

statement. state it in

In

such

verbal

changes should
the
case

be made the

in order
same.

the

logicalform, keeping
in the as ascertain,

meaning

It is

always

safe first to

of the term, the

meaning

CHAP.

I.]
proposition, or,
to

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

87

of

the

where the
a

attempting
whether whether the

describe
be

to see, before practicable, of the proposition, logical characters

this

is not

subject

general

term

taken

or distributively

not,

there be any

whether predicate, before the

attached to the copula or to the negativeparticle there are signs of universalityor negation any

"c. subject,

Examples.
1. "No
man

is

univer negative,assertory, perfect":categorical,

and real. sal,

2.
"

The
:

three

angles of

triangleare

togetherequal

to two

right

angles"
sary, 3.
"

affirmative,assertoryin form, but really neces categorical,

Some elements
not

universal, and real.

are

metals

"

asser negative, categorical,

and real. tory, particular,

4. "None

but

material

bodies

have

weight":
are

this

proposition
bodies."
may In

reallymeans
this

that "all it is
as an

things having weight proposition.

In

material

form

an

the

originalform, it
bodies have

be

regarded

proposition,"no

not-material
of all

weight,"
or

that having weight signifying

is denied

things other than,

are

except, material
material
are

bodies, that

none

that
same

have
as

weight

other

than

bodies, and

this last is the

"all

things having weight

above
not for the
mean

material

bodies," the proposition we

It should be noted that

have the

substituted

originalone.
that every
5.

propositiondoes
In and this
the

material metals

body has weight.

except mercury
of all metals
an

"All

are

solids."

"

proposition
proposition
as

'solids' is affirmed
may,

except mercury,
A

be regarded as therefore,

propositionand described

cate

be gorical,affirmative, assertory, universal, and real. Or it may taken I proposition, 'some metals an as but in this are solids,'

degraded form, the

full

meaning
state

of the
names

original propositionis
of all the
them

not

expressed. Or
mercury, 'solids'
as

we

might
a

the

and the

form

proposition with
before.
a

all

as

except the subject and iron,

combination

metals

predicateas
solids.' Such

For

example, 'gold,copper,
be
a
a

silver, "c., are

of the several and 'is
a

proposition would
each

propositions, having
'iron is solid,'

certain metal

for its

subject,
a

solid' for its

a

copula and predicate. Thus, 'gold is

a

solid,'

'copper is

and solid,'

so

forth.

88
6. "All is not

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.

is not gold." "All that glitters gold that glitters," It really This proposition is really 0, though it has the form of E. is not gold. that at least some means thing that glitters affirma "If mercury be heated, it will expand": conditional, 7.
"

universal, real. tive, assertory,

8.
a

"All

men

are

rational, but all

two
are

are
"

not
'

wise"
men

this sentence
are

is
'

combination

of the
men

propositions (1) All

not

rational

and (2) 'All (A), 9.

"

wise'
can

(0).

Gravity as

of the two 'Heat

can

produce motion" : a combination and (2) propositions, (1)'Gravitycan produce motion' (A),
well
as

heat

produce motion'

(A).
Solution.
as

Examples for
Treat I.
"

the

given below propositions1

the

follows:

"

Describe Give the

or

logicalcharacters
of each

of each
or

of them.

II.

"

the contrary contradictory, of them.

subcontrary,and the

subalternant III.
"

subalternate

State the relation

of the

predicateto

the

subjectin each
the

of

the affirmative IV.

"

In the

propositions. state of a disjunctive case proposition,

or

hypothetical

one propositions,

other

of which

is

equivalentto it.
of similar molecules.

1.
2. 3.

Every
Some

pure

substance have
no

consists power

animals
are

of locomotion.

Sensations

passive states of the mind.

solid.

4.

Nothing

is annihilated.

5.
6. 7.
8.

All metals Benevolence

except one
is
a are

are

virtue.

Only
Some

the virtuous metals

are

happy.
no cause. wears a crown.

Certain

ductile. have

9. 10.

substances

Uneasy
Most

rests the head

that

of the

propositions given here

are

taken

from

Ganot's

Popular Natural Philosophy, Boscoe's Chemistry, and Eeid's In in the form in which exactly they are expressed by the quiry, in that form authors. order that students in are They kept may of the habit the characters of propositionsas they describing acquire in the works of authors, instead of the contracted and actuallyoccur
of the artificial propositions

Logician.

90
35.

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS

[PART II.

Phosphorus
Arsenic

does not

dissolve in found

water, alcohol,or ether.

free

36.

is sometimes

in the

state, but

more

fre

quently combined sulphur.

37.

with chiefly

iron, nickel, cobalt, and

Truly these
ments

ideas

seem

to

be

very

capriciousin

their agree

and

disagreements.
or

38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

Motion Each Matter

A power

is either rectilinear kind of motion

curvilinear.
or

is either uniform
own

varied.
or

cannot

change its
force which of bodies
on

state to

of motion

of rest.

is

tends
never

produce motion.
nor

The

surfaces

are

perfectlysmooth.
animals,
move.

Without neither

friction

ground neither man nor railway ones, ordinarycarriages

causes were move

the

could
once

44.

If all

impeding
continue
are

removed,
for
ever.

body

in motion

would
45. 46.

to

Some

brutes and

sensible
are

of honor neither

and

disgrace.
like any
sen

Hardness sations.

softness

nor sensations,

47.
48.

A No

sensation
man

can

only be

in

sentient

being.
to

can

conceive

any

sensation

resemble

any

known

of bodies. qualities

49.

If

we

trust

to

the

conjecturesof
we

men

of

great genius in the

of

operation of nature,
in 50. If
an

have

only the chance

silver
a

going wrong

ingenuous
chlorine
gas

manner.

dry
is

be

passed
is

over

silver chloride nitrate, white found sub crystalline

to be

formed, oxygen

given off,and
on

stance

produced, which,

is analysis,

nitrogen

peroxide.
51. If

nitrogen monoxide
a

gas
30

(or laughing gas) be brought under

pressure to
-

of about

atmospheres at
the

0" C.

or

if it be cooled

down

86" C.

under

ordinary

pressure,

it forms

colourless

liquid.
-

52.

If this

liquid be cooled below

mass.
were

115" C., it solidifies to

trans

parent
53.
If carbon

not

present in the earth, no

as
we

singlevegetable or

animal 54. If
a

body such
lime

know

could

exist.

pieceof

be held in the and

oxyhydrogen flame, it becomes

strongly heated

gives off intense light.

CHAP.

I.]
The

OF

PEC-POSITIONS.

91
or place by slight friction,

55.

of phosphorus ignition
a

takes heat

by
56.
The

blow, and
to

even

the

of the

hand

may

cause

this

substance number

ignite.
metals is much

of the

larger than

that

of the

non-metals. 57.
58.

the earth. envelope encircling If a series of electric dischargesbe passed through pure oxygen, in volume diminished the gas becomes by about one-twelfth, The

atmosphere is the

gaseous

and 59. If
we

is

partly transformed
know

into of

ozone.

would

the works and

God,

we

must

consult

them

selves with GO. 61. 62. I know

attention

humility.
and
not
a

that I know. is
an

Consciousness If mediate
ness

actual

knowledge. potential
conscious

knowledge be
co-extensive
more

in

a knowledge, propriety

is not

with

knowledge.
states
are

63.

Where
are

two, three,or
conscious
memory

mental
as
one.

confounded,
be held
com fast,

we

of them
our

64.

Without

mental

states

could

not

from pared,distinguished

each

other, and referred ancient, and

to self.

65.

The

theory

of ideas

is, indeed, very

hath

been

66. 67.

universallyreceived. holds nothing of philosophy, nor Common sense

very To

needs

her aid.
make to

attend them
an

accuratelyto
to

the

operations
no

of

our

mind, and
even

object of thought, is
the bulk

easy of

matter,

the

and contemplative,

mankind

is next

to im

possible.
63. He
must

either be
reason
me

fool, or want
of my
reason

to make

fool of me,

that

would 69. If

out

and

senses.

philosophy
deprives them

contradicts of every be sent her

to

herself,befools object worthy

the infernal
to

her be

votaries,and pursued
or en

joyed,let her
must

regionsfrom
is

which

she

have

had

origin.
of these kinds is absurd.

70.

To

reason

againstany
for them

of evidence

absurd, nay

to

reason

71.

We

must

either admit

the

conclusion

or

call in

question the
to unfriendly

premises.
72. Ideas
seem

to

have

something

in their nature

other existences.

92

DEFINITION

AND

DIVISIONS,

"C.

[PART

IT.

73.

If

one

set

of

ideas

makes for in is smells

covenant,
is
reason

another
to

breaks think that

it,

and

third is

is

punished
virtue

it,

there ideal

justice

no

natural of

the certain

system.
or

74.
75.

The Some

smell
tastes

rose

affection the

feeling

of and

the raise

mind. the

and

stimulate

nerves

spirit.
76.
That about such
a

noise that

is this

in

the is

street,
a

such

another

in that

the

room

me

knock

at

my

door,

person

walking
77. 78. The If

upstairs,
"

is

probably
eyes in of

learned

by
is the he

experience.
work of often looks
at. nature.

parallelism
a man

of lost

the the
it

general
one

hath

sight

eye,

very

loses

the

habit 79. A miniature than 80. That

of

directing painter

exactly
an

to

the

object
sees

he

or

engraver

very

near

objects

better

sailor.

we

see

objects
erect

single
by
inverted

with

two

eyes,
is

as

well

as

that

we

see

objects
and

images,
to

attributed

by

Bishop

Berkeley
81. If
two

Dr

Smith

entirely
have and

custom.

visible

appearances of

the

same

visible the

place, single

they
or

are

incapable
object

distinction,

we

see

objects

one

only.
of
nature

82.

just

interpretation

is

the

only

sound

and

orthodox

philosophy.

CHAPTER

II.

THE

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION PROPOSITIONS.

AND

THE

IMPORT

OP

" 1. WHAT 1 predication

What its is the

is the What is

import
the

or

meaning
or

of

proposition or
it ? of

thought
its in A all

fact

of signification In other is B"

subject,of

expressed by its predicate, and

is

copula ?
what this

words, (or
"

propositions or B"), what

1 A and them

predications A,
what is

of the and
to

type "A
is the

is not

B,
of

relation
a

between

consistent of the

answer

question is
On of

theory
this
most

of Predication

import
is
to

Propositions.
difference here
an

important subject, there logicians.

far
as

great

opinion
from The

among

It

is

proposed

give
own

account

of their their natural

views, as
own

possible,in
that
or

their

language "
2.

and I.

point of
seems

view.
to

view

be

'B'

is
to

an

attri

bute, and that this attribute the objectsdenoted by 'A,' as whiteness' is said to belong
*

is referred in the
to

said
'

proposition thing by
called Dr

Snow
*

belong to is white,'
This
:

the

snow.'

view
"

is thus

explained
'

and

defended

James

Martineau think

In

saying

Birds

are

warm-blooded,' we
within

neither
:

of class
'

within blooded'
name,
no

nor class,

of attribute
us no

attribute of
a

the word
;

warma us

representsto
a mere

conception
The
a

genus

it is not
to
name.

but

attributive. such
; it is not

word
mere

'birds'

expresses
a

as attribute,

but attributive,

The
or

term

in the

predicateacts
; the ;

upon

the mind in the

by

its

connotation,
its denota has its

in its
or

comprehension
in its extension

term

subject,by

tion

and

the

foregoing

sentence

94

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.
'

import in this, that

"

we

refer the attribute

warm-blood'

to the

class of

objects birds.' Hence it is that,while a purelyconnotative word (an adjective) is all that is requiredin the predicate, is indispensable term in the subject The mind a denotative predicates nothing except about substantive objectsof thought ; and of them (inthe class of propositions under consideration) now it predicates nothing but attributes1." According to Dr MartiClass Theory of Predication and Mill's or neau, the Denotative Connotative false. Theory are both psychologically All propositions do not, according to Dr Martineau, express
'

the

relation

of

substance

and

attribute.

There

are

classes of notion and of

propositionswhich express substance and attribute, with

to which

other

relations.

"The

the relations of genera

one

species

it introduces
"

us, is but

thought."
the
common

It is the
canon logical

basis of all
of

of categories and supplies class-reasoning,

'

of several

that necessity, But

what

is true

of the

containingis true Seasoning should

other

of the
not

contained.'"

all Demonstrative

be forced into this

types

of

Demonstrative

singletype. There are other Eeasoning founded upon

for
ex

relations

Propositionsmay, expressedby propositions.

and ample, express the relations of time and space, of cause and give rise to types of and difference, of resemblance effect, that of classDemonstrative Eeasoning quite distinct from all attempt," says Martineau, "to coerce reasoning. "The reasoninginto this singletype comprehensive as it is appears in itself,and precludedfrom success to us arbitrary except on ideas of space and violent psychology. The condition of much and difference, to of resemblance seem time, of cause and effect, involve distinct laws of thought,to create for themselves special to require separate of language, and elements and functions of Logic. canons different classes there are According to Martineau,therefore, of thought, and of propositions expressing different categories distinct types of Demonstrative there are as many Eeasoning as
" " "

r:

Essays, Vol.

n.

p. 351.

CHAP.

II.]
are

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

95
these
cate

there

fundamental

laws

of

thought arisingfrom
:
"

gories. " 3.
"To

II.

Hamilton's is to

view

judge

recognizethe

relation

of congruence

or

of

two in which connection, concepts,two individual things,or a compared together,stand to each concept and an individual, considered as an internal consciousness, other. This recognition is called a Judgment, considered as expressed in language,it is called a Proposition Predication." This definition is then ex or two or more thoughts are given in conscious plained. When on our part to discover in ness, there is in generalan endeavour and to develop a relation of congruence them of conflict!on, or endeavour that is, to find out whether these thoughts will or we will not coincide, may not be blended into one or may ; if they their congruence we or coincide, judge,we enounce : compatibility if they do not coincide, their confliction or we judge,we enounce the thoughts,water, iron, incompatibility.Thus, if we compare and rusting, find them them into a we congruent, and connect form a we singlethought,thus, water rusts iron ; in that case defines a judgment as follows : judgment1." Hamilton finally We define a judgment or proposition articulately may, therefore, to be the product of that act in which that of two we pronounce and as predicate, notions thought as subject the one does or does constitute a part of the other, either in the quantity of exten not in the quantity of comprehension V or sion, According to Hamilton, therefore,A and B in the typical judgment 'A is B are two concepts,the one forming a part of From what he says elsewhere, the other. know he maintains we that in the quantity of comprehension, B is a part of A,' and that in the quantity of extension, A is a part of B.' That is, the proposition has a two-fold meaning according as you take the two concepts A and B in their comprehension or in their When extension. 'A' and 'B' are taken in their comprehension, the meaning of the proposition is that the elementary notions* the concept B the are a part of those constituting constituting
"
"

"

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

Hamilton's

Lectures,Vol.

m.

pp.

226"7.

Ibid. p. 229.

96

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PARTII.
the meaning extension, in the extension of
*

concept 'A'
is that of
'

and when

they are

taken

in

the individual
are
a

included things or objects

'

part of
I assert

those

included in the extension

:
"

B.'

"
"

4.

III.

Hansel's that

view A

When

butes

the constituting

B, I do concept A are
which

is

not

mean

that with

the those

attri
con

identical

the concept stituting

ments
; but

B ; for this is

only true
the
one

in identical
set

judg
is For

that the
same as

objectin
that
a

of attributes

found

is the
"

that in which the

the other
rose
manner

set is found."

example, when the thing which

in way
some manner

I assert affects in

is

certain with

I imply that fragrant, is my power of sight, affects in

a a

identical of smell."

that

which

certain

concept and a judgment : "A concept is a collection of attributes united by a A judg a possible objectof intuition." sign,and representing related to one is a combination of two concepts, ment or more intuition." "The common subjects of all objectsof possible from the psycho logical judgments which are to be distinguished such as the spontaneous judgments of perceptive and logical, are imaginativefaculties, concepts V both con 'B' are 'A' and According to Mansel, therefore, is and the meaning of the proposition (when not identical) cepts,
my power
"

Mansel

thus

defines

that
same

the

attributes

signified by
view
:
"

both

'A'

and

'B3

exist in the

or objects. object

"
"

5.

IV.

Ueberweg's

validity judgment is the consciousness of the objective whose forms union of conceptions, of a subjective are different, It is the consciousness, whether but belong to each other. or exists between the corresponding not the analogouscombination elements. As the individual conception corresponds objective
The
to the individual
so existence,

the

judgment

in its various

forms

correspondsto, and is the subjectivecopy of,the various ob relations. A judgment expressed in words is an assertion jective
or

proposition2."
1 2

1860, pp. 67 Prolegomena Logica, 2nd edition,

"

69.

Ueberweg's Logic, p.

187.

98

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.
or

"

8.

Mill then

shows

that

the

Denotative

Class

Theory

consists in re accordinglyto which predication in placing an individual under i.e., ferring something to a class, class or one class under a another, is hardly better than the "There theory of Hobbes. is,"says he, "no real difference, and the except in language,between this theory of predication

of Predication

theory of
indefinite The
name

Hobbes. number of

For

class

is

individuals

nothing but absolutely denoted by a general name.

an

in common makes is what them a given to them is to look upon class. To refer anything to a class, therefore, it as one of the things which called by that common name. are To exclude it from a class, is to say that the common is name Class not to it1." The is, Theory of Predication applicable false. For in the propo psychologically argues Mill,moreover I am sition 'snow is white,' not thinking of 'white as a objects'

but only of class, which it givesme.

'snow'

as

an

and object

the sensation

of 'white'

"
or

9.

view

that

is

connected closely

with

the

Denotative

and is,in fact, only a special Theory of Predication, view of propositions.Ac development of it,is the equational 'A is B' is an equation, cording to this view, the proposition sides of the equation, and 'A' and B to the two corresponding them ; and the meaning of is to the sign of equalitybetween is that the things denoted the proposition by 'A' are identical B.' This view is adopted by Hamilton with those denoted by

Class

'

'

'

'

in his later

of the doc writings. It is the direct consequence This doctrine is, of the Predicate. trine of the Quantification well as that of as that in thought the quantity of the predicate the subject is implicitly contained,and that,according to the that principle, in may
"

to be allowed Logic postulates

to state

explicitly

language
be

all that

is

contained implicitly
'

expressed by such words as predicate. Hamilton Adopting this doctrine,

1

thought,"it some,' all,' "c.,before the

'

in the

obtains

the following eight

Mill's

Logic, Vol.

i.

p.

104.

CHAP.

II.]
of

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

99
have

forms

instead propositions
"

of the

four

we

given in

previouschapter:
(1) (2) (3)

All A is

some

B.

All A is all B.
No

(A.) (U.)
(E.)

A is any
A

B. B.

(4) No

is A
A A

(5) Some

(6)
(7)

Some Some Some

(77.) is some B. (I.) is all B. (Y.) is not any B. (0.)

some some

(8)
Mill

A is not

B.

(o".)
above view
on

objectsto
"

the

adoptionof
theory
a

the is

the

fol

lowing grounds1: (1) The

cause

the

of predicate

be false, psychologically is not thought of in its proposition

but only in its comprehension. In the proposition extension, all oxen ruminate," nobody thinks of other ruminatinganimals, not there are other and none asks the questionwhether or ever is thinking of is the animals that ruminate ; all that anyone phenomenon or attribute of ruminating in reference to 'oxen.' (2) All reasoning being carried on in the ordinary forms of it is desirable that every proposition in logical form expression, be the exact should equivalent of some propositionin the On this ground the proposition form. "all A is all common because B" is inadmissible, there are none correspondingto it it is reallya compound of two in ordinary language,because "all A is B" and "all B is A"; since viz., ordinarypropositions, be acceptedwithout it can never proving these two. Similarly,
"

if you you

take

"

some

is B the

"

to

mean

"

some

is

some

only,"

not

only change

real

meaning 'not none,' it may but you make the whole,' the reallya double judgment, an "some A is some explicit judgments,viz.t A is not any B." (3) Logic should start most elementary judgments. But "all A
1

logicalmeaning of 'some' as be 'all,' into 'a part only,' 'not A is some B proposition some implicitexpressionof the two
"

"

B" with

and the

"some

other

simplestor
A

is all

B," "some

is

Mill's Examination

of Hamilton's

Chap. xxn. Philosophy,

o

100
some

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.

of two have just seen, as we complex,consisting while "A is B than which is the simplestand most elementary, there cannot be any simpler. Hamilton of Mill's objections. He says : some anticipates the predicate often so But, in fact, language quantifies ordinary becomes this determination of the smallest import. This it as does either directly, by adding all,some, or their equivalent to the predicate;or it accomplishes the same predesignations, end indirectly, in an exceptive limitative form, or (a)Directly, as "Peter, John, James, "c., are all the Apostles,""Mercury, Venus, "c.,are all the planets." (6) But this is more frequently forms of limitation or by the equipollent accomplished indirectly, and exception. For example, by the limitative desig inclusion, God alone is good," which is nations,alone or only,we say, God is all that is equivalentto saying,God is all good, that is, that is, virtue is all noble, good ; Virtue is the only nobility," all that is noble. that is, Faith, hope, charity,alone justify." Of animals man alone is rational," that is, is all rational man What that is, all is rational is alone or only risible," animal. form Hamilton "c." rational is all risible, Of the exceptive gives the followingexamples : On earth there is nothing greatbut In man there Man is all earthlygreat." man," which means is all humanly Mind is nothing greatbut mind," which means "all that is great in man1." that is, great,"
are
"
"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

"

the import of what are called note by Hamilton on following exclusive and exceptive is worth quoting: particles They are, one, but alone, sole, only, exclusively, precisely, just, solely;nothing These not a nnexed to the subjectpreexcept, beyond. (1) particles to its whole extent, denying its or designate the predicate universally, and definitely or indefinitude, particularity limitingit to the subject alone philosophises,' 'the dog alone barks,' 'man alone; as, 'man not only is rational,'of material thingsthere is nothing living(but) organized,and nothing organized not living,' God alone is to be to the predicate, men worshipped,' some only are elect.' (2) Annexed to the predicate, but do not define its quantity, they limit the subject exclude it from other subjects; 'the sacraor only plays,' as, 'Peter
"
" " "

The

'

'

'

CHAP.

II.]
The

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

101

of the predicate in thought,"argues non-quantification themselves,but only in Hamilton, is given up by the logicians forced to admit, and to the amount certain cases where they were
" "

they confess, they could not possiblydeny. The predicate, is quantified in affirmative, in by particularity by universality formal why the quantification, negative, propositions. But should be thus restricted in thought,they furnish quantification,
which
us

with

no

valid reason1." Mill's

own

"

"
tive 'A

10.

theory,which Theory
a

may

be

called the that the the

Connota-

or

Attributive
expresses

of

is Predication, relation

proposition 1
attributes

is B'

certain {B'

between
"

connoted

by

'A'

certain connection the

are

attributes

are

respectively,or, more properly,a relation between the phenomena on which or founded and through which thev respectively
that the relation it is that
mere are

and

\ \
I I

expressed by co-existence, succession, causation, resemblance, or ence2. Take, for example, the proposition "All men
"

known,

and

of

j
S

existmortal"
:

ments

are

are only two,' 'the categories only ten,' 'John

water.'

(3) Sometimes
are

the
to

only particles sole, solely,single,alone, predicate as

the
"

drinks

only, "c.,
mount
"

annexed

the
is

tanta predesignation

to

'all' ; as,
"

'God

clusive, adequate,
1 2

objectof

single, one," worship.'

"

alone," only,"

ex

Hamilton's In the
case

Lectures, Vol.
of
a

iv.

pp.

261

"

5.

whose is a proper proposition and subject name has, therefore, in connotation,the according to Mill,no signification meaning of the proposition, accordingto him, is,that the attribute or attributes connoted by the predicate belong to the individual thing denoted by the subject. For example, the proposition Socrates is a that the attributes of being a philosopher philosopher" means belong
"

to

the

individual the

denoted

by

the proper
a

name

Socrates.
proper

If both names,

the

subjectand according to
examples
was

predicate of

proposition are
is
a

then,
as

Mill, Hobbes's
such

theory
he

sufficient account
'
"

of it:
'

propositions gives: Tully is Cicero,' Hyde the whole Clarendon,' "fec., of such meaning propositionsis,that the predicate is a name or mark the same for meaningless thing for
which the is subject
a

of

mark.

102
its

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.

denoted by the subject objects possess the attributes connoted the The are by predicate. objects not, however, individually designated. They are pointed out only of their attributes; called 'men,' by some they are the objects that is possessingthe attributes connoted by the term 'man,' and the only thing known of them be these attributes; may indeed the proposition is general, and the objects denoted by the
"

meaning

is that

the

indefinite subjectare, therefore, known

at individually

in

number,
assertion the

most

of them
*

are *

not

all.

The which

is,

that therefore,

the

attributes every

connotes predicate

are

possessed by
has subject

each

and

individual the

possessingcertain
connoted

other

that attributes,

whatever

has

attributes

by

the

also those

set of attributes
ever

that the by the predicate, accompanies the former set. constantly of

man

connoted

latter "What

has

the

attributes

has

the

attribute

of

mortality;

mortalityconstantlyaccompanies the attributes of man1." that we the subject of a To the objection construe naturally and the predicate in its extension, in its intention, proposition that construe Mill replies though it is true that we naturally
"

this extension, subjectof a propositionin its extension, or, of the class denoted is in other words, the extent by the name and that it is both appre not apprehendedor indicated directly, hended and indicated solely through the attributes." But what is an attribute ? Every attribute," Mill, says Mr fact or phenomenon, either of outward "is grounded on some the
"

sense

or

of inward

consciousness

; and

to possess

an

attribute is

.another

the fact phrase for beingthe cause of,or forming part of, or phenomenon upon which the attribute is grounded2." The that are means mortal,'therefore, proposition'All men really "wherever the have the various and physical
are

mental
are

phenomena
all

on

which

attributes
assurance

of 'man'

that the other

not

called
not

death,will

fail to

found, there we and mental phenomenon, physical does take place. The proposition grounded
of the word 'mortal' goes

affirm

when; for the connotation

Logic, Vol.
p. 109.

Mill's

i.

Ibid. p. 109.

CHAP.

II.]

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

103
at
some

no

farther
or

than

to

the

occurrence

of the

phenomenon

time

other,leaving the
asserted here
or

particulartime
the two
sets of

undecided1."

The

relation

between

of either co-existence 'A generous

'

succession.

person

is

worthy
a

of

phenomena is one in the propositions Similarly honor,''Thoughtlessnessis

the relation expressed is co virtue,' existence or succession, and the things between which the rela tion exists are the attributes connoted or signified by the subject and the predicate of the proposition, rather the phenomena or which they are grounded. and actions upon

dangerous,3 Prudence

is

Besides causation
or

co-existence
mere

and

sequence

propositions may
or

express
resem

blance,as

in such

in the case of noumena, as existence, as propositions this,'The heat

of

These equal to the heat of yesterday.' not only between phenomena, but also between phenomena and noumena. The only provisionally recognized, subjectto the head of causation.
sums

relations between

are

is to-day. expressed and is

noumena,

relation of causation the of analysis

it under

Mill thus

up

the result of his

"Existence, co-existence, sequence,

one or

: investigation causation,resemblance,
"

other is not

of these

is asserted

or

denied

in every

proposition
an can

which

merely
or

verbal.

This

five-fold classification is of of all fact, all

exhaustive

classification of matters

things that
can

be believed

tendered

for

of belief;

questions that

be

be returned to them2." that can On propounded and all answers the suggestion of Professor Bain that co-existence is of two kinds, one in different places at the same time,and the other
"

in the

same

part
of

or

as place,

the co-existence
a

or

co-inherence

in

every

atom

gold,of
into

the attributes of

certain

specific gravity,
in

tenacity, fusibility, lustre, colour, "c.,Mill

and succession Order in Time and former

divides all co-existence Order

Place, the

Coinhering Attributes. Of the five classes given by Mill, Bain adopts only three :" (1)Co-existence, (2)Succession, including Causation, (3)Equality or Inequality.
1

including Bain's

Logic, Vol.

i.

p. 110.

Ibid. p. 11G.

104

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.
"

"
not

11.

few remarks

on

Mill's
on

The

first remark either

to be made

show,

or deductively
or

Theory: Mill's theory that he is, either from inductively,

of
;

does
the his pos his

nature

of relations

from
an

an

enumeration
one

them,
that

that

five-fold classification is sible relation list.

exhaustive has

every in

between

attributes

been

included

is,that Mill does not give a sufficient of the meaning of those propositions which I account he calls | \I them verbal. By calling touch of not without a name \j a verbal, to consider them of no importance. But as contempt,he seems they are as important as those which he calls real propositions. and synthetical, Kant calls the two classes analytical respectively,
"
"

The

second

remark

"

and
them

these much

two

terms

seem

to

express

the What

distinction between
is the

better than

Mill's
on

names.
own

meaning

of

verbal

even proposition1

Mill's

? theory

It is that the
of the

connotation

ofjbhe predicateis a part of the connotation

that is, the phenomena on which the attribute signified subject, is grounded are a part of the phenomena on by the predicate which the attributes connoted by the subject are grounded. The is rational,' Man for example,is that meaning of the proposition the attribute, is grounded the phenomena on which rationality,
'

are

included in,the phenomena or part of,

* '

on

which

the attri

butes

are man grounded. Thus it would signified by the term namely, that, to the five heads given by Mill,a sixth, seem, should be added. This last of attributes, inclusion or containing

is different from

any

that

are

mentioned

by

Mill.

It is not

the

V/
"

same

for two phenomena or attributes may co-existence, co-exist without one forming a part of the other. .Thusgravity but one while is not contained in the j)ther; and inertia co-exist, does animalityis contained in humanity. A verbal proposition but expresses, like a the meaning of a name, not merely explain relation between a real proposition, phenomena or attributes. The relation expressed by it is that of containingor inclusion. The different relations between phenomena or attributes may be
as

thus shown

in

tabular view
1

"

See

AppendixF.

106
the connotation

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART II.
same

of the term
to

'

'

man

is not the

being different
degree
constant

different

classes and

accordingto
must

to all persons, and the kind is it vary

of their and in
our

education
On

experience. Nor contrary,it

in all his

anything
with the

fixed.

the
man

progress

knowledgeof

'All material bodies proposition ing to Mill,is that whatever

aspects. Or take the Its meaning, accord gravitate.'

has
'

the

attribute

of

'material
are

body

'

has also the attribute of

a

of

gravitating.' Now,
How
am

what

the
a

attributes

material

body ?

I to know

whether

Is the luminiferous particular body is material or not? of light), for example, material ? Thus the (themedium tation of terms

ether
conno

being variable
Mill's

and

on proposition,

theory,must

the meaning of a uncertain, partake of its uncertainty,

and indenniteness. variability, The nected last remark with the that
or

I will make real first.

on

Mill's of
a

theory is

con

import
made
or or

meaning
In the

term, and

have perhaps, says that

a

been

chapter on

should, Terms, Mill

common

general term
is

or directly signifies objects

things, and
connotation
or

implies
of
a

term

signifies attributes;so the indirectly taken in that chapterto be its implied

its denotation of the the

indirect

meaning,
But the direct

and

direct

or

explicit

meaning1.
taken
as

in his

entirelypassed over.
should have

the former is Proposition, essential meaning, while the latter is or to require that Mill Consistency seems

theory

regardedthe
as

connotative

or

rather

attributive

mean

ing of a term tive meaning

explicit meaning, and the denota indirect and implicit. as " 12. From what we have given above of the views of Logicians, it is evident that they differ (1)as to the relation of A and B and (2)as to the way in which A and B and predicate) (subject the meaning of subjectand pre to be interpreted are (thatis, dicate).
1

its direct and

Mill's

Logic, Vol.
a

i.

pp. 31, 32.

"

"A

connotative

term

is

one

which "The

denotes
name

and subject,

attributes

is,therefore, said indirectly, "c.,"p. 32.

implies an attribute,"p. 31. Again, the the subjectsdirectly, to signify

CHAP.

II.]

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

107

recognizes regards the first point,Hamilton, for instance, exclu or the relation of containingor not-containing(inclusion sion) either in the quantity of extension or in the quantity of
As

comprehension,arisingfrom
fliction.' Mansel B must holds be

the

'

relation

of congruence

or

con-

that the two

sets of attributes

togetherin some capable of existing that is,the relation of A and B is that of object of intuition, or According to Ueberweg the compatibility incompatibility. relation of A and B must relation, correspond to an objective that is, to a relation reallyexistingamong things. Martineau the and, also, recognizesthe relation of substance and attribute, and of resem and effect, relations of time and space, of cause blance and difference. Mill gives the relations expressed by all propositionsunder five heads : (1) Existence,(2) Co-existence,

by A

and

expressed possible

includes Bain (3) Succession,(4) Causation, (5) Eesemblance. all under three classes,(1) Co-existence,(2) Succession,(3) Equality or Inequality. different views The arising from difference on the second point,namely, the way in which A and B are interpretedby be noted as follows : Logicians, (1) The Ordinary or Pre may dicative View in which A is taken in denotation (or extension)
"

(or comprehension),and the relation of A and B is that of subject and attribute. The light," says Dr Venn, in which a propositionhas to be consistently interpreted We this view is that of predication. on distinguishbetween subject and attribute here, and we assert that a given subject
B in connotation
" "

and

does

or

does not

A, E, I,0,
"

Of the four possess certain attributes1." Dr Venn from this view of propositions, arising
to be

forms says,

These

needs

appear of mankind, and

forms

naturallydetermined

by

the

ordinary

the

ing

needs; all that somewhat more precisein are2." tionally Again, "As
those sition
seem certainly

modes of express ordinarypre-logical them Logic has done being to make their signification than they conven just remarked, these forms of propo
most

to

represent the
3.

and primitive

natural

SymbolicLogic, p.

Ibid. p. 3.

108
modes
in

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION

[PART IT.
itself with
ac

which

thought begins
this

to

express

curacy1." According to

by propositions view,all relations expressed be reduced to the single type of the relation of subjectand may be anything that attribute. The subject of a proposition may It may be a substance, can a possess an attribute or attributes. of a proposition is phenomenon, or an attribute. The predicate and even when the predicate is a concrete an attribute; term,
the term in its connotation interpreted (orcomprehension). This view of Propositions does not ignore the relations of and effect, of resemblance and difference, space and time,of cause propositions;but it holds that, for logical expressedby many and all be reduced to the relation of subject purposes, they may attribute. Some Logiciansholding this view so far as a certain class of propositions, namely, those expressing the relation of that the other substance and attribute, are concerned,maintain and effect, of such as those of time and space, of cause relations, resemblance and difference, can not, or should not, be reduced to the single type of subject and attribute. According to them, there are different classes of propositions founded upon different of thought and givingrise to distinct types of rea categories soning2. is

1 2

Symbolic Logic, p.
The relation and
to

4.

of

subject and
For

attribute the
nature

is also called the relation of

of

substance

attribute.

purposes

this work

it is

not necessary

inquire into the

of this relation,or

into the

meaning of Subject,Substance, Thing, or Attribute,or to discuss the questionas to whether an attribute possessingattributes becomes a substance attribute. For the Predicative an (or thing),or remains other relations can, in view, it is sufficient if propositionsexpressing be understood the relation of subject and to express some way, be done The in the followingmanner: attribute; and this may the relation of "A is equal to B," for example, expressing proposition
"

according to this view, that the attribute of being means, Equality, by A, whether A and B be tbingsor attributes; equal to B is possessed is the cause of B," expressingthe relation of the proposition"A

CHAP.

II.]
The

AND

IMPORT

OF

PROPOSITIONS.

109

View, in which both A and B are taken in denotation (or extension). This view includes (a) Hobbes' View, (6)the Class View, in which the class or group of things denoted by A is included in the class or group of things denoted by B, and (c)the EquationalView, in which the things denoted those denoted by B. as by A are the same Attributive or View, in which both A (3) The Connotative and the relation expressed and B are taken in connotation, by of A and is variable and depends on the nature the proposition have seen, the funda as we B. Mill adopts this view,and gives, of fact expressed mental relations or matters by real propositions under five heads : (2)Order in time, (3)Order in (1)Existence, and (5)Eesemblance (seep. 103). But, for place, (4)Causation, of Syllogistic the purposes Logic, he gives also a general ex pression for it. "This, then," he says, "is the theory of the reduced but to its ultimate elements: Import of Propositions, and a less abstruse there is another expressionfor it,which, is though stopping short in an earlier stage of the analysis, for which such a scientific for many of the purposes sufficiently the generalexpressionis required. This expressionrecognises commonly received distinction between subjectand attribute, and givesthe following the analysisof the meaning of propo as sitions : Every propositionasserts, that some given subject

(2)

Denotative

"

"

does is
or

or

does not

possess

some

attribute ;

or

that

some

attribute the

is not

in which

(eitherin all or in some it is met with)conjoinedwith

DenotativeConnotative in denotation the

portion of
some

subjects
B

other attribute.1" which A and

are

(4)
taken

The

both

View, in (or extension)and

of A and both that

in connotation B A is
a

(or
one.

and comprehension),

relation

twofold B
are

holds that when Hamilton, for instance, A is contained in B, and in extension,

are

and

taken and B

when in A.

both

taken
and

in

B comprehension,

is contained
this

Cause

Effect,means,
cause

being the
1

of B

is

to according by A possessed
i.

view, that the attribute of

A

whatever

and

may

be.

Mill's

Logic, Vol.

p.

180.

See

below

Appendix A,

Mill's

Canons,

pp. 282"284.

110
There

THEORY

OF

PREDICATION,

"C.

[PART

II.

is another
the

views
views views may

of

which of the

point on which Logicians differ in their with the different Proposition. It is connected The different they take of Logic as a science. Proposition arisingfrom difference on this point
as

be noted

follows

"

or View, in which both A Conceptualist Subjective and B are concepts not necessarilycorrespondingto really that is, of thingsthat existing things,but true of possible things, be realised in Thought. may

(1)

The

View, in which both A and (2) The Materialist or Objective to really B are existing concepts corresponding things,and the to a relation of A and B is a relation of concepts corresponding relation of things: e. g. Ueberweg'sview. (3) There is another view which is usuallyidentified with should be distinguished from it. I the second view, but which the view accordingto which A and B stand for really mean existingthings, and the relation of A and B is a relation of view. things: e. g. Spencer's holds the Mill,in his Examination of Hamilton's Philosophy, second view ; but in his System of Logic he very nearly gives it Among English Logicians up and passes on to the third view. intermediate he seems to occupy an positionbetween subjective Logicians, or representedby Hamilton and Mansel, conceptualist and objectiveLogicians, representedby Mr Spencer and Mr
Carveth The Read. difference between the second and the third

view,is that, two are according to the former,the two terms of a proposition to really existingthings, while,according concepts corresponding terms the two are to the latter, reallyexistingthings or phe themselves. The upholders of the second view treat in nomena Logic of the forms and relations of Thought as correspondingto and relations of Things, while the upholders of the the forms
third view
1

treat of the forms

and relations of things themselves1.

Nature and

See

Appendix E,

"The

Province

of

Objective

Logic."

CHAPTER

III.

THE

MEANING

AND

KEPRESENTATION DIAGRAMS.

OF

A, E, I,

BY

"
the be

1.

A
*

STANDS

for any is B.'

Universal

Affirmative

of proposition

type

All A

It may the
two

A,

2.

represented by

A, 2. diagrams, A, 1, and According to the ordinary or predicative view

tions, the
that 'B'
or

of

proposi
of A is

meaning
to

the attribute

connoted

by

belongs

all the

things
it may
not
"

objectsdenoted
is implication The

by 'A,'and
that
or

the

may

belong
the

to

any

other stands

things.
for
cases

diagrams represent this, thus,

denoted

the circle A circle B B

occurs

the

things

by

the

term

A,

and

for the
; the

in which

the attribute shows the that second

connoted
cases

by
are

the term
more

first the

diagram

these shows

numerous
are

than The other

things,and
of the

that be

the

two

equal.
one or

meaning
of the two

propositionwill diagrams.
to the denotative

represented by
of

According
of A is that

view class

the whole

of the

the meaning propositions, denoted by the term A is

term

included

in the class with

denoted
the

by
whole

the

B,
this

or

that

the

former

is co-extensive

latter.

And of the

is shown is
a

by

the the

diagrams,
"

in the in the

the first,

class A

part of
The
mean-

class

B,

and

second, the

two

classes coincide.

112

MEANING

AND

HE

PEE

SEN

TAT

ION

[PART II.
other of the

will be represented ing of the proposition by

two

one

or

diagrams.
According to
the connotative the attribute view connoted of A is that the mean propositions, by B accompanies
* '

ing of
latter
to

the the

attribute

connoted

by
"

'

'

in every The

case, that

is,wherever
cases

there the former is, thus, represent this, attribute connoted

cases

is.

diagrams
that
are a

may the

be understood in which
are

the first shows

the

by

occurs

part of, or
cases

less

numerous occurs or are

than, the
; the

in which that

the

attribute classes of

connoted

by

second

shows

the two

coincide

two

equal in number. Thus, on all the three views,A diagrams. On each of them,
in its whole sometimes

can

be

the

represented by these subjectof A is always

This is

taken
a

extent,while the predicateis always taken in

also in its total extent. second
cases

and partial
case

plainly
is is A

the the

on

the first and because in all

views. the

On

the

third, too,this

case,

attribute

connoted

by

accompanied by the attribute connoted by B. This fact is what is meant the subject is distri by saying that,in an A proposition, and the predicate undistributed. buted, By the extent of an attri
bute is meant the number for any of
cases

in which

it

occurs.

" 2.

E stands

Universal

of Negative proposition A the is B.3 It

the

type 'No
sented The

is repre

followingdiagram. meaning of the diagram is dif

by

ferent

on

the different views

of pro

positions.
On
stands the term A ; and the circle B for the B
occurs

the for
cases

first the

view, the things

circle A

denoted

by
the

in which

the attribute that

connoted
one

by
is

the term

; and

the

diagram shows
"

set

quite distinct
does not

from

the
case

other,

that any

the

attribute

connoted denoted
On denoted

by B by A.

in any

belongto

of the

things
classes that

the second

view,the
A

two

circles A, B stand for two

B ; and the

respectively by

and

diagram shows

114

MEANING

AND

REPRESENTATION

[PART II.
preceding case,
in at least
one

in the class denoted

by

B ; and

this

as is,

in the

represented by
On
the
case, and

the

diagrams.
the

third view

meaning
every
occurs

of I is that
case,

that,it

may

be, in
there

in which

the attribute

connoted

by

occurs,

the

attribute connoted

by

B; and this is,as in the precedingcases, representedby the diagrams. On all the views, both the subjectand the predicate are also in the always taken in a partial extent, and sometimes
whole
of their extent. and subject the This fact is what I both the

of an predicate
Particular

by sayingthat undistri are proposition

the

is meant

buted.

"
form

4.
'

0 stands A
*

for any

of Negativeproposition with the

Some word

is not

B.'

In accordance

some,3 as given above, it is three diagrams,each of which shows following

of the A

logical meaning represented by the

that at least
one

is not B, On the first view,the

may

meaning

of 0 is that at least

one

thing,
not

and

that,it

be,

every

thing,denoted
0,

by A,
3.

has

the

0, 1.

0, 2.

attribute attribute

connoted
occurs are

by 'B,5
"

that from

all the
at least

cases one

in

which

the

excluded

and, it may thing,

at

be, from
On and

denoted by A. every thing, the second view the meaning

it may
'

that is,

least

one

thing,

be every to the class denoted by ' B

that from

thing,denoted
; that

by

'A' does not

belong

the whole

of the latter class is every, individual

excluded

at least one, and

it may

be from

of the former. On and the

third view the

that meaning is,

in at least

one

case,

that it may

by

'A'

occurs,

be in every case, in which the attribute connoted

the attribute connoted

by

'B'

does not

occur,

CHAP.

III.]
case

OF

A, E, I, 0

BY

DIAGRAMS.

115
least

that every and it may On

of the

latter is excluded

from

at

one

case,

every case, of the former. all the views,'B' is always taken in its entire extent, 'A' be from
a

also in the whole of its extent. part,and sometimes is meant This fact is,what by saying that the predicateof an is distributed and the subject undistributed. 0 proposition 'A3 and {B,Jthe subject " 5. Eecapitulation.Eepresenting and the copula, of a proposition, and the predicate by two circles, A is repre relation of the two circles, or by the mutual position sented by the two diagrams (1)and (2),

always in

"

by

the

diagram (3), single

by

the four

and (7), (6), (5), diagrams (4),

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

w
8"2

116
and

MEANING

AND

REPRESENTATION

[PART II.

by

the three

and (10). (9), diagrams(8),

(8)

(9)

(10)

that (1) it will be seen comparison of these diagrams, and (6),(2) and (7), (4) and (8),(5} and (9) are (3) and (10), dia and that there are five fundamental identical, altogether

On

grams.
are

To

help the
in
a

memory

of the
;
"

student,these

five

diagrams

given below
1st.

definite order
3rd.

2nd.

4th.

5th.

These

diagrams will

be

henceforth

called the

1st, 2nd, 3rd,

and the student is advised to remember 4th,and 5th respectively, numbers. their respective A is represented by the 1st and 2nd, E by the 4th, I by the 1st,2nd, 3rd,and 5th, and 0 by the 3rd, 4th,and 5th. undis and the predicate The subject of A is distributed, the subject and predicate of E are Both distributed. tributed.
Both of subject and predicate and predicate of O is distributed, the That I
are

undistributed.

The

the

subject undistributed.

and distribute their subjects, is, only universal propositions distribute their predicates. only negativepropositions

" 6.
I.
"

Exercises

on

the

meaning

and

of propositions representation

by diagrams.
may II.

prepositionalforms be represented by diagrams.

Show Draw the five fundamental

how

the

four

"

viz., A, E, I, and

all diagrams representing

state

propo

sitions in their proper which

order, and
0

which

of them

representA,

E, which

I, and which

respectively.

CHAP.

III.]

OF

A,

E,

I,
"

BY

DIAGRAMS.

117

III. be

Which

of

the the

four

prepositional
which the 5th which

forms"

A,
which

E,

I, and
the

0
"

may which

represented
the

by
and

1st,

by

the

2nd,
?

by

3rd,

by

4th,
Name

which the

by

diagram

IV.

diagrams

represent

A,

E,

I,

and

respec-

tively.
.

V.

Eepresent
and and
state

each its the

of

the

following

propositions
to

by
various

its

appropriate
theories of

diagrams,

meaning import
of

according

the

predication
1.

of

propositions

All All Some Some Rain Some All No

All

men

are

rational. fallible. rich.

not

2.
3. 4. 5. 6.

men

are

men

are

elements is

are

metals.

produced
have bodies is

by

clouds.

plants
material

flowers. extended.

7.
8.

are

man

perfect.
are

9.
10. 11.

metals sensations

elements.

All

are

feelings.

Material Silver Water

Heat

bodies is white.
at

gravitate.

12. 13.
14.

boils

100" bodies.

C.

under

pressure

of

760

m.m.

expands

15.

Friction

produces

heat.

PART

III.

REASONING

OR

INFERENCE.

CHAPTER

I.

THE
A
one or

DIFFERENT

KINDS

OF

SEASONING

OR

INFERENCE.

Reasoning is
more
we

the

act

of the
to

mind another
to

by

which

we

pass

from them.

given judgments
from
one

following from
different

When
but

pass

judgment

another

from

it,

contained

Immediate.
another

the reasoning is called in,or directly impliedby it, When from two more we or judgments to pass any of

justified by all of them the reasoning is called Mediate. The new jointly, judgment, or the judgment obtained from the given judgment or judgments, is called the Conclusion, and the given judgment or judgments, the
them,
but

different from

Premiss
than

or

Premisses.

If the
a

conclusion

be

not

more

general hand,
called

either of the

premisses in
If the any of the

mediate

the reasoning reasoning,

is called
more

Deductive.
than

conclusion

be,

on

the

other

general
of what

premisses,the reasoning is

Inductive.
ment

In Deductive is contained the

Inductive

Reasoning

Reasoning the conclusion is a develop in,or implied by, the premisses. In conclusion contains or implies more

CHAP.

I.]
what

REASONING

OR

INFERENCE.

119
or

than

is contained
Thus
we

in

or

impliedby

any

all of the pre

"

misses.

kinds of reasoning: get the following

REASONING

Immediate

Mediate Medn

Deductive

Inductive

under and Inductive, kinds, Deductive Inference? Immediate Immediate Seasoning, as it is usually is the conclusion in no case is all Deductive, that is, treated of, more general than the premiss. But if we define Immediate Reasoning as a reasoning in which a judgment is obtained from be more that the former another judgment, it is evident, may

Are

there

also two

"

generalas well as less generalthan the latter. If the conclusion be called Induc the reasoning should certainly be more general, tive. If, for example, we could,in any case, draw the general from conclusion from a a singlejudg instance, that is, single be ment or proposition the reasoning,in that case, would of a single premiss only,and should be Immediate, as consisting called Inductive, as general than leading to a conclusion more
" "

the

premiss.
In Deductive

mediate

reasoningand all Logic,however, all immediate and the following classification reasoning are deductive,
"

: therefore, preferable is,

REASONING

Deductive

Inductive

I
Immediate Mediate

Syllogistic

: Non-Syllogistic

e.g., certain

mathe

matical

deductive

reasonings.

120

THE

DIFFERENT

KINDS

OF

[PART III.

The latter is Eeasoning is either Inductive or Deductive. again either (1) Immediate, or (2) Mediate, accordingas the conclusion follows from one than one. A premiss or from more Mediate Deductive when it con Seasoning is called a Syllogism, forms to the axiom called Dictum de omni et nullo, Whatever is affirmed or denied of a class distributively, be affirmed or may denied of any thing belonging to that class," to some similar or axiom axioms. It may be called Mathematical,when it con or forms to some other of the axioms in mathematics, such one or as (1)that thingswhich are equal to the same thing are equalto of equals are equal,(3)the prin one another,(2)that the sums that 'a thing which called Argumentum a fortiori, or axiom ciple is greater than a second,which is greaterthan a third, is greater
"
"

than
cannot

the

third.'

The

subdivisions

of the

other

main

division

be discussed in this book.

"

is the inference of a relation Seasoning, regarded objectively from one or more things and attributes. given relations among When universal relation is inferred from one, a few, or a general the reasoningor inference is Induc or relations, particular many tive. When the relation inferred is not more general than the contained in, and is, in fact, or implied given relation or relations, It the reasoningor inference is called Deductive. by, the latter, when is Immediate the inference is drawn from one given relation than one. The or premiss,and Mediate when drawn from more three meanings : word inference, it should be noted,has,at least, (1) the process of reasoning,(2) the product of reasoning con and (3) the conclusion of the premissesand the conclusion, sisting
"

only. We have here used the word in the second sense, but it is in the third. and more used in the first, frequently frequently is called an A reasoning, Argument. expressedin language,
There
are are

thus

as

of the former.

many The

kinds

or

varieties of the latter

as

there

form of simplest A Mediate the premiss and the conclusion. two propositions, of more deductive reasoninggivesrise to an argument consisting and the conclusion. than two propositions, namely, the premisses
to the
"

form of argument corresponding simplest namely,Immediate, consists of reasoning,

122
4. No All
.".

THE

DIFFERENT

KINDS

OF

[PARTIII.

man

is

perfect,

No

are men philosophers ; is perfect. philosopher are

5.

All metals Gold

.*.

elements,

is is

a an

metal ; element. B."None.g..

Gold

Syllogistic.

Mathematical.

6.

A is C is
.".

equal to B, equal to B equal to C. B,

C ;
C.
;

A is

7.

A is greater than B is
.".

greaterthan B,
C ;

A is greater than A is less than

B

8.

is less than

.*.

A is less than A is B is
a a a

C.

9.

part of B, part of
C ;

.-.

A is
A

part of C.

10.

is

equal to B,

C is
.-.

equal to D ; C is equal toB

D.

Mathematical conform
to

reasoningsare
axioms

if they as usually regarded valid,

By taking the axioms as major premisses,and the data of the reasoningsas minor form. premisses, they may, however,be reduced to the syllogistic as Examples 6 and 7 given above may be stated syllogistically
follows
6.
:"

the

of mathematics.

Things which

are

equal
and C

to

the
are

same

thing are
to
one

another; the two

therefore the two 7. A

things A and

C
are

equal equal
to

the

same

equal to one thing (B);

thingsA
is

another.

greaterthan a second, which is greaterthan the third;the thing A is greaterthan a second a third,is greaterthan which is greaterthan a third (C); therefore the thing A is greater (B),
which tlu'ng than the third

(C).

CHAP.

I.]

REASONING

OR

INFERENCE.

123
be reduced
to

other mathematical Similarly, syllogisms. fully-expressed

II. 1. Air

reasoningsmay

INDUCTIVE.

.*.

2.

expands by heat, Water expands by heat, Mercury expands by heat, Copper expands by heat, Gold expands by heat ; All material bodies expand by heat. Water is solidified by cold, Mercury is solidified by cold,
Cocoanut oil is solidified solidified

by cold

.".

All The

liquidsare
other

by

cold.
our

3.

friction of the

palms of

hands

against each

The

produces heat, friction of two piecesof

"c.,

wood

produces heat, produces heat.

died ;

"c.,
whom I knew have

"c. ;

.".

The

friction of all material bodies

men men

4.

Many
All the
.-.

died,

in the

past ages have

All The

men

will die.
are angles of this triangle rightangles;

5.

three
two

togetherequalto
togetherequal
to

.*.

The

three
two

are angles of any triangle rightangles.

6.
.".

These No An
two

two

lines straight
can

cannot

inclose
a

space,

straightlines line,

inclose be

space.

7.

equilateral triangle can

finite
can equilateraltriangle

constructed

upon

this

.-.

An

be

constructed

upon

any

finite line.

Inductive Induction.

reasoningsconform

to

the

canons

and

rules

of

and rules as major premisses, By taking the canons and the data of the reasoningsas minor premisses,Inductive like mathematical,may be reduced to the syllogistic reasonings, form1.
1

See

below, Appendix

D.

CHAPTER

II.

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.
of

reasoning,is the of deriving or a deducing a proposition from process or given proposition or premiss. As an reasoning argument and expressed in language,it consists of the given proposition, the propositionnecessarily followingfrom it. As an inference or it is the propositionthus following, the result of the conclusion, The derivation also of a proposition from a term process. may Inference. be regarded as a kind of Immediate Every attribute Thus connoted there by a term may be affirmed of the term.
1.

"

IMMEDIATE

Inference, as

process

"

are

two

kinds
In

of Immediate first

Inference. inferred from

a

(1)
Take of the
term

the

kind, a propositionis
term
' '

term.

the connotative
two

man,' and
'

let its connotation

'

consist

attributes
that

rationalityand
we

it is evident

may

at

once

animality.' From this infer the following two

is

(i) 'Man propositions:

kind of immediate connoted

is

rational,3 (ii)'Man

animal.'
that

This every

inference

depends
may of

on

the

axiom

attribute
axiom

by

term

be

is the basis of the formation the connotation

predicated of it. This verbal propositions by the

This mode of immediate

analysisof
inference
an

of terms.

equivalent to the affirmation of an attribute of really the of a thing or things,of which or aggregate of attributes,
is affirmed is known
to form
a

attribute

part.

CHAP.

II.]

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

125

Exercise.

Infer

one

verbal Material

propositionfrom

each

of the

terms following

"

(1) (3) (4)

(5)

body.

(2) Figure.
Chalk.

(6) (7)

Plant. Animal.

(8)
(9) (10)

House.
Man. Mind.

Table.
Book.

is inferred from a given (2) In the second kind,a proposition different forms of it : viz., I. Con proposition. There are seven version ; II. jEquipollenee, Permutation,or Obversion ; III. Con Con traposition ; IV. Subalternation ; V. Opposition ; VI. Modal Of these we shall treat in sequence ; VII. Change of Relation. order.

"

2.

I.
"

Of Conversion. is the admissible

of the subject and transposition the predicate of a proposition. The proposition to be converted is called the convertend, and the proposition inferred from it the be denned as a legitimate converse, which may inference, having for its subject and predicatethe predicateand subject, respec of the convertend. In an the tively, hypotheticalproposition, are consequent and the antecedent transposed. In drawing inferences by the process of conversion, the following three rules
must

Conversion

be observed

:
"

the

and the predicate in the convertend (1) The subject and the subject, in the converse. predicate respectively, (2) No term should be distributed in the converse
not

must

be

which

was

distributed in the convertend.

is the of of
an a

(3) The qualityof the converse convertend, that is,the converse is affirmative, and the converse negative.
"

same

as

that

of the

affirmative proposition

negative propositionis
definition of conversion.
in order that the

The The

first rule is evident and be third

an

from

the

second may

rules must

be observed

converse

admissible
the

from followingnecessarily

that is,an inference inference, given proposition. The second

126
rule is evident

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEKENCES.

[PART III.
is

from

the

fact

that

if

term

it can some individuals, premiss,to signify not, in be used to signify denoted by the term. every individual, third rule follows from the meaning of an affirmative An affirmative proposition, such as negativeproposition.
means

used, in the the conclusion,

The and S is
a

P,

not

S is included in P ; and from this it does P is excluded from S (or P is not S), follow that at least one that at least
one

for P and
not

S may

coincide.
at least

A
one

such negative proposition, S is excluded

one

as

S is from

P, means

that

from

P ; and

this it does not is

follow that at least

P is included

in S

(or P

outside of each other. S),for P and S may lie entirely A follows I by conversion: from 'All S is P' (1) From 'At least one follows by conversion P is S.3 This foliows or some and can be easily from the rules, proved by the diagrams. By the third rule the of A
must
converse

be
or

affirmative,

that

is,A

I;
can

by
not

the

se

cond

rule it

and, as no rules are by inferringI from A by conversion,it is I. A is represented by the first and P is S.' second diagrams, and from both of these follows I, Some P is not S.3 From the first follow I, Some P is S,3 and 0, Some From the second foUow A, 'All P is S,'and I, 'Some P is S.' Thus from A in every case, follows I from each of them, that is, only by conversion. mortal : its converse is Some mortal are Examples. All men is man,3 'At least one that is mortal is man,3 or 'Some mortal If A is, B is : its converse if is In some cases beingsare men.3 B is, A is.3 The hypothetical also can thus be converted. Some S is P,3we (2) From I follows I by conversion : from infer immediately'At least one or some P is S.J This follows can from the rules, and can be easily proved by the diagrams repre be affirma of I must sentingI. By the third rule the converse that is, A or I ; by the second rule it can not be A; and as tive,
' ' ' '
"

be A ; violated

'

'

CHAP.

II.]
are

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

127

no

rules

I is each

I from by inferring represented by the 1st,2nd, 3rd,and violated of them it will be the
seen

it is I. by conversion, 5th diagrams,and from I

'

that

the

converse

Some

is S

'

follows.

Hence
"

converse
men are

of I is I l. wise
cases :

Examples. Some wise being is man.'

'

its if A

converse

is 'At least is
:

one

In
A is,

some

B is,

its

converse

is

In

some

cases

if B

is.3 I

That

I follows be

from

by

conversion From the

and 2nd

that and

follows may

thus

shown.

nothing else 5th diagrams

the
1st

representing I,follow by conversion both A and 3rd representing I,follows by conversion

each of

and I

I ; from

only.
follows

Thus I

from

them,
From
'

that

is,from
E

I in every

case,

only by
S is P'

conversion.

(3)
follows

follows

by

conversion:

from

'No

No

P is S.' This and

is at

once

evident from
the

the 4th

diagram
the third

representingE,
rule the
no

follows
must

also from be

rules.

By

converse are

of E

rules

violated

that is, E or 0 ; and as negative, E from E by conversion, it is by inferring it is useless

to infer 0

0 also follows ; but inferred.

E.

where

can

be

Examples. being is man.'

"

No

man

is

: perfect

its

converse

is is
'

'

No

If A

is,B is

not

its

converse

If B

perfect A is is,

not.'

the the

(4) From and rules,

converse

second

rule
no

nothing follows by conversion : this follows from be proved by the diagrams. By the third rule can be negative, of 0 must that is, E or 0 ; and, as the is violated by inferring E or 0 from 0 by conversion,
of 0.

there is
'

converse

the

0, Some S is not 3rd,4th,and 5th.

From the 3rd Some P is S.

P,'is representedby
and I

three

diagrams,viz.,
Some P is not

follow O

by

conversion

S, and

The
as

student

should

draw

the

respective diagrams
that them.

in this

case

as

well

in those

that

follow, and
follow really

himself satisfy from

the conclusions

asserted to follow do

128
From Some the

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PARTIII.
:

4th

follow E

and

by by

conversion

No

P is

S, and S, and

P is not the

S.
5th follow A and I conversion
:

From Some

All P is

P is S. forms From the 5th of

Hence, from all the three nothing follows by conversion.

but
as

0,

or

from

0 in all cases, 4th follows 0 ;

cannot

the 3rd and

0 does
every

not

follow from
of 0. From

diagram,we

infer

it from
as

form

the

I does not

follow from

the 4th

3rd and 5th follows I ; but, diagram,it can not be inferred

from

0.
"

The Recapitulation. E is E. The

converse

converse

of I is I ; and
two
; and
cases

the

converse same

of

in these convertend

has

the

quality

and

quantityas

the

when

this is the case, the

The converse process of conversion is called Simple Conversion. in this case, of A is I. The converse, or the inferred proposition is while particular, case,
or

the

convertend

is

universal;and
is called

when

this

is the

the

process

of conversion

Conversion per

accidens

by limitation.

0 cannot
Exercise.

be converted.

Convert
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

the

: propositions following
"

All material Some No

man

bodies
are

are

extended.

animals

birds.

is immortal. is the is
a

Hydrogen
Benevolence

body lightest
virtue.
a

known.

6.
7. 8.

Every
Certain Some Matter
None

element metals

is not
are

metal.

ductile.
no

animals

have

power

of locomotion.

9.
10.

is indestructible. but elements is

are

metals.

11.
12. 13. 14. 15.

If mercury If If In
In
a a

heated, it expands.
is

judgment judgment
some some a eases cases man

16.

Only

it is not synthetical. analytical, is not synthetical, it is analytical. is followed by a perception. a sensation is not followed by a perception. a sensation of genius can without hope for success industry.

130

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
'

(4)
follows 5th S
'

From Some

0 follows I
S is not-P.'

by

obversion

from

Some

S is not

'

diagrams,from is not-P,' or some

representedby the 3rd,4th,and each of which follows the proposition Some S lies in the regionof not-P.
'

0 is

Example.
"

Some
are

elements non-metals.'

are

not

metals

its obverse

is

Some An

elements

propositionmay also be obverted by taking hypothetical the contradictory of the consequent as the consequent in the of the given proposition inference and then changingthe quality : 'When (1) If A is,B is; its obverse is 'If A is,not-B is not,' B is not: its A is, ever nothing other than B is'1. (2) If A is,
1

"With
as

reference follows:
"

to

this

explanatory form,
A
"

Mr

Keynes
than

has B
'

re

marked should than

'

"Whenever

is, nothing other

is"

hardly be given as the obverse of If A is,B is,"since other inconsistent is not equivalentto with,' and the existence of
'

something other than

obverse it is not The 'other of the
true

compatiblewith B's given propositionshould rather

Mr is Keynes' objection
'

is

own

existence.
"

The

be

stated, "If A is,

p. 589.
'

that B is not."

Mind, for October, 1884,

that
'

point of
than is taken if B

not-B

does

not

mean

B,' but that it means

in

inconsistent
means

with

B.'

I maintain with than

that if B and This that

connotation, not-B
in from the
of B

'inconsistent
means
"

B,'
B.'

is taken evident

denotation, not-B
is

'other The

will be

followingdiagram:
of not-B Here

denotation

represented by the circle B, and the

deuotation the circle.

by

the

region

outside

not-B

includes
means

everything
other than is of B the
con

NOT-B

except
B.

B, that

is, not-B
the

Now,

suppose

connotation

representedby
notation consistent
'

the

letter Z",then will be any

of not-B

attribute
means

in

with

" ; that

is,if
with

is taken

in connotation, not-B

inconsistent With this

as

with

B,'

or

the attribute connoted

by

B.

explanation of the difference in the meaning of not-B

B is taken
in

according
seen

denotation
"

or

in connotation, is not be
"

it will be

that the first form,

namely,
way

If A

is,not-B
terms
"

given in the
"

text, is correct, in whatever

whether
in

the

denotation

or

in connotation

interpreted and that the explanatory

may

CHAP.

II.]
is
*

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

131

obverse than B

is,not-B is,' Whenever I and 0 may also is.' Similarly

If A
'

is,something other

be obverted.

Exercise. Obvert 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

the

: following propositions are

All sensations

feelings.
has
a

Every phenomenon
Only
Some material bodies
no

cause.

gravitate.
flowers.

plants have
a

Justice is

virtue.

G. 7.
8.

If it rains, the None

ground will be wet.

are

but elements

undecomposable.

If A is not B, C is D. If
If
a a

9. 10.
11. 12. 13.

term

is is

it is not general. singular,

body
B,

heated,it rises in temperature.

If A is

C is D.

If A is B, C is not D. If A is not

B, C is

not

D.

form, namely, "If A

is,nothing other than

B Mr

is,"that is,"If A is
and not-B
A
are

anything other than

in
true

is not," is correct,if B

taken is not
conno

and that denotation, that B is

Keynes' form, namely, "If

and not-B
are

it is, in

not," is correct,if B

taken

tation. That follows: B" the

or
" "

the forms Keduce

given in
"If A
"

the text
"

are

valid may

be shown
"

also

as

is,B is

to the

form categorical
"
"

"All A is reduce

; and

obvert the
to

latter, "No

is not-B
"If

; and

then is

obverse
"If A

the

hypotheticalform"
"

is, not-B

not,"

is
B

anything
is not

other
or

than
A

^\

NOT-B

"If

is

nothing
evident dia

other than B is." This will

from grams

be

also

"

II

"

r"

""

the

two

representing
show that "If A

the Both

given proposition.
not-B is not,"that is,the combination is,
A does not exist.

not-B

9"2

132
"

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEKENCES.

[PAKT III.

" 4. III. Contraposition. consists in taking the contradictory of the Contraposition of the given proposition the subject of the inference, as predicate and the subject the predicate, and then changing the quality as both the qualityand the quantity of the proposition, if re or the propositionobtained or quired. The inference, by contra is called the Contrapositive. of a The position, contrapositive be denned admissible as an inference, having proposition may of the predicate for its subject and predicatethe contradictory and the subject, of the proposition. respectively, A follows E by contraposition : from (1) From 'Every S the contradictory is P' follows 'No not-P is S.5 Here 'not-P,' of the given proposition of the predicate (Every S is P), is taken and the quality the subjectof the inference, is changed from as
affirmative This
to

negative.
from of which
1st and 2nd, representing diagrams, follows the proposition 'No not-P is S,;

is evident each

the

A, from all S i.e.,

not-mortal

is excluded
"

from
men are

the

regionof
mortal
:

Not-P. is contrapositive 'No

Example. (2)
From

All

its

is man.' E follows I
: from by contraposition

'No

S is P'

follows 'Some

not-P

is S.'

This

is evident

from

the 4th

the quantity of the In this case E. representing is universal. while the given proposition is particular, is perfect is : its contrapositive Example. No man
"

diagram contrapositive
'

Some

is man.' not-perfect

(3)
is not the

From

follows 'Some

: by contraposition

from be

'Some

P' follows

not-P and I

diagrams,3rd,4th
From the 4th 3rd and from Some the 5th

may 0 : 5th,representing

is S.3

This

proved from
not-P each is S. of the

"

follows

Some by contraposition:
I. Hence from
case, follows I
are

From three

also follows

forms,or
"

0 in every

by contraposition.
:

Example.
is 'Some

elements
are

not

metals

its

contrapositive

non-metals
From

elements.'
no

(4)
may be

I follows
:
"

conclusion

by contraposition.This

provedthus

CHAP.

II.]

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

133

I is From

by represented
the 3rd and

the

1st,2nd, 3rd,and 5th diagrams.

the 5th follows

by contraposition the 1st and is S. But from not-P 2nd, I does not I, Some follow. from all the forms of I,that is, from I in every Hence be inferred by contraposition. case, I (Some not-P is S) cannot Again,from the 1st and 2nd follows 0 (Some not-P is not S) ;
but it does
not

also from

follow from not-P is not

the other two

and diagrams1,

there all the

fore 0 forms Two

(Some
of I.

S)

cannot

be inferred from

diagrams (3rdand 5th) allow I,and two 2nd) allow 0; but from each of them neither
inferred. Hence I cannot
"

others I
nor

(1stand
0
can

be

The Recapitulation.

I, while
1

I cannot

be

contraposed. of A is E, of E I, and of contrapositive contraposed. The student should careP

be

In the 3rd

diagram, a part of
lies outside P

coincides

with

part of S, and
not

some

not-P, which
of S,
"

and

consequently outside the coin

of S and

ciding part of P, lies outside the coinciding part

the whole
not-P

outside
some

that
from

is, all that is known

a

is certainly the

that

is excluded

part, and
with

not

from

whole, of S
S" is not

; or, in

other the

"Some words, the proposition

not-P
a

is not
of

true.
some

In

5th

diagram, P
some

coincides

part

S, and

therefore
of

not-P, which
whether
"

lies outside
not-P

P, lies outside the coincidingpart

S; but

lies outside the known that if some

remaining part of
is excluded
from true.
a

S is not

known,
of

that is,it is not We

know

not-P

from

the whole

S.

only
one

it is excluded S" is not from

part.

Hence

the pro

"Some position that at least

not

not-P not-P
we

is not

This

propositionmeans
of S ; but this
can

is excluded have

the whole

be

as inferred,

seen, from

these two

diagrams.

3rd.

5th.

134

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PARTIII.
that

fullynote
converted.
An the

that

I cannot

be

and contraposed,

cannot

be

be contraposed hypothetical proposition by taking may and the contradictory antecedent of the consequent in the

propositionas the consequent and the antecedent respectively and then changing the qualityin the case in the inference, of A and 0, and also the quantity in the case of E. is 'If B is not,A never (1) If A is,B is : its contrapositive
B is not, A never is.' 'Wherever is,' is (2) If A is,B is not: its contrapositive if B is 'In
some
cases

not, A is.'
In
some
cases

(3)
'In
some

if A

is,B
is.'

is not

its

is contrapositive

cases

if B is

not, A

NOTE. The

"

Contraposition is
converted logicians is

also 0

called

Conversion We

by Negation.
have
seen

older

by

this process.

that

also to A and E, and inapplicable to I only. applicable The contrapositive of a given proposition be regardedas the con may in obversion and verted obverse of it ; and contraposition as consisting the process in conversion the inference and
as

of the double

obverse. and have But

Some

logicianshave
as

indeed

regarded

the process

two-fold, including obversion

from contraposition the aid of the

conversion, and
inference.

accordinglyexcluded
we

Immediate

have

seen

that, with

of a proposition be inferred as im can diagrams, the contrapositive In contraposinga proposi mediatelyas its obverse or its converse. tion accordingto the older method, first obvert it,and then take the
converse

of the obverse.

Examples.

(1)
not-P

All S is P. is
'

Its obverse is S,' and

No

S is not-P

'

; the converse

of this obverse the

is

'

No

this last is the

of contrapositive

givenproposition

(AllS is (2)
not-P is

P).
S is P.
is 'All S is not is the

No

Its obverse

P'; the

converse

of this obverse

is

"

Some S

S,'which

of contrapositive

the

givenproposition (No

isP).

CHAP.

II.]
Some is

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

135

(3)
'Some

S is not
'

P.

Its obverse

Some

S is not-P

'

; the

converse

of this obverse

is

not-P

is S,' and

this last is the

of the givenpro contrapositive

position (Some S is not P). (4) Some S is P.

Its obverse

is

'

Some
seen

S is not before

not-P,'which (videpp. 127

"

is 0, and

0 cannot

be

converted

as

we

have

8).

Exercise.

Contrapose the followingpropositions:

"

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

All animals

are

mortal.

No

created

being is perfect.
be

All gases Some Some Some

can

liquefied.
not

plants are
animals
are

devoid

of the power

of locomotion.

insentient. have
no cause.

6. 7.
8.

substances

All bodies If mercury In

some

that have
is
cases

inertia have

weight.
its

heated, it expands.
if
a

9.

body is heated,
is followed

temperature does

not

rise.
10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 1C. In
some cases a

sensation

by

perception.

If A If A In In

is

B, CisD.
D.
is if A if A

is B, C is not
cases
cases

some some

B, C is

not

D.

is B, C is D.

In all In all
In
some some

cases
cases

if A is not if A is not

B, C

is D.

B,

C is not

D.
D. not

17.
18.

cases' if A
cases

is not is not

B, C is B, C is

In

if A

D.

" 5.
This the

iv._0f
process

Subalternation.
of immediate inference

universal to the

and particular,

with the same subjectand universal, quality. By subalternation follows : (1) From the truth of A, the truth of I,and of E, the truth of 0; but not conversely from
"

passingfrom from the particular to the and of the same predicate,

from the the truth latter the

consists in

former.

Thus,

if 'All S is P' be true, 'Some

S is P' will also be

136
true ;

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
will not

but if the latter be true, the former

necessarily

be true.

(2) From of 0, falsity

from
must

the the

of I, the falsity of A, and from the falsity of E; but not conversely the former falsity If 'Some 'Some
not

the

latter.

S S

is PJ

be

also be be

false;if

is not

then 'All false, P3 be false, then

S is P' 'No S

is P; must the

false;but particulardoes not

may be true.

that is,the falsity of conversely, from the of falsity the

corre

follow

sponding universal.
S is P'

'All S

is P' may

be
may

E Similarly,

and still 'Some false, be false, and the cor

0 true. responding

is
even
even

proof lies in the alreadyrecognizedas

in in
one one case case can can

The

(1)that I or 0 simply repeatswhat that what fails true by A or E, and (2) not be universally true,or what holds good The proof of not be universally denied.
fact

fact

the

converse some

lies in the
cases, in at

false in and
true
ence

(1) that something may be true or least one case, though not universally,
true
or

(2)that
or

what
some

is not

false in all cases,

one case.

may

yet

be

false in

cases, in at least

The from

rules of infer

given above

may

be

easily proved also

the

diagrams.

"
In

6.
a

V."

Of

Opposition.

that A and 0, previouschapter (vide p. 78) we have seen and E and I, are in relation to each other, called, Contradictory that A and in relation to each other, E are called, Opposites, and Contrary Opposites, that I and

are

called

Subcontrary

which exists among opposition subject and predicate,but A, E, I, and O, having the same and quantity,when in quality, in both quality or differing any is the others true e ither or are one given as false, necessarily We shall now unknown. or inquire into these true, false, them, and lay down certain general among necessary connections inference by opposition rules of immediate : consequence
"

Opposites.In

of the

(1)
as

Given

the truth

of A and

(AllS
2nd S is not

illustrated

by

the

1st

P). From the truth of A, diagrams,it follows that E is

is

false and

also that 0

(Some

P) is false.

138
The

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
be thus tabulated
:
"

results

we

have obtained above may

CHAP.

II.]

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEKENCES.

139
leads
:
"

comparisonof

the results tabulated rules of immediate 0 follows from I E

"

above

to the fol

lowing conclusions

and

inference the
"

of (1) The falsity

truth

of A. E. I. 0.

A The truth of 0 follows from I E

"

"

the
"

of falsity

A.
E. I.

"

A That

0.
"

follows the truth of of a proposition is,from the falsity and from the truth of a proposition its contradictory opposite, the of its contradictoryopposite. Hence follows the falsity rule
:
"

Qf

two

related propositions
must

to

each

other

as

contradictory

one opposites,

be

true

and of A

the other false. follows the of E, and from falsity conversely. That is,

(2)
the

From of

the

truth

of A ; but not falsity of its contrary follows the falsity from the truth of a proposition of one the truth of but not conversely from the falsity opposite, related to each Hence the rule : the other. Of two propositions truth

E,

the

"

other and

as

both contrary opposites, be false. the of falsity the

cannot

be true ;

one

must

be false,

both may

the

(3) From of falsity

two

I follows the truth truth of the

0 follows
one

I, but
other.
as

not

0, and from from conversely,

the rule
:
"

of

the truth

of the

the

of falsity

Hence

Of

both

related to propositions be false cannot must ; one rules

can

each other

subcontrary opposites,
both may be true. consideration

be true, and
to be

These of the the

also be

shown

true

by

themselves and by particularexamples. If propositions be affirmed 'All S is P' be true, i.e., if P3 can proposition
' '

of every
c

S,'then

it

can

not

be denied E and 0

of all
must

"

S,'nor
false.
can

of any

one

S,'or,

in other

words, both
it
can

be

Similarly,
be denied in

if the

'No proposition

S is P' be
not A

if 'P' true,i.e., affirmed of

a

of every other

'S,'then words, both

be
must

single'S,' or,

I and

be false.

If the

proposition

140
'

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
of at least it may
or one

Some

S is P' be it
can

if ' P' true,i.e., be denied

'

can

be affirmed
'

'

S,'then

not

of every in other

S,'and

may

not

words, E (No S is P) must be false, If the doubtful. and 0 (Some S is P) true or false, i.e., be denied 'Some S is not P' be true, i.e., if 'P3 can proposition of S,' of at least one S,'then it can not be affirmed universally and may not be affirmed of some or S,5or, in other words, may
be denied of
some

S,'or,

'

'

'

must

be false and
and
now

I doubtful. the results

The
are

other
same

cases as we

may have
:

also be

proved ; similarly
above.
metals

the

given

We
are

shall

give
be

some

concrete

examples

If 'All

contrary 'No metals are Some elements' its contradictory0 is evidently false ; and in the original metals elements' is also false ; because, not are and therefore 'elements' is affirmed of 'all metals,' proposition of consistency it can The principle re not be denied of some. of a class, not must quiresthat what is affirmed of all members
elements'

true, then

its

'

be denied

of any

of them.

If
'

'

Some

elements
are are

are

metals'
must

be be

E true,then its contradictory and false,

or

No

elements elements

metals'
not

its

0 subcontrary

'

Some

metals' may

may

not

be true.
Exercise.

Draw from

the inferences which of the

follow

by subalternation and opposition

"

the truth 1.
2. 3. 4. 5.

: followingpropositions

All material The No

virtuous

bodies
are

are

extended.

rewarded.

knowledge is useless.
is both
a

Benevolence Few know

virtue.

G. 7.
8.

physicsand metaphysics. Every phenomenon has a cause.

Some Some substances books
are are

uncaused.
useful.

not

9.
10.

None

but elements

are

metals.
are

All metals

except one

solid.

" 7. VI. Modal Consequence. By this process an inference is drawn by changingits modality:
" "

from

givenproposition

CHAP.

II.]
From
a

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

141

(1)
the
'

assertory,or
latter S is
can

propositionfollows the corresponding but not conversely from problematic proposition,

necessary former: may
'

the
'

from

*S

must
'

be S may

P'

can

be
or

inferred
'

P,' or
not
a

be P' ; but be P.J

from This

be P'

S is

P,

we

infer

S must

is evident lower
can

from be

the fact

that from but not

a higherdegree of certainty,

inferred,

from From

the latter the former. the

of a problematicproposition inadmissibility of the corresponding assertory and follows the inadmissibility from of an the inadmissibility assertoryproposition necessary, of the correspondingnecessary ; but follows the inadmissibility

(2)

not

from conversely
a

the latter the former. lower

This

is evident

from

the fact that where

degree can
be be

not

be

wanting,a lower then inadmissible,

But

is wanting, a higher degreeof certainty and that where a higherdegree may inferred, be PJ If S may degree may be established.
' '

S is P'

and

'S must be

be P;

must

also be still the

inadmissible. former

the latter may

and inadmissible,
are men

'All men be admissible. may and still the proposition' All missible, be may admissible. die' may
'

wise' may

be inad may be wise' may still

'

He

dies

'

may

be

and inadmissible,

He

be admissible. Of

" 8.
This

VII."
mode

Change

of Relation. inference consists in

of immediate

inferringa

from a given proposition proposition by changing the relation of that is,in inferring the latter, from a cate (1) a hypothetical from a hypothetical, gorical, (2) a categorical (3) hypotheticals from a disjunctive, from hypotheticals. (4)a disjunctive 'All categorical thetical 'If Sis, Pis' (A). From the categorical Some S is P is' (I). S is,
'

(1)

From

the

is P'

follows

the

hypo
cases

P'

follows

'

In

some

if

From From not'

'

No
'

S is P' follows S is not PJ

'

In all

cases
'

if S
some

P is,
cases

never

Some

follows

In

if S

(E). P is is,
cate-

is'

(0). (2)
From the 'If hypothetical S

is,P

is' follows

the

142

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
case

gorical Every of P' (A).

From
a case
'

'

case

of the existence of S is a

of the existence

If A

is

B,

C is D' follows

Every
is not

case

of A

being B,
'

is

of C

From

being D' (A). the proposition

of S is
a

'

If S

P is,

'

follows

No

case

of

the existence

case

of the existence of P.'

in the case of I and 0. Similarly the disjunctive 'A is either (3) From the other of the or cording to Mill one

B
two

or

C' follows, ac

following hypo-

theticals

"

(1) (2)

If A If A

is not C, A
is not

is B. is C. forms may

B,
more

According to Ueberweg, two

(3)
If A If A is is

be inferred

"

(4)
The rule of

C, A B, A

is not is not

B. C.

inference, according to Ueberweg, is,that the and the alternative implies the falsity of the other, truth of one the of the one the truth of the other. falsity Accordingto Mill, rule is that the falsity of the one implies the truth of the other be that both the members member, but not conversely ; and may of a the two members true. According to Ueberweg, therefore, like two contradictory are propositions, disjunctive proposition of the one be true,the truth or the falsity not both which can the truth of the other; the falsity or implying,respectively, proposi while,according to Mill,they are like two subcontrary of the one which both be true,the falsity implying tions, may
the truth of the other. metal is either a "This disjunctive propositions, He who prefers of electricity," of heat or a conductor conductor of a higher is either immoral or lower pleasure in presence a "Some either prophets or philosophers," men are imprudent," as be inferred two hypotheticalpropositions, according to may From the
"

Mill,while,from
either mortal
a or

"This animal is disjunctive propositions, soul is either "The vertebrate or an invertebrate," immortal," "Every organism is either a plant or an the

CHAP.

II.]

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEEENCES.

143

be inferred animal," may accordingto Ueberweg. the four or (4) From

four

as hypotheticalpropositions,

the

two

hypotheticalmay
follows
:
"

again

be

inferred the original as disjunctive

"

(a)

The

four

are hypothetical

(1) (2) (3) (4)

From

If A If A If A If A

is not is not is is

C, A B, A

is B. is C. B. C.

C, A B, A
'

is not is not
'

proposition A is B be true, the proposition A is not C is true. Again, if the latter be true, then by the is false. Hence, Law of Contradiction the proposition A is C from be true, A is C is false. Similarly, if A is B (3)it can A is B is false. Hence, be proved that if 'A is C be true,then be true,the other is false. Again, and 'A is B,'if one of A is C

(4)if
'

the

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

if ' A

false,A Middle (videp. 17, and be true,then is not-B be proved that if can
' ' ' "

is B

'

be

'

is not-B also

'

is true

by
'

the

Law
"

of Excluded

Ueberweg, pp. 260 3). And if 'A it from (2) A is C is true. Similarly, A is C be false,A is B is true. Hence, There and A is C,' be false, if one the other is true. of A is B be true, A is C,' if one of the two propositions A is B and fore, and if one be false, the other is false, the other is true, that is, of the disjunctive propositionEither they are the two members A is either B or C,}in Ueberweg's sense. A is B or A is C,'or
* ' ' ' ' * ' '
"

'

(b)

And

from

the two

hypothetical may
The
"

also be inferred the from hypothetical

in Mill's sense. disjunctive original to Mill, the disjunctive, are according

two

(1) (2)
It has been
1

If A If A

is not is not

C, A B, A
the

is B. is C.

is B

'

and
"

shown above already A is C,'the falsity of the two

or

that of the two

one

propositions

the other

i.e., they are

is either B
to possible

members
sense.

of

impliesthe truth of the disjunctive pro

positionA
'

'

in Mill's

(c)

Is it
a

tion from

proposi immediately a disjunctive in Ueber? This is not possible single hypothetical

infer

144

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEKENCES.

[PAKT III.

weg's sense
in Mill's follows the is
as

of
sense.

of a disjunctive But this is possible disjunctive. From the hypothetical 'If A is B, A is C}

'

disjunctive Either
:
"

is not

or

is C.'

The

proof

follows

(1)

If A
we

is

B,

is C.

this By contraposing

get,
is not

(2)
If
{

If A

C, A

is not C'

B.

is C'

be

false,'A
and
.-.
'

is not

is true

by
same

the

Law

of

Excluded
if A
.-.
'

Middle;
B
'

from is B

(2) 'A
'

is not

B' is true. the

Again,
law ; and

is not

be false,A

is true

by

from
'

(1)'A
{

is C' is true. is not

Hence,

of the

two

'A propositions

is C

and

the other. tive

of the one B,3the falsity impliesthe truth of the two members of the disjunc They are, therefore,
'

propositionEither A is not in Mill's sense Thus, a disjunctive proposition hypothetical ; but this of a disjunctive. sense

B
can

or

is C

'

in Mill's
a

sense.

be inferred from

single

is not

in Ueberweg's possible

Exercises. from propositions Distinguishthe following disjunctive other,and note the ambiguity,if any, in their meaning : I.
"

each

1.
2.

The An

individual A is either B A

A is either B
or

or

C.

C.
or
or

3. 4.
5.

Some

is either B

C.

Every
Either

A is either B all A is B
or

C.
is C. follow from also in each of

all A

II.

Infer the

the above
sense

of III.

which hypothetical propositions in Mill's and disjunctive propositions disjunctive.

the inferences
"

Ueberweg's

Draw

which

follow from

the

followingproposi

tions

by change of relation : 1. Only material bodies gravitate. 2. No plant can without lightand grow
3.

heat.

No

animal

can

live without
a

oxygen.
a

4.

A mineral

is either

simple or

compound substance.

146

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
invertebrate.
or

This animal

is either vertebrate is either vertebrate

or

or

Every
An

animal

invertebrate.

animal

is either vertebrate is either knowable is either knowable

are

invertebrate.
unknowable.

Substance
A substance

or or

unknowable.
or

All substances A

either knowable

unknowable.

body is either solid or fluid. This body is either solid or fluid. Every body is either solid or fluid.
All bodies
are

either solid

or

fluid.

" 9.
Given

Additional Forms
a

of Immediate

Inference.

'A"" ^ B; with 'A' and 'B' as its subject proposition the propositions and predicate respectively, immediatelyinferred forms : or other of the following from it will be in one with 'A' and 'not-B' as subject and predi 1. 'A1" not-B,'
"

"

cate. 2. cate. 3.
* '

Not- A

""

B,'with

'

not- A

'

and

'

'

as

and subject

predi subject

Not- A

*"

not-B,'with
' ' '

'not-A'

and

'not-B'

as

and

predicate.
4.
5.

A,' with B and A * Not-B A,' with not-B

*

'

""

'

'

""

and predicate. subject A and as subjectand predi

as
' '

cate. 6.
cate.
'

""

not-A,'with

'

'

and

not-A

'

as

subjectand predi
'not-A'
as

7.

Not-B

"",

not-A,'with

'not-B'

and

subject

and

predicate.
Of these

converse,

these

are

forms, the 1st is called the obverse,the 4th the and of the given proposition, the 5th the contrapositive But all that we have recognizedand treated of above.
that the the other forms may also

it is evident

be

immediately

inferred from

given proposition.
repeti

This

is used in this place to avoid the awkward sign ("-,) "is

or

tion of the words

is not."

CHAP.

II.]

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

147

diagrams of A, E, I,0, shown be easily to be legitimate inferences may the following it is to be remem and admissible. In proving these inferences, the bered that 'A' and 'not- A/ and "BJ and cover not-B,' whole sphereof thought and existence (vide 52)* : pp. 51
On and comparison of inspection the
"
"

"

I." From

A "All A is B
is not-B
not-A

"

follow:"

(1) No A (2) Some (3) Some (4) Some

not-A B is A

(E, obverse). is not B (0). is not-B (I). converse). (I,

(5)No (6)Some

not-B

is A

(E, contra(0). (A).

positive).
B is not not-A

(7) All not-B

is not-A

II." From

"

No A is B

"

follow :"

NOT-A

(1) Ail A (2) Some (3) Some (4) No B

is not-B not-A not-A is A

(A, obverse). is B (I).

is not not-B

(0).

(E,converse). contra(5)Some not-B is A (I, positive). (6) All B is not-A (A). (7) Some not-B is not not-A (0).
V

/A=NOT-B

^
"

-^

NOT-A

III." From

"

Some

is B

"

follow

:"

(1) Some (4) Some

A is not not-B

B is A

(0, obverse). (I, converse).

(6)Some
1

B is not not-A
course

(0).
that
a

It is of
a

assumed

every

term, whether

subjector

of predicate

has proposition,

term

to it. contradictory

10"2

148 IV." From

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART III.
:"

"

Some

is not B

"

follow

(1) Some (5) Some

is not-B not-B

(I, obverse). is A (I, contrapositive). (0).

0
"

(7) Some
The other
seven

not-B

is not not-A

forms

in the

case

of I and

given above,three have alreadystated, names as we special the others contrapositive respectively;
Of the forms
"

wanting. and (5) have, (4), (1), and obverse, converse,

are
"

(2),(3),(6),and
are

(7)
"

have

no

names. special

That

these

inferences For

valid may

be
the

easilyproved
inferences

also

by

the

older

method.

example,of
converse

drawn

from

A, (7)is

the obverse

of its the

contrapositive,
of the

(6)

is the

obverse

of its converse,

(3) is

obverse

of the last. and (2)is the obverse contrapositive, Of the inferences drawn of its from E, (2)is the contrapositive (3) is the obverse of (2),(6) is the obverse of its converse, the and (7)is the obverse of its contrapositive. Thus converse, of its four well additional
as

forms method

may

be

inferred

by

the
"

older method
the
an

as as

adopted in this work, by inference from an inference, and by the latter as an inference from the given proposition. by
the

former immediate

"
I.

10.
Give

Miscellaneous
the obverse

Exercises.
converse

of the

of the

following : propositions
"

(1)

The

useful is not

the beautiful.

(2) Beauty is unity in variety. few. are (3) Wise men

(4) A touches B. (5) (a)I know, (b)I

(6)
A is

am,

He (c)

is.

equal
number

to B.

(7) (8) (9)

A lies above The

B. of substances small.
are

containing more

than

four

ele

ments

is very
no

Where
any.

objectis distinguished, we

not

conscious

of

CHAP.

II.]
A is
A

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFEKENCES.

149

(10) (11) (12)

II. 1.
.".

greaterthan B.
B.
:

strikes B. includes the is is

Test Cold Heat Some Some If If

a a

followinginferences agreeable;

"

disagreeable.
are

2.
.".

elements non-metal

metals

is element.

3.
.*.

body

is

heated, it will expand ;

is true;
move

body expands, it is heated. plants can plants can

move

4.
.".

Some Some

not

is also true. the

eye,

5.

If the rays of sensation

light fall upon

of vision

they will produce

rays

the

of vision ; is not

.*.

If the have

sensation
not

produced, the

of

light

fallen upon

the eye.

6.
.".

All A

is B. not-A the
"

Some Give

is not-B. of the of each contradictory of the follow

III.

converse

: ing propositions

1. 2.

Every

man

is not learned.
are

Only animals Nothing

If A is Give

sentient

beings.

3. 4.

is annihilated. not

B, C is

D. the

IV.

the
"

of contrapositive

contrary of each of the follow

: ing propositions

1.
2. 3.

Every phenomenon has

No
If A
man

cause.

is

perfect.
not

is B, C is D.

4.

If A is Give

B, C is
converse

D. of the of contrapositive the

V.

the

contrary or sub"

: contrary of the contradictoryof each of the following propositions

1.
2. 3. 4.

All sensations
No
man men

are

feelings.

is immortal.
are

Some Some

wise.
are

elements

not

metals.

150
VI.
state

OF

IMMEDIATE

INFERENCES.

[PART
not selfish'
as

III.

Given

the

proposition
can

'Some

men

are

true:

the

propositions that

be inferred

from

it,(1) as true, (2)as

false,and
VII.
state

(3)as
Given

doubtful the

or

unknown.
'The virtuous from
are

proposition
can or

happy'

as

true:

the

propositions that

be

inferred

it, (1)as

true, (2) as

and false,

(3)as
Given

doubtful the

unknown.
'

VIII.
the and

proposition
can

Some

men

are

unjust

'

as

true

state

propositions that (3) as

IX.
doubtful the
or

be inferred

from

it, (1)as

true,

(2)as false,
true:

unknown. 'No
man

Given

proposition
can

is infallible'

as

state

the and

propositions that (3)as

X.
doubtful
as

be inferred

from

it, (1)as

true, (2)as false,

or

unknown.
verbal
or

Infer each

many

analyticalpropositions as
"

you

can

from

of the

following terms:

animal, (2)matter, (3)triangle, (1)

(6)man, (7)plant, (8)metal, (9)force, (10)book, (14) mind, (15) perception, (16) (11) table, (12) horse, (13)mammal,
(4)circle, (5)square,
sensation, (17)house, (18) philosopher,(19) king, (21)nation, poet, (20)

(22)society,(23)paper,
XI.
from the Draw
as

(24)chair, (25)examination.
inferences of the
as

many each

you

can

from

the
"

truth

and

also

of falsity

: following propositions

(1) (2) (3)

XII.

AU No Some

S is P.

S is P.
S is P.

(4) Some
Infer

S is not
as

P.

many

propositions
as

as
:

you
"

can

from

each

of the

following propositions being given

true

(1) Every phenomenon

(2)
The invariable the

has

cause.

antecedent

of

phenomenon
of

is the

cause

of

phenomenon.
commencement
a

(3) (4)
(5)

The

absolute

phenomenon
of

is not

con

ceivable.
The infinite non-commencement
a

phenomenon

is not

conceivable.
At least
one

substance

has

no

cause.

CHAPTER
OF

III.

SYLLOGISMS.

from two " 1. A Syllogismis the inference of a proposition the inferred proposition being less general given propositions, than either of the two given propositions. As an argument fully of one expressed in language, it consists of three propositions, from the other two, which, the conclusion,follows necessarily called the Premisses,and thus differs from Immediate Inference, which, as the simplest and most elementary form of argument, and the proposition the conclusion consists of two propositions, follows. From the propo the conclusion which from necessarily Some mortal mortal follows All men sition are beings are the latter is a conclusion men' inference, i.e., by immediate the aid of any other proposition. derived from the former without that is,a conclusion aid is necessary, is In a Syllogism such drawn from not one propositionbut from at least two propo sitions. For example, from the two propositions 'All men mortal and are Philosophers are men,' I infer the proposition Here follows mortal.' (1) the conclusion Philosophers are from the two propositionstaken jointly,and not from either of them be brought two singly. The propositions must is legitimately infer the third which together before I can involved in them, and yet is distinct from either. The con either of clusion is not the same as Philosophers are mortal mortal' and the two are 'Philosophers propositions 'All men does it follow them. from of are men one By this cha ; nor inference. from an immediate racter a syllogismis distinguished Again, (2) the two propositions being true,the conclusion must
* ' *
"

'

'

'

'

'

152
be true. The
one

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PARTIII.

with the other makes the conclusion conjointly valid. or necessarily admissible, legitimate, a By this character, that is,a correct or valid syllogism, is distinguished syllogism, from an apparent one or a mere combination of three propositions in which the conclusion does not follow from the premisses. And (3) the conclusion can not be more general than either of the two from which it is inferred. The propositions pro is less general than the position Philosophersare mortal the latter being applicable are proposition'All men mortal,' number to a much of individual things than the former. larger is distinguished from an induction, a syllogism By this character, in which the less general to the more we general, pass from to the universal 1. from the particular A syllogismis either pure or mixed. It is pure when both its premisses have the same that is,when relation, they are both categorical both hypothetical mixed when or they ; and have different relations, that is, when of them is hypothetical one and the other categorical, and the other cate or one disjunctive in a gorical. These distinctions will be referred to more fully subsequentchapter2. " 2. Of Categorical Syllogisms. A of two CategoricalSyllogism is a syllogismconsisting conclusion categorical premisses and a categorical necessarily It is a reasoning in which is term a followingfrom them. affirmed or denied of another of a third. Given two by means terms or : if I affirm deny one of the other,I get a categorical 'A is B' or 'A is not B.' In this act there is no proposition is merely an act of reasoning,mediate or immediate ; there judgment, the direct comparison of one term with the other. If could be thus directly affirmed or denied of every every term other,there would be no such mental act as reasoning;there
' '

would
we

be
we

no

need
can

of it.

But

constituted and
or

circumstanced
term

as

are,

not

affirm directly
a

deny

every

of every
terms

other.

We

have
1 2

often to establish

relation between
i.

two

See above, Part III,Chap. See

below,Part III,Chap.

v.

154
constitute the minor
a

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.

combine

If the major or syllogism ; if not, not. premiss is represented by a singlediagram,then with each diagram representingthe other this one

valid

premiss,and
then the
not.

if the

conclusion

follows

from
a

each valid

combination,

three In

constitute propositions the

to
same

syllogism ;
whether what
use con

if

not,

way

we

may
;

ascertain and

two

premisses lead
clusion.
In
two following

any

conclusion of

if so, to

this

method
:
"

we testing syllogisms,

the

axioms

(1) (2)
not

Two

circles
with

part coincide
Two
a

with a third by coinciding each other by that part.

one same

any

the

same

circles of which

coincides

and
do
not

the other does coincide with

with
other

third

by

any

the

part

each

by
the
;

that

part.
is

When firmative

first axiom

when and

the when

second neither

negative;
clusion. The

the conclusion is af applicable, is the conclusion is applicable, there is no is applicable, con

truth

of these the

axioms

is evident words in

to

every

person

who
ex

understands

meaning

of the

which

they

are or

part" may be "the whole" pressed. "Any the same the part with which one And smallest part possible."
may other may

"the

coincides
which the

part with The coincides or does not coincide. meaning of be further illustrated by the following diagrams :
be either
a

part

or

the

whole

of the

the words

"

CHAP.

III.]

OF

SYLLOGISMS.
3

155

diagram, two circles A and C coincide with B by any the same part, namely, the whole of C or a part of A ; therefore they coincide with each other by that part,that is, all C is A" in fact, This diagram is, a A is C." "some or repre
In the first
"

"

sentation is

of the also

A," and
A

syllogism all B is A, "all C of the syllogism

"

all C is B ; therefore is

all C

B, all B

is

A;

therefore

some

is C."

In the second with

not
a

third B

diagram, of the two by a part (thewhole

B

circles C and of the of

A,

C coincides does

coincide with
not

by

the

same

C), and part (thewhole

other A

C) ;

therefore
"

part,that is, no A is C," or in fact, This diagram is, a representa C is A." no tion of the syllogism all C is B, no A is B; .'. no A is C," and also of the syllogism"no A is B, all C is B ; .". no C is A." In the third diagram no because neither conclusion follows,

they do

coincide

with

each

other

by

that

"

"

axiom

is

applicableto it, the

circle C

lying either

outside

or

inside of the circle A.

a categorical " 4. By these two axioms we can distinguish that is, a valid categorical syllogism, syllogismfrom an apparent

one, or a conclusion student

mere

combination

of three the

does not

follow from

in which propositions premisses. But to help process of

the the

still further

in this most

important

testing

shall give below certain rules to which we syllogisms, every Kules conform. These categorical syllogism must Syllogistic

follow from

the definition of

: syllogism categorical
"

15G
1.

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PARTin.

contain three and must Every categorical syllogism only three terms, neither more nor less, namely, the two extremes between which we find a relation, and the third or middle term
"

with with of

which each

we

compare

each

extreme

in order

to compare

them
means

other.

If there

be less than
the
two

there three,
extremes.

is

no

the finding

relation
a

between train of
no

If there
a

be

more,

either there is

or syllogisms,

there is A is D."

of reasoningconsisting A is B, B reasoningat all.

"

series of is

C, C is
a

D ; therefore series of two

Here

there

are

four

terms, and there is

syllogisms.The first two propositionsgive the 'A is C,'and this proposition conclusion and the next, namely, C is D,' allow the conclusion 'A is D.' But the following propo do not constitute any reasoning: sitions containingfour terms Here there are A is B, C is D, B is A, and D is C." four pro from which not infer any relation between we can A positions, and C or D, or between B and C or D. This will be evident from the following the last two propositions representing figures :
' "
"

and

may

or

may

not
can

lie outside
not

or

D,

that

is,their
those
two

relation is

unknown, and

be determined

from

It follows from this rule that no term should be propositions. ambiguous ; for an ambiguous term having two distinct meanings is reallyequivalentto two terms, and the three terms are, in that case, really to four. equivalent contains when fullyexpressed, 2. syllogism, Every categorical three and onlythree propositions, namely, the two premissesin the middle or third term which is compared with each of the
"

two

extremes, and

the

conclusion

which

expresses

relation

CHAP.

III.]
the

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

157
from necessarily the

between
two

extremes, and
middle
term
are

which

follows

premisses.
3.

The

must

be distributed

at

least

once.

This

rule and the

must
means

given below,follow from that part of which requires definition of the syllogism that the conclusion follow from the premisses. The necessarily present rule
those that the middle be taken
term
once

which

with

which

the

two

extremes
or

are

compared, must
extent.

at least in its universal

entire the

In other
term must

words, the
at least

whole be
two

of the circle

standing for
either

middle
two

once

compared
one

with

of the
one

circles

extreme

the representing might be compared

extremes; for otherwise

with

part of

the

middle
no

term,

and

the other with another be the

in which part of it, two

extremes.

case

comparison

could from

between the possible following diagrams :

This

will be evident

"

All A

is B.

All C is B. No conclu

sion.

All A from

and

all C

are

each

compared

with
no

part

of
as

B, and
to the

comparisons we can draw relation between C and A, that is, can we outside of C, or that it lies inside of C, or
This
is evident from the

these two

conclusion
not

infer that A and

lies

that A

C intersect.
The the

three
a

cases

violation of this rule

leads to Middle.

represented above. called fallacy, technically

of Undistributed Fallacy
4.
not

No

term

must
one

be distributed in the conclusion which

was

of the premisses. The non-distribution of a term in one of the premisses means that its extent has not been that it has not been exactly definitely stated whether expressed,
the whole
or

distributed in

part

of its extent

is

meant,
one

and

that all that

or case

has has

been

said about

it

is,that

at

least

individual

158
been From
term

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PARTin.
the whole about

taken

into

while consideration,
and

is not

excluded1.
of the

this vagueness in
one

indefiniteness
can

the extent

of the

we premisses,

take not, in the conclusion,

cases
so

the term may

we

in its entire
; but

In some i.e.,distributively. extent, in other

a cases

this

be allowed
can

this

can

not

be ; unless be
as

generally

not
one

distribute of the allowed

not

term

in the For

conclusion it must
as or

it is distri

buted in
what
we

premisses.

not

that forgotten in immediate

are

to infer in mediate

well
two

is inference, which follow

that which

follows in that
not

one

follows

in all cases, and

cases, it
can

if be

cases, but that does not proposition

in all equally legitimateinference. diagrams:

"

This

regarded in Logic as a the following will be evident from

All B is All B is
.-. All

A, C,

C is A.

From

the firstdiagram the conclusion follows. also

But

from

the

second, which

the premisses, it does not follow. represents Hence the conclusion in the general form is not true. C not being distributed in the second premiss,can not be distributed in the conclusion. The The
correct

conclusion
a

is

'

Some

C is A.'

violation of this rule leads to

the

Fallacyof

dicate in the
term.
5.

called fallacy, technically Illicit of the pre either of the subject or Process, of the minor of the major that is, or conclusion,

If

both the
is

For what
nection and

be negative, premisses nothingcan expressed in the premissesis that there

the middle
term

be
is

inferred.
no con

between this

and

each

of the

two

extremes
extremes

from

themselves"

nothingcan they may or

1

be inferred between may

not

the two

be connected
in.

with each other.

See

above,Part II, Chap.

CHAP.

III.]
can

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

159

This A

be proved by the comparison of the diagrams. easily negative premiss is representedby the 3rd, 4th, and 5th
the 4th

diagrams.
Take C may

and

4th.
other
or

Here

no

conclusion

follows.

and

include each

lie outside each other.

4th and

4th.
A and C either lie outside each
we

Take other
not
we or

the 3rd and intersect with

as

4th.
each

Here

and other,

C,'but
can

this conclusion

does

not

infer * Some A is may follow in the other cases,

not

infer it

generally.

3rd and 4th. Or

must

we

may

prove

the

rule thus.

The

negativepremisses

EE, EO, or 00 in any order; and it will be seen, the comparison of the diagrams,that no on conclusion follows from any of these combinations from of premisses, generally i.e., each particular of each combination. A conclusion may case

be either

1GO
follow in
one case

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PARTIII.
if it does not
a

of
can

but combination, be regarded as

follow in

the other cases, it

not

conclusion legitimate
case,

of that combination.

The

diagram represents a following

4th

and

4th.
;

namely,4th
this
no

and 4th,of each of the three combinations

as follows,

and from

conclusion

we

have

seen. already

6.

the If one premissbe negative,

conclusion

must

be

negative.

That
must

is,in those cases be negative; for

The between

in which there may be

the

conclusion in which

it does follow,
no

cases

conclusion
no

follows. connection

premiss merely expresses negative

the

that there is of the

middle
must

term

and

one

extremes,
that the other

and

which the other premiss,

some

be the
can

affirmative, expresses
middle infer
term

there is extreme.

connection

between
we

and

From

this all that the

two

connection
may

between

extremes.

is,that there is no The negative premiss

B

be

represented by

two

circles A

and

lying outside

each

and other,

the affirmative

premiss by
either

the circle B and

another

C,

including each other, or with or intersecting, coinciding

other.
cases a

each
ent

In

all these of C

differbe A.

Part

must

within Hence of

B, which
we

lies outside infer that

a a

may

part

lies outside A,

or

"

Some

is not

A,"

negative con

clusion.
To
to

prove

the

rule

more

the

followingmethod.
any that

have recourse we satisfactorily may The premissesare AE, AO, possible

seen

IE, 10 in diagrams

order.

It will be
cases

from
a

the

comparison of

the

in those

in which

conclusion

the follows,

conclusion is

negative.

162
From
"

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART in.

the

4th and 2nd

follows

conclusion, namely, negative

No

C is A.3

4th and

2nd.

that to prove a negative conclu it can be shown Conversely, be negative.A negativeconclusion sion one of the premisses must
means

that this
no can

there

is

no

connection
a

between

the

two

extremes,
that of the
a con

and

only be
connection
a

proved by
between

premiss which
term that

expresses

there is

the middle expresses

and
there

one

extremes, and
nection
a

premiss which
the middle
term

is

between

and

the other

extreme, i.e., by
a

negative and an for example, Some

'

affirmative

premiss. A negativeconclusion,
means

C is not A' of A.
"

that

at least

lies outside the whole

In order to prove

the this,

part of C following
a
a

premissesare

necessary,

1st,that

part of C coincides with

which first coincides with affirma

part of B, and 2ndly,that the part of B part of C lies outside the whole of A, the tive and the second a negativepremiss.

being an

Here B

the crossed

part of C coincides with the crossed part of

the whole of A. of

that lies outside

A, therefore

the

crossed

part of

C lies outside the whole 7.

the conclusion must are If both the premisses affirmative, of the be affirmative. For, if the conclusion be negative,one of Kule 6 ; but both must be negativeby the converse premisses

CHAP.

III.]

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

163

therefore the affirmative; premisses are, by supposition, be shown it can be affirmative. conclusion must Conversely, must both the premisses that to prove an conclusion, affirmative the be affirmative. For, if one of the premisses be negative, conclusion will, by Kule 6, be negative ; therefore both the pre the misses
8. must

be affirmative. the be

If both
In

The

two

be particular, can nothing premisses premisses are either II,10, or particular the first combination the middle
term

inferred.
in any

00

order.

is not

dis
be

tributed in either of the premisses. In the second,it may

distributed
must

in 0, but by being the predicate

term

as

the

conclusion

in the con distributed, also, which was not distributed in the premisses clusion, ; hence there will be an illicit of the predicate or process either of the subject
a negative,

be

will be

in

the

conclusion. the

No

conclusion

follows from

the last

com

both bination, that universally

premissesbeing negative. Hence it is true nothingcan be inferred if both the premissesbe

particular. the conclusion must 9. be particular, If one of the premisses be particular.If one the other must premiss be particular, be universal, for from two particular premissesnothing can be
inferred.

Hence, the

two

premissesare

either

in any order. The conclusion of IA or because in the premisses onlyone term

OA, or OE be particular, AI must in A) is dis (thesubject IA,

or

IE,

or

and that,therefore, be the middle must tributed, term; and if the conclusion were term would be distributed in it a universal, which was not distributed in the premisses ; hence there would be
an

illicit process. if it were

The

conclusion

of IE

or

El

must

be

for particular, ceding case, an

are

there would be,as universal, illicit In the premisses two process.

one

in the pre
terms

only

distributed
one

; of these

must

be the middle

term, and the

be distributed in the conclusion. can only,therefore, But the conclusion must be negative, of the premissesis as one and if it were, also, both its subject and negative, universal, and hence there would be a predicatewould be distributed; 11"2

other

164
term

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
was

which distributed in the conclusion, the premisses. Similarly, conclusion

are

not

distributed
or

in

the

from

OA

AO

must

be
of

particular ; only two

these
one

terms

distributed in the

premisses ;
other the

must

be

the

middle

term, and
will be

the

of predicate

the

which conclusion,

distributed. Hence the predicate therefore, be undistributed, that is,the conclusion conclusion must
be

and have, negative, the subject of the

must

particular ; otherwise
This rule
can

there

would

be

an

illicitprocess.

No

conclusion follows from

also From

OE, as both the premissesare negative. be proved from the diagrams. Take the
the 3rd and 2nd

combination

IA.

diagrams follows

3rd and

2nd.
'

1st and

2nd. the In
as

conclusion,Some C is A,' and from particular follows a particular conclusion,Some C is A.'

'

1st and

2nd
as

some

cases,

in the 2nd and

2nd, a universal

may

follow ; but

this does not

follow in the other cases, it is inadmissible. it is evident that ifthe conclusion this rule, From both the be the

is

of the be universal. For, if one must premisses Therefore the conclusion will be particular. particular,

universal, premisses
both

premissesmust
The last three

be universal. the 7th, 8th, and 9th, are viz., rules, other rules. A violation
some

merely
of those

consequences three rules is If the other

a

of the

of any

result of the violation of

are

of the other rules.

must

rules

the lastthree observed, carefully and

can

be

observed

along with them,

Division of

not

be violated.

into Figures. Categorical Syllogisms conform to the nine must syllogism Every valid categorical and proved above. By the help of conditions laid down or rules, invalid valid from an a those rules, can we easilydistinguish

"

5.

CHAP.

III.]

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

165

of two premisses categorical syllogism. Given any combination determine and we a conclusion, can, by the aid of the rules, When wThether the conclusion follows from the premissesor not. whether they only two premisses are given, we can determine and if so, to what conclusion. conclusion, In every categorical syllogismthere must be two premisses determined and a conclusion by the premisses. Given the pre misses, the nature of the legitimateconclusion is given along have differ the middle term In the premisses, with them. may and the primary division of in different syllogisms, ent positions is founded the difference in positionof on syllogisms categorical in the premisses. in relation to the extremes the middle term called Figures, and The division is into three classes, technically lead to any is
as

follows

:
"

premiss, and (1) The middle term is the subjectin one in the other. predicate in both the premisses. (2) The middle term is the predicate (3) The middle term is the subjectin both the premisses. Taking B to be the middle term and A and C the extremes, be thus symbolically the three classes may expressed:
"

1st Class.

2nd

Class.
AB CB

3rd Class. BA BC

BA CB
.-.

C A

or

C.

/.

C A
a

or

C.

.*.

C A

or

C.

The

conclusion
a or

expresses

relation

between

C and

by represented
either A If the
we

and C

propositionwhose subjectand C and A respectively.

as

A, and is predicate are

always take C and call conclusion,

the

and subject and

as

them

the minor

the

in predicate major term, and the

the

the two

in which the minor and they occur premisses we get four classes or Figuresas premiss respectively1,
1

major
"

follows:

It should
term

be observed is

that the distinction There

between is
no

the
reason

major and

the minor

purely conventional.
should It is due
to usage

why

the

subjectof the conclusion

the

be called the minor that the two

names

and

the

predicate
term'

major

term.

'minor

166
1st.

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
3rd.
BA 4th. AB BO
.-.

2nd.
AB CB
.-.

BA CB
.-.

BO
.-.

CA the 1st

CA

CA
term

CA in subject the

(1)

In

figurethe

middle

is the

in major premiss,and predicate

the minor term is the

premiss.
in predicate

(2) In the 2nd, the middle premisses. (3) In the 3rd,the middle

both

the

term

is the

subjectin

both

the

premisses.
in the major (4) In the 4th,the middle term is the predicate premiss and subjectin the minor. The conclusion is always a proposition, having 0 and A for respectively The in its and predicate. subject
or

first classification the middle

division is founded in the

on

on

the difference second is the

of position
on

term

premisses. The
distinction

founded

this difference and the

the

between
the

and predicate and the minor and the

subjectin

the

between or conclusion,
distinction

major
the

major
On three

term, and the consequent minor premiss.

on

between

the first method

of classification of the second method

there syllogisms
are

are

Figures,and
the second

there 0 A
or

four.

On

the A 0 ;

first method

the conclusion

is of the form

of the form

and, on
best
we

method, it is always of the form 0 A. As adapted for teaching and as sanctioned by high authorities, and shall adopt here the four-fold classification, take the
to be

conclusion

always of
are

the form

0 A1.

and

'major

term'

applied to
The

the

subject and
of the

the

re predicate,

in spectively, that it is the the

the

conclusion.

definition

of the

minor

term

is

and subject,

the definition

major
the

term term

is that it is that is the and the

in the conclusion predicate, the conclusion

; in other
as

words,
the of

subjectin
term
1

is defined

minor
a

term,

that is the Some

predicateas the major

the four

term

syllogism.
a

obtain logicians for

figures by

double

division.

Ueberweg,

syllogismsinto example, first divides all categorical

CHAP.

III.]
6. Subdivision

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

167
each

"

of

Syllogismsin Categorical
another
not

Figure
position

into Moods.

A syllogism may
of the middle
term two

differ from in the

only in
in the

the

premisses,but also

quantity and

Each of the two pre premissesthemselves. of the in each figure consist of any one misses of a syllogism may forms four prepositional A, E, I, and 0. The major premiss

qualityof

the

be may be any nations nation minor

any
one

one

of these Thus

four

forms, and

the

minor, again,may
combi possible

of them.

there may

be sixteen

of

premissesin

each

the representing of a possible : premiss, syllogism

"

the first letter in each combi figure, major premiss,and the second letter the

AA AE AI AO there can Theoretically misses. All possible ones

course

EA EE El

IA IE II IO

OA

OE
01 00 combination of pre Of
con

EO
not
are

be any

other

enumerated

in the list above. lead to

a

each

of these

combinations

does not
a

valid

and does not, therefore, constitute clusion, the rules given above, and by the method the
we diagrams,

valid
of the

syllogism.By
comparison
of find out

shall

now

test these

combinations,and

which

of them and

yieldvalid
do

forms

of

called syllogism, technically

Moods,
Of

which

not, in each figure.

we

the sixteen 00
as

combinations

may

at

once

EE, EO, reject

no

OE,
three

and
chief

invalid in all

because figures,
more

conclusion
sense

called Figures in the classes,

comprehensive
then subdivides the middle

(the three-fold classification given above),and

first of these the three classes into two

the
is

according as

term

in the major premiss and predicate in the minor, or the subject in the major premiss and subjectin the minor, the former predicate subdivision and the latter to the fourth of correspondingto the first, the four-fold classification given above. The second and third primary classes do
not

give rise
double

to any
are

subdivisions. called

The

four

classes the

thus

obtained
sense.

by a

division

by him

Figuresin

narrower

168
follows from
two

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART in.

negative premisses(Rule 5). We may also be inferred from because nothingcan reject II,10, 01 as invalid, two particular premisses (Rule 8).
We
shall
now see

what

conclusions

the

remainingnine
OA
lead

com

binations AA, AE, AI, AO, EA, El, IA, IE, and
which
which of them

to,and
and

yieldvalid

forms

of

or syllogisms

moods,

do not, in each
7.

figure.
in the First

"
1.
A.
A. A.

Valid Moods
Take
All B

Figure.
For
or

AA
is

"

The be

conclusion is A.
i.e., A affirmative,

by

Rule

7, it must
as no

A,

I ; and

rule

A in this case, it is by inferring A as the conciusion A AA Tnat m giveg the diagrams,thus : The be proved from the 1st figurecan by the 1st and the 2nd diagram. major premiss A is represented two diagrams. The minor by the same premissA is represented
All C is B ;

is violated

All C is A1.

"

Combine
the which

each

of the

one

with

each

of

other, and
follows

draw
from

the

conclusion

each

combination,
the sub the
con

remembering that C must be in and A the predicate, ject,

1st and

2nd.

clusion.
the

There

are

four cases, and

namely,
1st

1st and

2nd, 1st
and 'All C

1st,2nd and
From and
1st

1st,and
2nd

2nd

2nd.

follows A

is A.'

From

and
the

1st also follows A.

from Similarly, in the 1st

other

two

cases

of A A
AAA

a is, therefore, in the first figure. From valid mood I A follows I by subalternation, or

figurefollows

A.

may
1st and 1st.

be inferred

from directly

the

dia

grams.
:
"

2.
1

Take

next AE
be

No

conclusion

follows.

For

by

Rule 6,

It should

remembered
as

that in this and

in the

examples that
as

B follow,

is taken

the middle
as

term, A

as

the

major term, C

the

minor

term, and CA

the

form typical

of the conclusion.

170

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
O by inferring
in

major premiss,that is, as

this case,
no

Rule

is violated

conclusion follows.
4th the major pre diagrams, representing premiss 0, respectively, nothing follows,
or

From

the 1st and

miss A and because

the minor

C may

be outside

inside A.

1st and 5. E.

4th.
For

EA
No

"

The

conclusion

is E.

by

Rule and
in

6, it must
as no

be

B is A

A.
E.
.-.

All C is B ; No C is A.

E or 0 ; i.e., negative, E violated by inferring

g

rule is
case, it

this

From
and
not

the 4th

and
'

1st follows E

'

No

C is A.'

From
'

the 4th Some C is

the

2nd A
'

also follows

No

C is A.' 0 may

From

E follows 0

or by subalternation,

be inferred

from directly

diagrams.

4th and
G.
E.

1st.

El
No

"

The
Bis

conclusion
n"t
no

is 0.

A,

I. O. 1st
as .-.

Some Some

C is B ; C is not A.

by Rules 6 and 9, it can be anything else than 0; and as O in rule is violated by inferring
For From the 4th and 4th

this Cas6) it ig Q

also from

the 4th and

follows Some

C is not

2nd, 4th and 3rd,and A (0).

and

5th

CHAP.

III.]

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

171

4th and 7. IA
:
"

1st.
can

4th and be drawn

3rd.
this

No

conclusion
term

because the middle

in A
8.
can

B is not I.

by Rule 3, distributed, beingthe predicate

from For

and

the
"

subjectin
No

IE: be A

conclusion than

follows. 0
'

by

Rules

6 and
as

9, it
in

not

anything else

Some

C is not A' ; but

O,

the term tributed

is distributed

in the

while it is undis conclusion, major premiss,that is,as Rule 4 is violated by in the

no

0 inferring
9.
no

in this case,
:
"

conclusion
term

follows.
,

OA

Here
can

the middle be drawn

is not

and distributed, Rule

3.

hence

conclusion

accordingto

In the first figure or El

lead, then,to valid forms of syllogisms or and Ferio. The conclusions of called Barbara, Darii, Celarent, and EAO, which also valid, be inferred the moods AAI are may and from the conclusions of AAA EAE by subalternation. Hence they have been called subaltern moods, and are quite
useless. with another one can we By comparing these valid moods rules of the first figure the following two special : generalize (1) The major premiss must be universal. This is true of
"

AA, AI, EA, and and yieldthe following valid conclusions, moods: AAA, All, EAE, EIO, technically

class the combinations

every

one

of the valid moods. The minor

one

(2)
true

premiss

must

be affirmative.

This

is also

of every These
two

of them.

rules of the first figure be proved thus special may rules. If the minor by the general syllogistic premiss be nega tive,the major premiss must be affirmative by Rule 5, and the conclusion A will be distributed in the negativeby Rule 6, i.e.t when in a negativeproposition, it conclusion, beingthe predicate

172
has not

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART in.

major premiss,beingthe predi the minor can cate in an affirmative proposition. Hence not be be affirmative an negative; it must, therefore, proposition. if the be the middle term B will not major Secondly, particular, be distributed in the premisses, being the subjectin a particular and predicatein an affirmative proposition. The proposition, be universal. major premiss must, therefore, " 8. Valid Moods in the Second Figure. because the middle term B is not 1. A A :" Nothing follows, distributed, being the predicate in two All A is B, A. All C is B, A. affirmative propositions. No conclusion. From the 1st and 1st diagrams repre-

been

distributed in the

1st and
sen

1st.

tingthe major and the minor premiss A respectively, nothing because C might be inside or outside A. follows,
2.
A. E. E.

AE

"

The

conclusion

All A is B, No C is B ; No C is A.

by Kule 6, it must be rule is E or 0; and as no negative,i.e., violated by inferring E in this case, it is E. This be can proved from the diagrams. The major premiss A is represented by the 1st and 2nd diagrams; and the minor premiss E by the 4th. Combine
is E.
For these and A.' in the usual 4th From way. From E
'

the 1st No C is

diagrams follows
the 2nd

and 4th also E fol

form

1st and

4th.

lows.

AEE

valid a therefore, is,

CHAP.

III.]
mood

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

173
E follows 0 the

of

or syllogism

in the

2nd

figure. From

by

be inferred directly O may from or subalternation, because the middle AI : 3. Nothing follows,
"

diagrams.
is not

term

distributed.
4. not
no

AO

"

The

conclusion else than

is 0. 0 ; and

For
as

by
^. O. "-

Eules

6 and is B

9, it can
B ;
A-

be

anything

All A Some
"'"

rule is violated

by inferring0
The

in

C is not c is not

this case, it is 0. A is

major premiss
2nd

Some

representedby the 1st and premiss 0 by the 3rd, 4th, and

5th. with Combine each each of the
one

diagrams;

and

the minor

of the other. the

1st

From grams

and

3rd

dia

follows

'Some the 2nd and

C is not
1st

from AJ; similarly,

and

4th, .1st
2nd and follows

and

5th,
2nd AGO

and 5th

3rd,
also
1st and

4th,
0. of
:
"

valid form
5.

is,therefore, a syllogismor mood in

The conclusion be is E.

3rd.

the 2nd For

or

figure.
No
A. E. No

EA

by
0;

A is

B,
;

Rule and

6, it
as no

must

negative,z."?.,E

All C

is B

rule is violated

E in by inferring

C is A.

this case, it is E. From lows E

"

the No

4th

and

1st

fol 2nd
X
X

C is

A,' in
E. form in the

the the EAE of

from figure. Similarly and 2nd follows valid

4th

a therefore, logism or mood figure. From

is, syl by
4th and
1st.

second 0

follows 0

subalternation, or
inferred
6.
can

may the

be

from directly El:" be

no

diagrams.
is O. than For
E" I. "-

The

conclusion else

by

Rules
No

and

9, it

not
as

anything

0 ;

and

rule is violated

by inferring

0 in this case, it is 0.

"'"

Some Some

A is B, C is B ; c is not A-

174
From
the

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART in.
'Some

4th

and

3rd

follows

0 A.

C is not

A.'

The

part lyingwithin

B must

be outside

x^~X~^\

4th and from Similarly, the 4th and

3rd.

2nd,

4th

and

1st, 4th and

valid form

5th of

follows 0

'

Some

C is not A.'

EIO

or syllogism

mood
A is

in the second

a is, therefore, figure.

:
"

I. A.

Some

B,

?.
because

IA

Nothing
middle

can

be
is not

inferred distri-

All G is B, No conclusion.

the in the

term

buted
1st

From
or

the

3rd and

premisses. for C may nothing follows,

lie outside

inside A.

3rd and
8.
can

1st.

IE:
be

"

No

conclusion

follows.

For
as

by

Rules

6 and

9, it

not

anything

else than
no

0 ; but

Eule

4 is violated

by
the

0 inferring
9.

in this case,
"

conclusion follows.
for the
same
reason as

OA:

Nothing
of

follows

in

case. preceding

The
are,

valid forms

or syllogism

moods

in the

second

figure

called therefore, AEE, AGO, EAE, and EIO, technically and EAO and Festino. also AEO are BaroJco, Camestres, Cesare, and EAE forms of AEE valid,being merely the weakened ; as their

conclusions

follow

by

subalternation

from

those

of

the

latter, they are

called subaltern

moods.

CHAP.

III.]
these

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

175
the following generalize

From

valid moods

we
"

can

rules of the second figure : special (1) The major premiss must be universal. be negative. must (2) One of the two premisses (3) The conclusion must be negative. Each of these rules holds good in each of the valid moods. rules. If They may be thus proved by the generalsyllogistic the middle term will not be be not negative, of the premisses one the conclusion must be distributed. If one premissbe negative, negative by Eule 6. The conclusion being negative,the major and term, which is the predicatein it,is distributed, must, be also distributed in the premisses therefore, ; and this will not be the case, unless the major premiss be universal, because the in this premiss. major term is the subject " 9. Valid Moods in the Third Figure. Take AA conclusion is I. For by Eule 7, it must The 1. : A or I; but as Eule 4 be affirmative, i.e., ^. A All B isis violated by inferring All B is C ; A. A, it can not be C is A. A ; and as no rule is violated by inferring *" '" Some
"

"

I in this case, it is I. AAI

2.
a valid therefore, is,

mood

in the 3rd For

figure.
Eule

AE

:
"

No

conclusion

follows.

by
A E.

6, it
B

must

be

negative; and as Eule 4 is violated by 'a negative conclusion in this inferring

case, 3. not
no

All B is A
No

is

C*
9, it can
is A
B

conclusion AI
:
"

follows.
conclusion is I. For

No

conclusion.

The

by

Eules
A

7 and
^ Some Some
B

be

rule

anything else than I ; and as no is violated I in this by inferring

AO
same
:
"

I.

is' C;

case, it is I. 4.

!" No conclusion
as

"*"

C is A. is A

follows the
case

for of

^ 0.

^11 B No

the "AJ2"
5.

reason

in

B is not Some conclusion.

C,
be

EA

"

The
or

conclusion
as

is O. Eule

For

by

Eule

6, it

must

E negative, i.e., it
can

0 ; but not be E ; and as no

4 is violated

rule is violated

E, by inferring 0 in this by inferring

case, it is 0.

176
6. not

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
by
no

El

"

The

conclusion

is 0.

For
as

Eules
rule

6 and

9, it can

anything else than 0 in this case, it is inferring

be
7.
not

O ; and 0.
is I. I ; and

is violated

by

IA

:
"

The

conclusion
else than

For
as

by
no

Rules 7 and
rule

9, it can

anything I in this inferring

8. not

be

is violated

by
can

IE

:
"

No

case, it is I. conclusion follows. For else than case,

no

by

Rules
4

6 and

9, it

anything 0 in this inferring

9.
can

be

0 ; but
conclusion is 0.

as

Rule

is violated

by
9, it

follows.
For
as

OA
be

:"

The

conclusion than

by
no

Rules

and

not

anything else

0 ; and

rule is violated

by

0 inferring That

in this case, it is 0.

rules are proved above by the syllogistic be shown can as valid, by the comparison of the diagrams, really of the first and second figures. in the case The combinations there AA, AI, EA, El, IA, and OA yield, in the 3rd figure, and give rise to the valid conclusions fore, AAI, All, EAO, EIO, LAI, and OAO, techni followingmoods" callycalled Darapti, Datisi, Fdapton, Ferison, Disamis, and the conclusions

BoJcardo.
From these

valid

moods

we
"

can

the following generalize

rules special (1) The (2) The

: figure be affirmative. minor premiss must be particular. conclusion must hold good in all the above-mentioned which These two rules, be thus proved by the general in the 3rd figure, valid moods may If the minor premiss be negative, the conclu rules. syllogistic be negative by Rule sion must 6, and the major term, the will be distributed, which has not in the conclusion, predicate in the been distributed in the premisses,being the predicate be affirmative by Rule 5. If the major premiss,which must the minor conclusion be universal, term, the subjectin the con in the will be distributed, which, being the predicate clusion, affirmative minor premiss, has not been distributed in the
"

of the third

premisses. " 10. Valid

Moods

in the Fourth

Figure,

178
4.

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
of

Explain and illustrate the method comparison of the diagrams. and show how Define a syllogism, 5.
follow 6. from Prove
:
"

syllogisms testing by

the

the

rules generalsyllogistic

its definition.
as

thoroughlyas
middle term

you

can

the

following generalsyllogis
in the

tic rules

(1) (2) (3) (4)

7. How

The

must

be distributed at least

once

premisses.
No
term not must

be distributed
one

in the conclusion

which

was

distributed in
the

of the

If both

premisses be
be

premisses. negative,nothing
conclusion

can

be

in

ferred. If

premiss negative.
one

negative,the
of the terms how many

must

be

the meaning Explain fully many

and 'figure' Give

'mood.'
reasons

figuresare
the

there?

and

moods?

for your
8.
to
a

answer.

in or figures figure valid conclusion,givingreasons Name Name

a

which and

the combination
concrete

AA

leads

examples.
combination AEE

9. forms 10. misses from

the

figure or

figures in which
and

the

valid mood,
Give

givingreasons
draw
"

illustrations. of pre follow

concrete

examples of the followingcombinations

the conclusions, if any, which

and figure, them, givingreasons: Draw the

in every

AE, OA, IA, and IE.

any,

11.

conclusion,if

which

follows

from

each

of the

of premisses in any figureby the comparison followingcombinations of the diagrams :" AA, E A, AO, and EL Test by the comparison of the diagrams the following combi 12. nations 13.
or

moods the

in every

figure:

"

AEA,

IAA, AIA, EIE, AAA, EAE.

:
"

Prove

rules followinggeneralsyllogistic the

(1) (2) (3) (4)

If both

nothing premisses be particular,

can

be

inferred. If
one

To

the conclusion must premissesbe particular, be particular. must conclusion of the premisses one prove a negative be negative. of the

If the conclusion

both the be affirmative,

must premisses

be affirmative.

CHAP.

III.]
(5) (G)

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

179

If the conclusion
be universal.

be

both the premisses must universal,

If both the

the conclusion be affirmative, premisses

must

be affirmative. 14. rules

:
"

rules, the following special Prove, by the general syllogistic

(1) (2) (3)

(4)

In

the

first

figure the

major premiss

must

be

uni

versal. In the second

figurethe major premiss

must

be

uni

versal. In the

third

figurethe
figureone

minor

premiss must

be affirma

tive. In the fourth of the

premissescannot
have the

be

negative, particular

(o) (G) (7) (8)

15. in which which 16. 0 Name
E
can

the conclusion In the firstfigure the

must

of quality

major premiss and

the

the

quantityof
must

the minor.

In the second have

the conclusion figure

be

negativeand

quantity of the minor

the figure

In the third have In the the

of quality the fourth figure

premiss. conclusion must be particular and the major premiss.

conclusion cannot be
an

universal

affirmative.

the figureor
can

be

figures (1)in which be proved,(3)in which I can proved.

which

A be

proved,(2) proved, and (4)in

can

be

Name

the moods

have A, E, I, and

for respectively

their conclusions. 17. EAO Give

concrete

examples of the moods they are valid.

All, IAI, OAO,

and

in those 18.

in which figures

State and them State

mine

by

rules of the firstfigure, and deter prove the special the valid moods in that figure. and rules of the second prove the special the valid moods in that figure. rules of the third prove the special the valid moods in that figure.
prove

19. determine 20. determine 21.

and figure,

by
State

them and

figure,and
and figure,

by them
State and

the specialrules of the fourth

in that

determine

by

them

the valid moods

figure.

12"2

CHAPTER
THE ARISTOTELIAN

IV.
SCHOLASTIC VALID MOODS. METHODS

AND

THE

OF

DETERMINING

"

I.

Aristotle's Dictum
is the supreme Aristotle axiom and his

de omni
or

et

nullo

"

This

celebrated

Dictum

of syllogistic reasoning principle ancient

to according

both followers,
"

and

modern.

Whatever is predicatedof by Whately : be term whether a or distributed, negatively, affirmatively may in it." Mill of anything contained predicatedin like manner states it as follows : Whatever be affirmed (ordenied) of a can class may be affirmed (or denied) of everything included in the class." The is quite self-evident, Dictum being merely a state translated
"

It is thus

ment

of the of

meaning

of the

term

class.

class is

an

indefinite

number

Whatever included
The must of the
states

individuals, possessing certain attributes in common. those attributes or belongs to the class, possesses
Whatever
of
a

is

in it.

does

not

possess

them the

is not class

included.
is that it

very

condition

thing'sbelonging to
which
are common

possess

the attributes And the

to the

individuals

class.
that

Dictum
a a

in

its affirmative class

must

form

simply
to
a

what
a

belongs to
class
not
or so

higher

belong

lower,that is,to
otherwise
it could what
or

to

thing included
; and

in the its
can

be

included

in

former, as negative form,

not

it states that any lower

does
to any
not

not

belong
included.

to

class

belong to former,
"

class

individual
so

included In of the the any

in the

as

otherwise
men

it could

be

are

mortal," 'mortal'
it may

is affirmed of any
as

proposition class 'man,' part

of
a

All and

therefore
or

be affirmed

of class,

class,

of

any

such individual,

'all

kings,' 'some

or beings,'

CHAP.

IV.]

METHODS

OF

DETERMINING,

"C.
In of the the any

181

included 'Socrates,' sition

* "

in the

higher
*

class
'

'man.'
is denied

propo class

No

man

is

perfect," perfect
be denied
*

man,'
a
'

and

it may

therefore

of any
'

of any individual, such as or beings,' class, included in the higher class man.' These reason or Socrates,' : give rise to the following (1) All syllogisms ings,stated fully, all kings are men, therefore all kings are mortal ; men are mortal, are beings are men, therefore some (2) all men mortal, some are mortal, Socrates is a man, beings are mortal ; (3) all men
"

of

of class, all kings,' some

'

part

therefore

Socrates
men,

is mortal.

kings

are

therefore

some beings are perfect, is perfect, Socrates perfect; (3) no man is not perfect. Socrates

is perfect, all (1) no man is man no kings are perfect ; (2) no therefore not some beings are men, is
a

And

man,

therefore

" 2.

By applying the
have that
1st

Dictum in the

to the

of premisses we
shown easily

given

combinations possible precedingchapter, it can be

are only four (or six includingthe subalterns)

valid in the

giving rise to the four moods we have figure, the Dictum, we From deduce can easily alreadyestablished. the two specialrules of the 1st figure. According to the first it,something must be affirmed or denied of a class disbe universal, the major premiss must affirma that is, tributively, tive or negative. According to the last part of its second clause, that is,the minor in the class, be contained something must
clause of

premiss

must

be

affirmative.

And

these

are

the

two

special

rules for the 1st

figure. Applying the second of these two rules to the 16 combinations, we reject AE, AO, EE, OE, IE, 10, OE, and 00, and we rejectIA, II,OA, 01 ; and applyingthe first, the remaining four AA, AI, EA, and El, accordingto the first
part of the second

clause, give rise

to

the valid

moods

Barbara,

and Ferio. Darii,Celarent,

"
1st

3.

The

Dictum

is

in to syllogisms directly applicable

the

figureonly,and can not be appliedto any syllogismin the other figures. Hence Aristotle regarded the 1st figure as perfect, the very type of syllogistic and the other figures as reasoning,

182
as

METHODS

OF

DETERMINING

[PARTIII.
of figures,
which of for

He recognized only the imperfect.

first
was

first three

the

considered
the
as

to be the normal

and standard
from

mode

reasoning,and

other

two

as

deviations
are

it,allowed
word The
'

special purposes,
from
as

in figures of been

Rhetoric

admissible deviations

the normal in

mode

expression ; indeed, the

borrowed from introduced

figure
fourth

'

used

Logic has
to

Rhetoric.

figureis

said

have

been

by Galen,

and

is often

called Galen's

figure.
:

"

4.

Of Reduction

except the Regarding all the figures axioms or by which having no principles
those nullo with figures proves those the
same

first
to

as

prove

as imperfect, in syllogisms

in the unless

dc omni et the Dictum as cogency Aristotle did not recognize first, any be transformed
test

valid as syllogism and perfectfigure, transformation

of

it could

into

one

in the This fourth

submitted
a

to the

of his Dictum.

in syllogism

the

second, third,or

figureinto
Whether
or can a

one

in the

is first figure

not, is
be
so

in syllogism particular to be determined by its If

called Reduction. technically is valid figure any imperfect reduction

to the first.

If it

reduced,it is valid.
this method the

not, not.

Aristotle determined

forms in the of syllogistic validity rules, have, by the syllogistic imperfectfigures. Later logicians rules,or by other methods, first determined or by the special

entirely by

the

valid moods

in those

reducing them to the the valid is adopted, method Whatever to them. mately applied have ob those we the same as are in the other figures moods of the comparison of the diagrams tained by the joint method are rules. The valid moods in all the figures and the syllogistic given in
the

and then given directions for figures, be ulti that the Dictum so first, may

mnemonic following

verses

"

prioris Darii, Ferioque, ; Barbara, Celarent, Festino,Baroko, secundoo ; Cesare,Camestres, Datisi,Felapton, Tertia,Darapti,JDisamis, Bokardo, Ferison,habet ; quarta insuper addit Bramantip, Camenes, Dimaris, Fesapo,Fresison.

CHAP.

IV.]
lines
mean

VALID

MOODS.

183
in the first

These

that there

are

four valid moods

contains six and four in the second,that the third figure figure, valid moods, and the fourth five. The three vowels in the name of the stand for the three propositions of each of the moods for its minor m0od the 1st for its major premiss, the 2nd
"

premiss, and
EAE
an

the 3rd for its conclusion. mood Celarent

Thus

the three vowels is

in E

the

the minor proposition, clusion an E proposition ; and There that

are

signifythat the major premiss A and the con an proposition,

so

with

the rest.

two

methods
in the the

is,the moods rather of proving

reducing the imperfect moods, imperfect figuresto the perfect; or

of of the conclusion of
a

truth

mood

in

an

imperfect figureby reduction to a perfectmood, that is,to a mood in the perfect figure : (1) the one is called Direct or Ostensive Reduction, and (2) the other Indirect Reduction or' ad impossibile Reductio per deductionem e. Reduction (i. by de In the first method the premisses duction to impossibility). of an imperfect mood are converted,obverted,contraposed,or
"

in transposed

order to form which

with is the

them
same

mood the

in the first figure,

having
or

conclusion which the

as
can

original conclusion,
obtained

from

conclusion original

be

by

some

process of immediate the conclusion of an the aid of the

inference. In the second

imperfect mood
and the

is

method, the truth of proved by showing, with

inference is false. the conclusion

moods perfect

the rules of immediate

that by Opposition,

of contradictory
:

"

5.

Ostensive processes

Reduction
to

The moods in the

be
are

employed
indicated

for

reducing

the

imperfect B, C, D, F
to

by
names

this method

by
The
are

certain letters contained initial letters

to

of the various the

moods.

indicate

imperfect moods perfect moods, having the same

means

that

be

reduced The

the
s

initial letters.

letter

that

the

to

be converted

propositionsignified by the vowel simply. The letter p indicates that

s or

before

it is

the propo

sition tation

signified by the vowel (per accidens).When

before it is to be converted p
occurs

by limi

after the conclusion

184
of

METHODS

OF

DETERMINING

[PART III.
vowel in its name, conclusion of the

an

after imperfectmood, i.e., its is signification

to

the third

then
new

be applied to the
must
case

in

that is,this conclusion syllogism, of s or by limitation in the the case

be converted

simply

of p in order to obtain

the conclusion of the

The letter m means that imperfectmood. the premissesof the imperfect syllogism are to be transposed. it was reduced by the that the mood containing The letter k means older logicians by the Indirect method. The other letters (namely

entirelymeaningless,and are introduced only for to make soundingwords. Thus C in phonetic purposes up clearly that it is to be reduced to Celarent;m that the Camestres means that is, the major premiss of this to be transposed, are premisses I,r,
n,

t) are

is to

become

the minor the

s

of the

new

and syllogism,

the minor that

the

major premiss ;
is to be converted third

after the minor and the

s

premiss,that
after the
new

premiss
or

simply;

conclusion

the

vowel,that

the conclusion

of the

in syllogism

the mood

Celarent is to be converted

simply in
r t}

order to obtain
are

conclusion ; while the consonants I.

the mood Take, for example,
All A is B No No C is B C is A
.*.

original non-significant. entirely

of the 2nd
: figure
"

the

Camestres
are

,(A) r(E) (E) .".

All metals No No

elements,
are are

compounds compounds

elements;
metals.

the "By convertingsimply the minor premiss,and transposing in the syllogism premissesof this,we get the followingnew mood Celarent: perfect
"

(E)

No

is G is B
.'.

No

elements
are are

are

compounds,
elements
;

(A) (E) .'.

The
same
as

All A No

All metals No metals

A is G

compounds.
new

converse

of the conclusion

the conclusion of the

is syllogism original syllogism.

"

of the

the

II.

Take
No

the mood
A is B C is B

Festino of the 2nd figure

No Some
,'.
men

(E)
(I)

Some

(0) .*.

Some

C is not A

Some

perfect, beings are perfect ; beings are not men.

are

186

METHODS

OF

DETERMINING

[PART III.
"

the premisses we By transposing

: get the following

(A)
(A)

All B

is G

All All
.".

All A is B All A is G

(A) .-.
This
verse

All

imperfectthingsperish, men are imperfect; men perish.

Barbara.
The
con

is

in syllogism

the
same

mood perfect
as

of its conclusion is the

the conclusion of the

original

syllogism.
VI. Take
Some
All B Some

the mood
A is B is G C is A

Dimaris

of the 4th
men are

figure"
wise,

(I)
(A)

Some

All wise
.*.

(I).*.

Some

beings are happy ; happy beingsare men.

: get the following

the premisses By transposing we

(A)

All B

is C A is B A is G
.".

All wise

beings are happy,

are are

Some (I) (I) .*. Some

Some Some

men men

wise ;

happy.
Darii. The
of the
converse

This is

in syllogism is the

the
same

mood perfect
as

of its conclusion

the conclusion

original

syllogism.
VII.
Take
No
A

the mood
is B B is C A

Fresison of the 4th

No
man

figure"

(E)

(I) (0) .*. Some

Some

Some
.-.

C is not

Some

perfect, perfectbeingsare infallible ; infallible beings are not men.

minor

is

By converting simply the major and the

: get the following
"

premisseswe

(E)
(1)

No

B is A C is B C is not A
.*.

No Some Some

beingis man, perfect

infallible infallible

Some

beings are

perfect;
not
men.

(0).*.
This

Some is in

beings are

perfect mood Ferio. The conclusion is the the original conclusion. as same directions given above for reduction The not sufficient are for the two BaroJco and Bokardo. The older imperfect moods reduced them to be next described, logicians by the method They may be,however, reduced to namely, Indirect Eeduction.
the first figure, by the method of Direct

the

Eeduction,thus

"

CHAP.

IV.]
Baroko
All A is B Some C is not B C is not A

VALID

MOODS.

187

VIII.

of the 2nd

figure"
All
men are

(A) (0)

mortal,
not
not

Some
.'.

beings are beings are

mortal;
men.

Some (0)'.*.

Some

and the major premiss, By contraposing : syllogism we get the following premiss,
"

ob vertingthe minor

(E)
(1) (0) .'.
This

No

not-B

is A

No

immortal

being is
are

man,
;

Some Some

C is not-B C is not A
.*.

Some Some

beings

immortal
not
men.

beingsare terms, and

is
'

in syllogism the

the

mood perfect

Ferio,of
'

which

'A'

and
term.

'

are

major

and

minor

not-B

'

the middle

IX.

Bokardo
Some All B Some
B

of the 3rd figure"

is not A

(0) (A)

Some
All
men

men are

are

not

wise,
not

is C C is not A
.'.

rational ;

(0) .'. By

Some

rational

beings
and

are

wise.

the major premiss, contraposing we syllogism: get the following premisses,

"

transposingthe

(A) (1)

All B Some

is G not-A not-A is B is G
.'.

All

men

are

rational,
are

Some Some

not-wise not-wise

men;

(I) .*. Some

This is
a

are

rational.

in syllogism
are

the and

perfectmood
minor conclusion

Darii,of
(B'
new

which

'

'

and
term.

'not-A'

the

major

terms, and
of the

the middle

By convertingsimply the
then

syllogism

and

clusion The

obtain the con obverting the converse, we can easily of the original syllogism. will be sufficiently processes employed for reducing them
if BaroJco and Bokardo be called Facoko the and

indicated

DodamosJc

that c respectively, signifying vowel

to

before

it is to

be

obverted, and

by the propositionsignified be contraposed, k that the proposition is as s usual, that the propositionis to be

simply converted.

" 6. Indirect impossibile.

Reduction, or, Reductio

per

deductionem

ad

188
I. method

METHODS

OF

DETEKMINING

[PARTIII.
by
this

BaroJco of the
:
"

second

figure may
A is B,
C is not is not

be thus reduced

(A)

All Some
.-.

(0)
(0)
The
true.

B ;

Some

A.
true
'

conclusion
If the

of this
'

is syllogism Some
'

if the be not

premissesbe
true,then its

conclusion
'

is not A

because contradictoryAll C is A must be true by Opposition, Then be true. of two must propositionsone contradictory combining this with the major premiss of the given syllogism, have the following new we syllogismin the perfect mood Barbara
:
"

(A) (A) (A)

If the
'

All All

A C

is

B,
;

is A is B.

All 0

conclusion
is not B
'

of this
must

Some

be

be true, its contradictory syllogism false by Opposition ; because of two

must

propositionsone contradictory
is the minor

be

false.

But

the

latter

and is therefore premiss of the original syllogism, the conclusion its contradictory, true by supposition. Hence be false;and the falsity be must must of the new syllogism, either to the process of

due

premisses. The for the new not be due to the process of reasoning, can falsity therefore is in the perfect mood Barbara; it must syllogism not be due to the major premiss, be due to the premisses. It can reasoningor
which and syllogism, major premiss of the original it must be due to the : hence is therefore true by supposition this premiss must be false, minor premiss All C is A,3 that is, C is not A,' the conclusion of the and its contradictorySome is also the
' '

to the

is syllogism, original II.

therefore

true.

BoJcardo
:
"

of the

3rd figuremay Some

All B B is not

be thus

reduced

by

this

method

(0) (A) (0)

A,
A.

is C ;

/.

Some

is not

CHAP.

IV.]
conclusion

VALID

MOODS.

189

be is true,if the premisses syllogism 'All C be not true, its contradictory If the conclusion true. be true by Opposition. Then is A' must taking this as a major syllogismas a premiss,and the minor premiss of the original in the minor new syllogism premiss, we can form the following mood Barbara : perfect The of this
"

(A) (A)

All

is

A,

All B
/.

is C ; is A.

(A)
If the 'Some B conclusion is not

All

'All B is A' be be false

true,then its contradictory

by Opposition; but this is not the latter is the major premiss of the original syllo as possible, the former gism, and therefore true by supposition. Hence not beingdue to the be false ; and the falsity 'All B is A' must
A' must

reasoning process
the minor

which
'

is in the B is C
'

premiss
minor

All

mood Barbara, nor perfect which of the new syllogism,

to

is

also the

and therefore syllogism, premiss of the original be due to the falsity of the major it must true by supposition, its contra being false, premiss 'All C is A.' This proposition C is not A,' the conclusion of the original syllo dictory Some gism, is true. that the moods initial letter B of these two The signifies
'

new

which syllogism

arises in the

process

of reduction

is in the

Barbara, and the letter Tc indicates reduced them by the Indirect method.
mood The other Indirect method of Eeduction

that the older

logicians
the

is also

to applicable

imperfectmoods. Take, for example, Cesare (E)

No A of the 2nd is

III.

figure
"

B,

(A) (E) /.
If this is A
'

All C
No C

is B ; is A.

conclusion
be
true

be

not

'Some true, its contradictory

can now

must

lowing new

by Opposition. We mood in the perfect syllogism

form

the fol

Ferio

"

190

METHODS

OF

DETERMINING

[PART III.

(E) (I)

No Some
.-.

is

B,
is A
;

C C

(0)
If
must

Some

is not

B.

this

conclusion But

be this

be false.
'

'All C is B' true, its contradictory is not possible, the proposition All as
'

and there premiss of the original syllogism, fore true the conclusion of the new by supposition. Hence not being due to the syllogismis not true ; and its falsity reasoning process, nor to the major premiss of the syllogism, must be due to the falsity of the minor premiss Some C is A.' Hence this proposition is false, No C is A,' and its contradictory
* '

C is B

is the minor

the conclusion

of the

is original syllogism,

true.

IV.

Take

the mood

Darapti of
All B All B
/.

the 3rd

figure"

(A) (A) (1)

If this conclusion must be true. With

is

A,
is A.

is C ;

Some

be not this
as

' No true,its contradictory

C is A
minor form
"

'

major premiss, and the we can as a minor premiss of the original syllogism premiss, mood the following in the perfect Celarent new syllogism
a
"

(E) (A) (E)

If this conclusion be
not

No
All
/.

C
B B

is

A,

is C ;
is A. is A'
must

No

be

true, its contrary 'All B

two
one

false
both

by Opposition,because
be

can contrary propositions

true, and
'

must

be

false. But

'All

is A' not

being the major premiss

false ; hence
can

of the

can originalsyllogism

be

No

is

A,' the conclusion

be false, the

not

be true

and

must

syllogism, falsity being due, as in

new

of the

precedingcases, to the major premiss 'No C is A' being its contradictory 'Some false. This proposition G being false, must be true. is A,' the conclusion of the original syllogism,
the

"
1.

7.

Exercises.
is Reduction? Is it

necessary? Define Direct and In them from each other. direct Reduction, and distinguish
"What

CHAP.

IV.]
Reduce

VALID

MOODS.

191
moods:

2.

by

the

Direct

method

the

following
and

"

Cesare,

Disamis,
3.

Datisi, Ferison,
Reduce the

Bramantip,
moods

Camenes,

Fesapo.
method:" and method CamesDisamis. the
two

following

by

the

Indirect

tres, Felapton, Bramantip,

4. moods
5.

Festino,
Direct and

Camenes,

Dimaris,
Indirect

Reduce Baroko Show

AEA

both
and

by the
Bokardo.

by

the

by
are

the

Aristotelian
in the

method second the the

that

the

moods

AAA,

EAA,

All, and
6.

invalid
same

figure.
conclusion,
if any,
"

Find

by the

method lead in

to

which

the

following
OA, AO,
7.
are

combinations and EL

imperfect figures:

AA,

AE,

EA,

Show
in

by
the

the

same

method

that

the

moods

AAA,

EAE,

AEE

invalid
8.

third

figure.
same

Determine

by

the

method

the

valid

moods

in

the

second

figure.
9. them Give both concrete

examples
and and

of

the the

following moods,
Indirect method:
"

and

reduce

by

the

Direct

by

Bramantip,

Disamis,
10. draw the

Baroko,
Reduce

Fesapo,
the

Bokardo.

following
if any, all Y
Z

pairs
which

of

premisses
from Y Y

to

the

first

figure and

conclusion,
X X is Y, is the

follows

each

pair:

"

(i)No
No (ii) 11. also Test the

is Z. is Y. inferences scholastic
; ;

(iii)All

is X, is

all Y

is Z. is Z. and

Y, all

(iv) No
by
the

X, all Y
of

following
and C

method

Diagrams

by

Aristotelian A A is B is B
; no

methods. therefore therefore

;

(i) No (ii)All (iii)No

is not-B is not-B

all C
no

is not-A. C is A.
some

; all C

not-B but
a

is C ; all not-B material material have

are

is A

therefore air

is not-A. therefore

(iv) None

bodies

gravitate ;

gravitates :

air is

body.
flowers
;

(v) Plants
fore

alone

zoophytes have

no

flowers

there

they

not

plants.

CHAPTER

V.

THE

VARIOUS

KINDS
of

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

"

1.

A which
of

Syllogism consists
follows
a

two

premisses and
is evident that

the
the

con

clusion

from

them.

It

two

syllogism may differ in Quality,Quantity, Re or lation, Modality. The various kinds or divisions of syllogisms
premisses
are

founded
their

upon

the

modifications have
seen

of these in upon
a

general
difference

characters that

of the

premisses. We
into Moods the

previous chapter
the The upon into upon in of

division

is founded
two

Quan syllo

tity and gisms

Relation

Quality of
Pure the

premisses.
is founded The division is founded The view

division
the

into of

and

Mixed

difference in

premisses.

(1) Necessary,
the difference
or

(2) Assertory, and

in may

(3) Probable
premisses.
a

Modality
be shown

of the

various
:
"

kinds

divisions

thus in

tabular

SYLLOGISMS.

"

The the

two

classes of Pure

and

difference in Relation

of the

founded syllogisms, on thus subdivided. are premisses,

Mixed

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
'in
some

by
one

such
case

phrases as
at

'in

all cases' and

cases'
and

or

'in

the least,3

former

denoting universal

the latter

particular quantity; (3) that the quality of a hypothetical propositionis the qualityof its consequent ; (4)that the rules
for the distribution of terms
are

the

same

as

in

categorical propo

the antecedent sitions, i.e.,

must

be

distributed in

the of the form A or E, and propositions "We shall give the E or 0. thetical propositions of the form and Syllogisms, examples of Pure Hypothetical followingtypical time into the correspondingCatechange them at the same
: goricals
"

hypothetical consequent in hypo

FIRST
7.
"

FIGURE.
is is
...

Barbara
A. A. A.
.-.

"

In

all cases, all cases, all cases,

if B if A if A

is, C is,B is,C

of B

...

(major premiss),
(minor premiss);

In
In

is

...

(conclusion).
case case case

Changed

into the
case case case :"

: correspondingcategorical

Every Every
.".

of the existence of the existence of the existence

is

a a a

of the existence of C,
of the existence

of A is of A is

of B of C.

Every
In In
.'.

of the existence

ll."Cdarent
E. A. E.

all cases, all cases, all cases,

if B if A if A

In

is,C is,B is,C

of B

is not
...

(major premiss),
(minor premiss);

is is not

...

...

(conclusion).
of

Changed
No

into the

correspondingcategorical:
is
a

case

of the existence
case

case

of the existence
case

C,
of B
;

Every
.-.

of the existence

of A

is
a

of the existence

No

case

of the existence

of A is

case

of the existence

of C.

III."Darii:" A.
I. In In
.*.

all cases,
some
some

if B if

cases, cases,

is,C is A is, B is,C

of B
of A

...

(major premiss),
(minor premiss);

is
...

I.

In

if A

is
...

(conclusion).
of the existence of the existence of

Changed
Some
.*.

into the
case cases cases

: correspondingcategorical

Every
Some

of the existence of the existence of the existence

is
are

case cases cases

C,

of B ;

of A

are

of the existence of C.

CHAP.

V.]

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS. FIGURE.

195

SECOND IV.
"

Cesarc:
In In
/.

"

E. A. E.

all cases, if C

all cases, if A In all cases, if A

into the

is,B is not is,B is is,G is not

...

...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss);

...

(conclusion).
of the existence of B,

Changed
No

: categorical corresponding a case a

case

of the existence of C is
case

Every
.".

of the existence of A is
a

case

of the existence of E

No

case

of the existence of A is

case

of the existence of C.

I". Camestres
"

"

A. E. E.

In In
.-. In

all cases,

if A

all cases, if

all cases, if

is,B C is,B A C is,

is is not is not

...

...

...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss); (conclusion).

THIRD VI.
"

FIGURE.

Darapti :
In In
.*.

"

A.
A.

all cases, all cases,

some

if B if B

I.

In

cases, if may

is,C is is,A is A is,C

...

...

is
...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss); (conclusion).

also

Similar

examples

of the other moods

of the

and given of the fourth figure, first three figures.

be

" 3.
We

II." Of Mixed
have
seen

Syllogisms.
there
are

that

at

least three

subdivisions,
"

namely, (1)Hypothetical-categorical, (2)Disjunctive-categorica We shall take these in order (3)Conjunctive-disjunctive. Hypothetical-categorical Syllogisms. A syllogism of this subdivision consists of a hypothetical minor major and a categorical premiss, the conclusion being The rules of inference are as follows : categorical. affirm the con (1) If you affirm the antecedent, you may that is, sequent of a hypothetical premiss,but not conversely, it is not allowed to affirm the antecedent on affirming the conse1.
"

Of

13"2

196

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
called
a

quent.

This

rule is for what

has

been

Constructive

Hypothetical Syllogism. If (2) deny the consequent, you you

cedent it is not cedent. of
a

may

deny

the

ante

hypotheticalpremiss, but
to

not
on

that is, conversely,

allowed This

deny
is for

the

consequent
has

denying
called
a

the

ante

rule

what

been

Destructive

Syllogism. Hypothetical
Both these rules follow
a

from

the

nature

of the

relation

of

dependence, expressedby
its antecedent follows other from and the fact that
as

between proposition, hypothetical The second

consequent.
the
as

part of the first rule

consequent may
upon that of the

depend

upon that

antecedents

well
or

antecedent,and

therefore

the existence the

affirmation

necessarily imply
but of
in
some one

affirmation and this

of that
one

consequent does not particular antecedent,

not

of

them,

may

be the antecedent

question. The second part of the second rule follows from for the consequent depending,as it may, on other the same fact, antecedents antecedent as well,may exist while the particular
is absent ; and follow from the
"

therefore denial
a

the

denial

of the

of the be
true
"

antecedent. with
not

proposition
"

If

person be

attacked
it does

consequent does not Tor example, in the he will die," cholera,

follow

assuming
attacked

this to with

that,if
may does

he

be

not

cholera,he
have

will not

die ; for he Nor

die of

consumption, fever,or some that if he dies, he must

he may die of other in question is proposition die ; if the antecedent that if he

other been All

disease. attacked that is

it follow

with

for cholera, the

to

diseases. that

if he

reallymeant by he is sure gets cholera,

is

present, the
the

present,and
if the

he does not die,

not occur,

be consequent must i.e. has not had cholera,

can

consequent does
We shall

antecedent

not

have

occurred.

give some

examples of Hypotheticaltypical

time into and change them at the same syllogisms, categorical in order to show the corresponding that, when thus categoricals, changed,they conform to the fundamental rules and axioms of : categorical syllogisms I. Constructive Hypothetical-categorical Syllogisms.
"

CHAP.

V.]
1.

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

197

In A
.-.

all cases,

if A

is,B is,

is;
is.
an

This ponens,
"

mode

of

drawing
mode

inference is called modus

ponendo

by affirming the antecedent affirms the consequent according to the first rule given above ; and the syllogism has been called a constructive hypothetical syllogism. be thus changed into a categorical It may :
i.e. the which
"

A. A. A.
/.

Every
This This

case
a a

of the existence
case case

of A

is

case

of the existence

of B,

is
is

of the existence

of A ; of B.

of the existence

The A

syllogismis in

the mood

Barbara.

syllogismmay be also changed Hypothetical-categorical into a pure hypothetical syllogism ; for the meaning of the minor that if this case A is.' By substituting 'A is is, is, proposition minor premiss for the categorical, this hypothetical we get a pure syllogismin the mood Barbara, thus : hypothetical
' '
"

In

all cases,
case case

if A

is,B is

...

(majorpremiss),
(minor premiss) ;

If this
.".

is,A is is,B is
when

...

If this

(conclusion).

The 'Bis.' The

conclusion

changed

into

the

form categorical

is

converse
"

of the

first rule does

not

lead to

valid

syl

logism
In all cases, if A B is, is,

Bis;
.*.

A is.

be shown can invalidity when it will by changing it into the correspondingcategorical, that the latter violates some be seen of the syllogistic rules, valid ; and its thus
:
"

This inference is not

Every
This

case a

of the existence
case

of A is

case

of the existence of

B,

is

of the existence of B.

198
From

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[?ART III.
because follows,
'

these two
term
'

no premisses

conclusion of B

the

middle
either

case

of the

existence

is not

distributed in

premiss.
2.

In all cases, if A A
.*.

B is,

is

not,

is;
an

B is not.

This
tollens.

mode Both

of the

drawing
above

inference is called modus

ponendo

modes

(1 " 2) are
are

and

in those syllogisms thetical-categorical. the It may

E. A. E.
.'.

modes

ponens, "called constructive hypo

called modus

be thus
No This This
case

changed into
case
a

: categorical

of the existence
a

of A

is

case

of the existence

of B,

is

of the existence
case

of A ; of B.

is not

of the existence

This

is

in syllogism

the mood into

a

Celarent of the 1st figure.

pure

It may thus
:

also be

changed

hypothetical syllogism,
(majorpremiss),
; (minor premiss)

E. A. E.
.\

In all cases, if A
If this If this
case case

is,B is

not
... ... ... ...
...

is,A is is,B is not

...

...

...

(conclusion).

corresponding hypothetical-categorical syllogisms Similarly, formed be easily to Darii and Ferio may by making the minor premissparticular.
II.

Destructive
3.

Syllogisms. Hypothetical-categorical
B is, is, B is not ;

In all cases, if A

.'.

is not. follows

to the second rule given according of drawing an inference is called modus above, and this mode mode which by denying the consequent tollendo tollens, %. e. the It may be thus changed into Camestres denies the antecedent.

Here

the conclusion

"

in the 2nd

: figure

Every

case

of the existence of A is
... ...

case

of the
...

existence of B

...

(major premiss),

CHAP.

V.]
is not is not
a a case case

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

199

This
.-.

of the existence of the existence

of B
...

This
In

of A
...

all cases, if A
case case

is,B is
not is not

(minorpremiss) ; (conclusion). (major premiss),

(minor premiss);

If this
.-.

B is is,

If this

is,A

(conclusion).
second
can

The

converse

of
no :
"

the

rule

does

not

lead

to

valid bs

syllogism.That shown thus easily

A
.*.

inference

be drawn

conversely may

In all cases, if A is not; is not.

can

is,B is,

This

inference

not

be
the

drawn,

as

will be

when evident,

the

is changed into syllogism

: categorical corresponding

Every
This
.".

case

of the existence
a a case case

of A is

case

of the existence

of

B,

is not is not

of the existence of the existence

of A ; of B.

This

Here buted in

the

major term 'a case the conclusion,while

of the it is

existence
not

of B' is distri in the

distributed

premiss.
4.

In all cases, if A

B is,

is

not,

Bis;
/.

is not. is drawn is

Here and rule, Both the the

also the
this mode

conclusion

of inference

accordingto the called modus ponendo

called modus

second
tollens.

foregoingmodes

(3 " 4) are
are

tollens ; and

in syllogisms

those modes

called Destructive

Hypothetical-

categorical. be easily It can changed into

E. A. E. No This
.*. case

Cesare
a

"

of the existence
a case a

of A is

case

of the existence

of

B,

is

of the existence
case

of B; of A.

This

is not if A

of the existence

In all cases, If this

/. case case

is,B is not
not

If this

is,B is is,A is

(major premiss), (minor premiss) ; (conclusion).

200
To the

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PAKT III.
be added the

forms given above typical

:

may

following

modifications of them
5.

In all cases, if A A is not

;

is

not, B is,

/.

B is.

It is

constructive
the 1st

to corresponds 6.

and syllogism, hypothetical-categorical example given above.

is

In all cases, if A A is not ;

not, B is not,

/.

B is riot.
a

This and

is also

constructive

syllogism, hypothetical-categorical
is

to corresponds

the 2nd

example given above.

not, B is,

7.

In all cases, if A
B is

not;

.'.

is.

This

is

and destructive hypothetical-categorical syllogism, the 3rd

to corresponds 8.

example given above.

is

In all cases, if A

not,B

is

not,

Bis;
.*. A

is.
a

This and the

is also

destructive
the 4th

to corresponds

syllogism, hypothetical-categorical example given above. On denying

is denied.

consequent,the

antecedent

Syllogisms. Disjunctive-categorical The next subdivision under Mixed Syllogismsis that of Dis Syllogisms. In the wider sense a syllogism junctive-categorical and a categorical of this subdivision consists of a disjunctive

" 4.

2.

Of

premiss,and

may

occur

in all

figures.

In the First M

Figure,Barbara:
or

is either A

B
...

C is M
.",

C is either A

or

B
...

(major premiss), (minor premiss); (conclusion).

In the Second A

Figure,Camestres:
or

is either M

...

(majorpremiss),

202
tive
as

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS. other of the

[PART III.
two hypo following C,3and (2) If A is C,
"

equivalent to
as

one
'

or

thetical
A

well

:"

(1)

If A

is

B, A is not

acceptsall the forms. A be easily changed into a Disjunctive-categorical may Hypothetical-categorical syllogism;and we have seen that the latter may be changed into a pure hypotheticalor into a pure be obtained in the categorical.Thus the first may ultimately and rules applicable categorical form, and tested by the canons to that form, thus :
"

is not

B,'and

thus

A A A

is either B is not is C
...

or

C
...

B
...
...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss) ; (conclusion).

By change of Relation we obtain from the disjunctive major the followinghypothetical," If A is not B, A is C.J This with the other two propositions will give a hypotheticalwhich can be easily categorical syllogism changed into a pure one
"

in the mood

Barbara

In all cases, if A is not-B, A is

If this
.-. case

C,

\
"-

is,A is not-B is,A is C.

of A
case case

Hypothetical.

If this

case

)
'

Every
This
.-.

case a a

is is

This

being not-B, is a of A being not-B ; of A being C.

case

of A

being C,
"-

Categorical.

the other disjunctive-categorical forms also may Similarly forms. changed into the correspondingcategorical ultimately

be

"
The

5.

3.

Of

Conjunctive-disjunctive Syllogisms, ox
last subdivision
of

the

Dilemma.
next

and

mixed

syllogismsis

the

which consists of a con Conjunctive-disjunctive syllogism, premiss. A conjunctive proposition junctiveand a disjunctive has two forms (1) Eemotive, and (2)Copulative ; and in each it may of these forms be categorical Thus or hypothetical. there are the following forms of it :
" "

1.

Neither A

nor

B is C

Eemotive

categorical.

CHAP.

V.]

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

203

2.

If A is,neither

nor nor

C is if Bis, is C)

(orNeither
3. 4. A
as

if A is
as as

[ ^motive
)

hypothetical.

well
B is,

is C
as as

categorical. Copulative
C is if B

If A

well

hypothetical,
is,C is) )

(orIf
The

is,as well

is called the Dilemma Conjunctive-disjunctive syllogism the conjunctive in the wider sense, in which premissmay be cate i.e. any one remotive of or or copulative, gorical hypothetical, the four forms given above, and the disjunctive premiss may be It may in the otherwise. occur of any kind, hypothetical or first as The in the well
as

in the second

figure.
the Dilemma the

includes Conjunctive-disjunctive syllogism

stricter

premiss is a reconjunctive and the disjunctive motive premiss a hypothetical. proposition, be called a Hypotheticalin the stricter sense The Dilemma may disjunctive Syllogism,as it has, indeed, been called by some It occurs only in the second figure. logicians.
sense, in which

There
nature

is and
to

great difference
forms of the the

among Dilemma. is taken

logiciansas
The from In view

to

the

true

given

above I

appears will found The

"

be

best, and
and

give

his definitions of other

forms.

Ueberweg. the Appendix

Here

will be

the views

logicians.
or

Dilemma, Trilemma, Polylemma1.

arguments, it is shown
be true,the that whichever
same

In these inferences

of tJiemembers of the disjunction may results (thatthe opponent, whichever

cases

conclusion

of the

different
case or

possible
forced to

he
same

may

the

choose, must find conclusion)."They are

and

himself mixed

in every inferences

syllogisms

of the 2nd figure, of a Con consisting especially or junctive(copulative remotive)and a Disjunctive premiss. "The in Dilemma, in the stricter and special sense, is an with a hypothetico-disjunctive ference of the second figure, premiss
1st

of the

(which
with
a

is sometimes

major

and

sometimes

minor

and premiss),

remotive

premiss."
1

Ueberweg's Logic, pp.

455

"

57.

204
"

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
a

categorico disjunctive premiss, and inferences in the first figurewith a and a copulativeor remotive premiss, are also at disjunctive tributed like holds good of the Trilemma, Tetrato it. The
In the wider
sense

of the

term, inferences with

lemma, and Polylemma."

FORMS
OP
THE

DILEMMA Second

IN

THE

stricter

sense.

Figure.

(1)
".

If A

is,either B
B
nor

or

C is

Neither
.

C is

(hypothetical-disjunctive premiss) (remotive ;

is not.

(2)
.

If A If D

is,neither B is,either B

nor or

C is
...

C is

(hypothetical-remotive), (hypothetical-disjunctive)

*.

If D If A If D If D

is,A

is not.
or

(3)

is,either B

C is
nor

is,neither B A is not. is,

be thus
A

C is
...

(hypothetical-disjunctive) (hypothetical-remotive) ;

The
The

1st may

analysed:
is,either B is,B is, is,Cis;
is to" equivalent
or

major premiss,If
or

to is,is equivalent

"

(1) If

(2)If
(1) B

and

the remotive

minor

is not, is not.

and

(2)C

Take

the
:

first alternative

of the

major premissand

the first

of the minor

If A B
.".

is,Bis,
Modus tollendo tollens.

is not ;

A is not.

Take

the

second
:

alternative

of the

major premiss and

the

second

of the minor
If A C is
.-.

is,C is,
not;
Modus

A is not.

tollendo tollens.

Thus be

in either case, that

whichever is,
same

of the two

alternatives the

true,the conclusion is the

(A

is

as required by not),

definition.

CHAP.

V.]
second may

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

205

The

be thus

: analysed

The

neither 'If A is, major premiss,

nor

is equivalent to" is,'

and

(1)If A is,B (2)If A is,C

is not, is not.
"

The

minor

premiss is equivalent to (1)If D is,B is,

or

"

(2)If

is,C is.
and

Take E. A. E.

(1)of
If D
.".

the

major

(1) of the minor" (major premiss), (minor premiss) ;

If A is,Bis

not

is,Bis is,A is
not

If D

(conclusion).
the mood

This

is

pure

in hypothetical syllogism
"

Cesare.

Take

(2)of both the premisses is,C is is,C is is,A is

not not

If A If D
.".

(major premiss),
(minor premiss) ;

If D

(conclusion).
same

This
as

is also in the

mood.

The

conclusion

is the

same

requiredby
The

the definition.

third may
The

be thus

analysed:

major premiss is equivalent to either

(1) If
or

is,B is,

(2) If
to
"

is,C

is ;

and

the minor

and

(1) If (2) If
both

D D

is,B is not,
is,C is not.

Taking (1)of
A. E. E.
.-.

the

premisses
"

If A If D

is,Bis is,B is not

is,A is not Camestres.
the premisses
"

(major premiss), (minor premiss) ;

If D

(conclusion).

This is in the mood

Taking (2)of
If A If D
.".

both

is,C is,C

is is not

(major premiss),
(minor premiss);

If D

A is not is,

(conclusion).

206
This
in either

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART in.
conclusion is the
of the
same

is also in the
case,

same

mood.

The member

that

is,whichever

is disjunction

the accepted,

same

conclusion is arrived at.

FOKMS

OF

THE

DlLEMMA Second

IN

THE

Wider

SCllSB.

Figure.

A is either B D
.*.

or

C
nor

(Categorical-disjunctive),
C

is neither is not A.

(Eemotive) ; (Eemotive), disj unctive) (Categorical;

A is neither D
/.

nor or

C
... ...

is either B is not A.
B

3.

If A

neither is,
B
or

nor

C is
...

Either
.".

C is
..
...

(Hypothetical-remotive), (Categorical-disjunctive);

A is not. First

Figure.

1.

A D
.-.

as

well

as

B
or

is-C B

(Copulative),

is either A

(Disjunctive) ;
is,C is
is

is C.

If A If D
.-.

is,as well

as

if B
or

(Hypothetical-copulative)
,

is,either
A
nor

; (Hypothetical-disjunctive

If D

is,C is.
B

0.

Neither D
.-.

is C
or

is either A is not C.

(Eemotive), (Categorical-disjunctive) ;
is is, is C

Neither If D
.-.

if A is nor
or

if B
B

is,either A is,C is
if A is nor
or

(Hypothetical-remotive), (Hypothetical-disjunctive ; (Hypothetical-remotive), (Disjunctive) ;

If D

not.

Neither Now
.".

is C if B is, B is

either A

C is not.

The
The

first form

in the first figure may

"

be thus

; analysed

"

major premiss is equivalentto (1) A is C,

and

(2) B is

C ;

CHAP.

V.]
and

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

207

the minor

to either

"

(1) D is A,
or

From

(1)of both

the

(2)D is B. premisses
"

AisC,
D
.

is A; is C.

".

From

of (2)

both"

BisC, DisB;
.

".

is C.
case

The The

conclusion second
the

is in either

the same,

'

is C.'

form

in the first figure may

we

be thus

analysed:"

From

major
and

get"

(1) If A is,C is, (2)If B is,C is ;

we

and

from

the minor

get
"

(1) If
or

D D

is,A is,

(2)If
the If A
If D
.-.

is,B is.

From

(1)of

both

premisses"
is, C is, is,A is is, C
;

If D

is.

This

is in the mood

Barbara. pure

from Similarly (2) of both, we get a mood and with the same gism in the same

hypothetical syllo

conclusion.

" 6.

Exercises.

Test the

followingarguments
sun sun

"

or

(1) If the cloudy,the

a

shines, it will be
will shine ;

brilliant

day

; if it is not

foggy

if it is not therefore,

foggy or cloudy,

it will be

brilliant the

day.

(2)
barometer

If

the barometer will fall; if the temperature rises, the weather will not be fine ; therefore, falls, if the tem will not be fine.

the weather perature rises,

(3)
minishes if a gas

di subjectedto a higher pressure, its volume its densityincreases ; therefore, diminishes, ; if its volume is subjected to a higherpressure, its density increases.
a

If

gas

is

208

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART III.
be
no

(4)
and

If the earth did not rotate,there would

there is alternation of

alternation

of

day

night; (5)

day and

night ; therefore

the earth

does rotate. Without

no

animals

live without

lightand heat, no plantscould grow ; without plants could live ; man, being an animal, could not, therefore, lightand heat.
is either it is not
an

(6)
stance

An

organizedbeing
; therefore
a no

animal

or

plant: this

sub

is neither

an

organized being.
not
re

(7) If
it has sist,
no

substance inertia ;

has

it has gravity;if it does inertia, substance does not

if a therefore,

it has resist,

gravity. (8)
If
a

substance

it gravitates,

has

inertia

if
a

substance

has

the power

of

it has inertia resistance, of resistance.

; therefore

if

substance

gravi

tates,it has the power

(9)

If

a a

solid is gas
:

heated,it becomes
if
a

is heated, liquid; if a liquid

a

it becomes

therefore

solid is

heated, it becomes
:

gas. if A

(10)
not

If A

is not, B

is not ; if B is not, C is not

therefore

is

C is not.

(11)
of

An

igneousrock
therefore

is either volcanic

or

igneous rock:

it is either volcanic is either

plutonic;trap is or plutonic.

kind

(12) A material
not

body

organic:

therefore is

it is

is organicor inorganic;a crystal inorganic.

(13)
ture

If water

heated, either its bulk

vapour
:

increases, or its tempera

of these

into or it passes rises,

to the water

; neither

changes is happen

ing

in this flask
are

therefore

it is not
or

heated.

(14)
(15)
either
a

All

existences
nor

either

mental

material; nothing is

neither mental
A gas If

(16)
is

nothing is not an existence. liquid as well as a gas is expanded by heat; a fluid is therefore a fluid is expanded by heat. or a liquid: the motion of a body is impeded,heat is produced; if heat
material: will either rise in

therefore

produced, the body

a

temperature

or

increase
of
a

in

bulk, or pass into

is

different state ; therefore,if the motion will either rise in

body
in

impeded,
or

the

body
a

temperature, or
sensation But
or

increase

bulk,
notion

pass into If every

different state. is derived

so

(17)
Therefore Hold's

notion

from

the reflection, be
or so

of extension

is also

derived.

it cannot

derived.
"

every notion

is not

derived from

sensation

reflection.

Inquiry.

210
a

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PARTIII.
'

institution which has been much and declared praised particular an simply say that every as perfect, opponent might, in reply, is imperfect,3 is liable to change that or everything thing human and decay' : here nothing but the major premiss is expressed, and it is of course implied that the institution in questionis and that it is, not perfect human therefore, (minor premiss), (conclusion).
' ' ' ' '

"
1.

8. To

Exercises.

Note premissof an Enthymeme. (1) supply the suppressed in the conclusion which are the minor the subjectand the predicate then see of the syllogism, and and the major term, respectively, is the major or the minor premiss. the premiss to be supplied whether with the major form such a proposition If it be the major premiss, (2)
and the middle
term
as

will make such

a

the conclusion

valid.

(3)If it be
and
"

the minor middle metals the

premiss,form
as

with proposition valid.

the minor

the

term
are

will make

the conclusion

elements, because

subject and the metals' and 'elements/ and

the

they can in the predicate

these
two

"All Examples: (1) not be decomposed." In this 'all conclusion are respectively
are,

the minor therefore,

and

The givenpremiss contains the minor major term, respectively. the minor term 'metals,' and is,therefore, premiss. The premiss 'all is,therefore,the major premiss, and is the proposition suppressed elements.' not be decomposed are that can substances (2) "Small Here because phenomenon has a cause." every pox has a cause, is the minor term, 'has a cause' the major term, and 'small-pox' The premiss expressedcontaining 'phenomenon' the middle term. is the 'has the major term a cause,' major premiss. The premiss sup the minor and is the proposition small therefore, premiss, is, pressed
'

pox

is
2.

phenomenon.'
To

for

In finding premisses find premisses for a given conclusion. in the con and the predicate given conclusion,note the subject
must

clusion, which

of major term, respectively, find such a be negative, the requiredsyllogism. If the conclusion E proposition, and will form with the predicate middle term an as A or I proposition. If the conclusion be affirma with the subject an A an tive,find such a middle term as will form with the predicate A or I proposition. The three and with the subject an proposition, and

be the minor

the

CHAP.

V.]
are

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

211
in the first

terms

to

have

the

same

relative

positionas

figure.

Examples: (1) Find premissesfor the conclusion 'no prophet is will do as a middle 'man' here the term term; and the infallible'; is infallible' and 'all prophets are required premissesare 'no man
men.'

(2)Find
'

premissesfor
term
'

the

conclusion

'some

elements

are

metals'; here the

conducting heat will do as a middle term ; and the premissesrequired and electricity 'all undecomposable substances are conducting heat and electricity and 'some elements are undecomposable substances con are metals,' ductingheat and electricity.'
3. To

undecomposable substances

draw

the

conclusion,if any, which

"

followsfrom

two

given
any

propositionsas premisses: See if the two premisses are in in any of the four figures. If so, draw particularvalid mood
conclusion If not,
processes

the

which

follows them

from
to
a

them

in accordance

with

that mood.

try to reduce
of immediate

valid mood If

by

verbal be

changes and by
transformed If

inference.

they can

thus

into

valid be

mood, draw
should

the inference

justified by that mood.

follows from the two
not

cannot

so

transformed,no

conclusion

It propositions.

be remembered

that the conclusion

they given being

given,it is not known which term is major and which minor, that the the major premiss,and the pre premiss stated firstis not necessarily
miss stated second taken the minor order. that premiss, the two

premisses may

be

givenand

in any

Examples. (1)
All B is No Here the two

A,

C is not-B. in any

valid mood, and particular to involve the fallacy of four terms. But, by permuting the seem second premiss, obtain the following in Barbara: All B we syllogism

premissesare

not

"

is A ; all C is B ;

.-.

all C is A.

(2)

No

C is

not-B,

No B is not-A.
Here the two

premissesare
:"

and negative,

do not
we .-.

seem

conclusion

whatever.

But, by permuting both,

All C is B; all B is the

justify any get the following

to

in Barbara syllogism beingthe minor and

A;

all C is

A, the first

the second

major premiss.
14"2

212

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART

III.

(3)

No No

A is not-B

B,
is C. of
"

Converting
second,
is
we

the

first the
.-. no

obtain

premiss, and permuting the converse valid syllogismin Celarent: following

C is A.'
'

the
B

'No

A; allCisB;

(4)

No Gold

metal

is

a a

compound substance,
non-metal.'

is not

By permuting the first and the second premiss,we get the following syllogismin Barbara: "Every metal is an elementary (not-com pound) substance; gold is a metal; therefore gold is an elementary
"

substance."

Examples for Solution.

I.
"

in Supply the premiss suppressed

a a

the

following:
heat
not

"

(1) Iron is

metal noble

because metal because

it conducts because it has

and

electricity.

(2) (3) (4) (5) (6)

(7)

Gold

is

it does

rust.

Air is material Air is This

a

weight.
liquidor solid.
with the external
are

gas because

it is not

idea is real because

it agrees because

Material

things exist perception.

cause

they

the

thing. objectsof my
antecedent.

A A B

is the
must must

of B
a cause

because because because

it is its invariable it is
a

(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

II.
"

have be be
not
a a

mineral

it has

phenomenon. no signs of organization.

and leaves. feather.

C must D
E
can

plant because
a

it has

root
no

be

bird because because acid

it has
it

is the effect of D
can

not

be

an

follows D. invariably it has neither hydrogen because

nor

oxygen.

tions

can

Supply premisses from which each be inferred syllogistically :

"

of the

proposi following

(1) Some elements are not metals. (2) Gold is a metal. (3) Gravity is a force. (4) No metals are compounds. (5) Only material bodies gravitate. (6) Water is a compound body.

CHAP.

V.]

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

213

(7) Matter is indestructible. is not a form (8) Electricity

of matter.

(9) (10) (11) (12) (13)

III.
"

Silver is All No Some Some Draw

an

element.

plants are
flowers animals the

organized.
not
no

is organized. crystal
are

odorous. power of locomotion. follows from

have

conclusion,if any, which

"

each of the

: following pairsof premisses

(1)"(a)
(2)" (a) (3)" (a) (4)" (a)

Nonot-AisB. No
All B

(6) (6)

No No No No

B is A. C is not-B. A is B. C is not-B. not-A is B.

not-B

is C.

1
)

is not-A. C is not-B.

No
No

\
\

is A. C is not
B not-B.

(6)

No

Some Some No

Some

G is not

not-B.

is C. is B. is C.

j (6)
}
)

All A is B. All C is not-B.

not-A not-B
B

(5)"(a)

No

(6)

No No

not-C not-B

is B. is A.

No

is A. conduct

1
heat ; all metals

(6)

All metals

conduct

electricity.
is not feeling
a

oviparous;all birds cannot (8) Every feelingis a mental phenomenon

(7) All birds
are

fly.
; every

sensation.
reach the eye, a sensation is produced ; if a light sensation is produced,it is accompanied by a perception. (10) Every sensation is accompanied by a perception;a sensation external is sometimes produced internally without any

(9)

If the rays

of

object.

(11) Every

chemical
a

union

is

heat ;

chemical of

union

accompanied by the evolution is sometimes accompanied by

of the

evolution

light.
are
are

(12)

If two two

substances substances

rubbed struck

heat is produced; if together, againsteach other, heat is pro

duced.

(13)

If this gas

in a dioxide,it will produce turbidity solution of lime-water; it does produce turbidity in that of lime-water.

is carbonic

solution

214

KINDS

OF

SYLLOGISMS.

[PART

III.

(14)

This

substance
non-metal.

is

an

element

an

element

is

either

metal

or

(15)

material
is
not

body
gaseous. animals

is

either

solid,

liquid,

or

gaseous;

this

body

(16)

None

but

are

sentient

beings;

all

plants

are

in

sentient

beings.
bodies

(17) (18)

Only
None

material
but elements

gravitate
are

light

does

not

gravitate.
are
non-

metals,

oxygen

and

chlorine

metals.

CHAPTER

VI.

OF
A
more

TRAINS

OF

SYLLOGISTIC

REASONING.
is combination another the
as

"
two

1.
or

Train

of

Reasoning Syllogistic
with each either

of
to

syllogisms so connected When establish a single conclusion. syllogismsis fully expressed,it has
forms
:

one

of

component
two

of these

typical
and last,

(1)

That

in which in
one

the

singleconclusion

is stated

the conclusion

a or

(2) That in syllogism forms premiss in one both premisses form conclusions

syllogismforms a premiss in the next. is stated first, and the single conclusion which
the in two conclusion in the

next,

distinct
Second

syllogisms.

Form.

(1)

In
"

the is E

example
"

of the and last,

first form

the

All A
a

stated in the

the conclusion

is single conclusion of the first syllogism of the second

a

is

premiss

second, and

the conclusion

premiss in

the third.

216
In the
same

TRAINS

OF

REASONING.

[PART III.

the

of the i.e., are The

conclusion is example of the second form, the single and the two premisses (AllA is E), but it is stated first, 1st syllogism form the conclusions in the 2nd and 3rd, proved by them. first syllogism in the first form
to

is called

Prosyllogism

in relation

2nd, and the 2nd in relation to the 1st is called an Episyllogism is a syllogism in a Prosyllogism ; that is, whose conclusion forms a premiss in another, a train of reasoning,
and
an

the

is Episyllogism the

syllogism which
of

has

for
two

one

of its
are re

premisses

conclusion
the and
same an

another. be

These
a

terms

and relative, lation to one,

syllogism may
in episyllogism

in prosyllogism
to another.

relation

For
to

example,the
3rd and

2nd

stands syllogism

in the twofold

relation

the

respectively. In the example of the second form, the 1st syllogismis an in relation to the 2nd and 3rd, and both these are episyllogism prosy Hog isms in relation to the 1st.
or Synthetic, EpisylloProgressive, because the advance in the reasoning is from a prosyllo gistic, from certain premissesto the conclusion gism to an episyllogism,

the 1st

The

first form

is called

which

follows from

them.

The

second

form

is called

Analytic,

because the advance in the reasoning or Prosyllogistic, Eegressive, to conclusion from is from an episyllogism to a prosyllogism, a the premisseswhich prove it. rise train of syllogistic reasoninggives " 2. The synthetical
to the

Method, Synthetical

and

the

train analytical

of

syllogistic

reasoningto the AnalyticalMethod in Deductive Logic. as Method start with certain principles In the Synthetical we premisses; and by comparing and combining them in various from follow necessarily which deduce the conclusions ways, we AnalyticalMethod, on the contrary,we start with from and proceed regressively to the principles the conclusions, that method which they follow deductively. It is by the former Euclid proves his propositions ; he starts with the axioms,postu
them. In the and definitions as premisses,and lates, which follow from them. propositions proves the progressively

218

TRAINS

OF

REASONING. of

[PART III.
"

train Taking the following

: syllogistic reasoning

(1)
.-.

AllDisE
...

All C is D
...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss),

All C is E
...

(conclusion),
(major premiss), (minor premiss),

(2)
.-.

AllCisE
...

All B

is C
... ...

AllBisE All B is E
...

(conclusion),
(majorpremiss), (minor premiss),

(3)
.-.

All A is B
...

All A is E
.,.

(conclusion),

and also

and therefore suppressingall the conclusions except the last, all the major premisses except the first, have the follow we of the

ing example

Goclenian

Sorites :

"

All D is E, All C is All B is All A

.".

D, C, B,

is

All A is E.

Both trains of

the Goclenian

and

the Aristotelian

Sorites

are

abridged

and both are synthetic, reasoning, syllogistic progres advance in the the or reasoningbeing from a episyllogistic, sive, to an episyllogism. prosyllogism is a prosyllogistic, or An regressive analytical, EpicJieirema train of

reasoning with
a

some

of
reason

its

premisses suppressed.
or reasons

It

consists of of
"

with a syllogism its premisses being given.

; and
an

for

one

or

both

For

example, the
all C
a reason

train of
:

reasoning
all
one

All A is B
"

C is B

is

A, because Epicheirema, in which

all C is may

is D is
"

therefore for

given

and premiss,

which

be thus
is B

: fully expressed

(1)
.".

All A

...

All C is A
...

(majorpremiss), (minor premiss),

(conclusion).

AllCisB
...

For

the minor

premiss the

reason

givenis that

All C is D.'

CHAP.

VI.]
with that

TEAINS

OF

SEASONING.

219

This whose

premiss evidently constitutes thus : major premissis suppressed,

"

an

enthymeme,

(2)
.-.

All D

is A
...

All C is D All C is A.

...

(thesuppressedmajor premiss), reason given), (the

followingexample reasons premisses: All A is B, because all A all F is A; therefore all C is B."
"

In

the

are

given

for both

the

is G ; all C is When
"

A,

because

fully expressedit

consists of the

three syllogisms : following

All A

(1)
.*.

is B
...
...

(major premiss),

All C is A

All C is B
...

(minorpremiss), (conclusion).
an

major premiss is provedby : premiss is suppressed

The
"

enthymeme,

whose

major

(2)
.".

All G

is B
...

All A

is G
... ...

(thesuppressed major premiss), (thereason given),

All A is B

(conclusion).
an

The minor

premiss is also proved by premissis suppressed :

minor
"

enthymeme,

whose

(3)
.".

All F is A
...

All C is F
...

(thereason given), (suppressed minor),

All C is A
...

(conclusion).

The

Epicheirema is
the

thus

an

abridged train

of

syllogistic
an

in which reasoning,

from argument proceedsanalytically,

to a prosyllogism. episyllogism train of syllogistic The analytic reasoning which

we

have

given at the beginning of this chapter may give rise to any of the following different premisses : Epicheiremasby suppressing
"

(1)

All A

is D,

all A

AllDisE,
.-.

B, allCisE,

is

All A is E.

220

TKAIXS

OF

REASONING.

[PART III.
B,

(2)

All A is

D,

v v

all A is

AllDisE,
.-.

all DisC,

All A is E.
v v

(3)

All A is D,

all B is D,

AllDisE,
.-.

allCisE,

All A is E.

(4)

All A is

D,

v
v

allBisD,
all

AllDisE,
.

DisC,

".

All A is E.

In minor

(1) the major premiss of the second

of the third
are

and syllogism

the

suppressed. In (2)the major premissof the second and the majorpremiss of the third syllogism are suppressed. and the In (3) the minor premiss of the second syllogism minor of the third are suppressed. and the In (4) the minor premiss of the second syllogism major of the third are suppressed. different varieties of trains of syllogistic The reasoning are
shown in the

tabular following
OF

view

"

TEAINS

SYLLOGISTIC

REASONING.

CHAP.

VI.]
4.

TRAINS

OF

REASONING.

examples of Symbolical
FIRST
Aristotelian.

Sorites with

: analyses
"

FIGURE. Goclenian. Barbara.

(1)

(1)

222
In in the the
1st

TRAINS

OF

REASONING.

[PARTin.
be
: particular

one figure

premiss onlycan
last in the former

the 1st

Aristotelian

and the

the last in the Goclenian and

; and

only one
is the

premiss negative:
latter.
same,
reverse
same

the

first in the

It should the order

be
of

observed the

that,when
one

the conclusion form is

premissesin
; that

of that in

in the

other

is,the

exactly the conclusion being the

are

both, the premissesin

from the notion

the

Goclenian This

those

of the

Aristotelian
to

bottom
that

upwards.
the latter

the

mistaken is

but we have seen regressive; The order or progressive episyllogistic. be

former

given rise while the is progressive, that both are equally

has
of the terms should
one

also

noted.

In

the

Aristotelian

the

predicatein

premiss
the

becomes

the
one

in subject

subjectin the next, while in the Goclenian in the next. premiss becomes the predicate

SECOND Aristotelian.
Y. All A is All B is

FIGURE. Goclenian. Y. No
E

B, C, D, D,

is

D, D, C, B,

All C is All B is All A is No

All C is No No
E

is

A is E.

A is E.

Analysisof V. (1)
All A is B AllBisC All A is C All A is C All C is D All A is D

AnalysisofV.
(1)
No E is D
..

(minor), (major), (minor), (major),

(major),

All C is D
..

(conclusion),
(2)

NoCisE
,

..

(minor), (conclusion),
(major),

No

C is E
... ..

AllBisC No No B is E
,

(conclusion), (minor), (major),

(conclusion).
(3)

..

(minor), (conclusion), (major),

(minor),

(3)

All AisD No No
E A

B is E
..

is D is E

All A is B
, ..

No

A is E
...

(conclusion).

In these the others

examplesonlyone
are

is in syllogism
the

in

the first

figure. In

figure ; Aristotelian the last,

the second

CHAP.

VI.]
in the

TRAINS

OF

REASONING.

223
mood Cesare of the

and

Goclenian

the

are first, are

in the

second figure ; all the others

It should clusion of
a

in the first figure.

con

be noted

that in the Aristotelian Sorites the the minor

premiss, while the major premiss,in the next in the Goclenian it becomes throughout the whole train of reasoning. We Episyllogism, shall conclude with an Aristotelian Sorites in the 3rd figure :
becomes Prosyllogism
"

VI.

All A is

B, D, E,
is E.
VI.

All B is C, All C is All A is

.". Some

Analysisof

(1)All
.-.

A is is

B, C, C, C,

All B

All A is
A

(2)All
.-.

is

All C is D, All A is D, A is D,

(3)All
.'.

All A is E, Some D is E.

Here

the 3rd

is in Darapti in Syllogism

the 3rd

and figure,

the others in Barbara1.

" 5.
1.

Questionsand exercises.
test the
a
"

Analyse and animal;

an

(1)
is
an

Bucephalus is

followingtrains of reasoning: horse; a horse is a quadruped; a quadruped

"

animal

is

substance:

therefore

Bucephalus is

substance."
he is intent on gain ; if intent on (2) "If Harpagon be avaricious, if discontented, he is unhappy; now Har gain, he is discontented; avaricious: he is is, therefore, unhappy." pagon (3) "Whatever promotes happiness is good; whatever perfects the soul promotes happiness the soul is : therefore whatever perfects either to discigood; misfortune which happens to the good,serves
1

See

Appendix G.

224

TRAINS

OF

REASONING.

[PART
which befalls the

III.

pline
is

or

to

improve

the

soul:

hence

misfortune

good

good."

(4)
tient

"

Sentient
men are

beings
finite

seek

happiness
;

all
a man

finite
:

beings

are

sen

; all

beings

Caius

is

therefore

he

seeks

happiness."

(5)
that
a

"

That has

which

thinks is

is active
a

; that

which soul

is active thinks
:

has

strength ;
it is

which

strength

substance

; the

therefore

substance."

(6)
to

is

equal
A

to

B;

B to B

is

equal to C;

is

equal toD;

is

equal

therefore A

is

equal
than
E
:

E.
; B

(7)
D
; D

is greater than
cause

is A

greater than
is greater
cause cause

C ; C E.

is

greater than

is greater
A

therefore
B
; B

than

(8)
D is the

is the
of

of
:

is the A is the

of C ; G of E. lies above

is the

cause

of D

cause

therefore B ; B

(9)
lies above

lies

above

lies above

C ; C

therefore

D. A A A
A If

(10)
therefore

co-exists co-exists is is
a a a

with with of
of

; B

co-exists

with

C ; C

co-exists

with

D.
B
; B

(11)
therefore

mark mark
is

is

mark

of

C ; C

is

mark

of

D. its

(12) rises, its

pressure
a

gas

heated,

temperature
;

rises ; if its elastic force

temperature
the if

elastic
on

force walls the

of

increases the

if its

increases,
:

the

containing
on

vessel of

increases the

therefore

gas

is

heated,

pressure

the

walls

containing

vessel

increases. 2. hunter's
3.

Analyse Euclid,
Prove

the
p.

demonstration

of

the

20th

Proposition

in

Tod-

23, into

the

constituent and 22.

syllogisms.
18th

both

synthetically
p.

analytically the

Proposition

of

Euclid, Book
4.

I, Todhunter,
into

Analyse

fully-expressed syllogisms
of the 32nd

both

the

construction
Book I.

and

the 5.

demonstration

Proposition

of Euclid,

Distinguish
as

between

the in

Analytical

Method

in Deductive

Logic

and

Analysis

employed

Geometry.

226
In
a

OF

FALLACIES. of transgression in Deductive

[PART III.
any

wider

sense

Fallacyis
sense we

rule whatever.
Fallacies
or

In

this

have

logical Logic the

Faults of

of Division

and

Definition ; and

in Inductive

Logic

Classification, Hypothesis,"c. The violation of the rules to which every logical division and definition ought to conform such as givesrise to the faults of division and definition, definition by accidental quali cross division, incompletedivision, ties,"c. To this class belong also the fallacies arisingfrom such as those of Ambiguous Middle, of ambiguity in language, of the are Division,Composition,"c. These transgressions rule that our thoughtsshould be expressedand reasonings logical conducted in clear and unambiguous language.
NON-INFEKENTIAL LOGICAL FALLACIES.

those

Those

treated in usually Deductive Logic.

Those usually treated in In ductive Logic,arising from the

!
Those arisingfrom the transgression of the rules of De finition and Di Those
from arising ambiguous langu

transgression of the Classification, Hy Nomenclature, "c. pothesis

rules of
,

age, called Semi: logical

"

vision.

Ambiguous Middle. Fallacy of Composition.

,,

Division. Accident.
"c. "c.

,,

Faults

of Definition

"

Faults

of D

ivision

"

(1) Descriptionor definition ; by accidental qualities

redundant

(1) PhysicalPartition

and

Me

taphysical Analysis.
(2) Cross Division. (3) Incomplete or Overcomplete too wide) or (too narrow
Division.

(2)

Too The
or

narrow

definition. too wide or in

definition.

(3)

circle

definition, definition by syn

(4) OverlappingDivision.

onyms.

and. (4) Obscure, figurative, definitions. ambiguous

(5) Negative definition.

CHAP.

VII.]
of any

OF

FALLACIES.

227
be taken to
mean
an

In the widest sense, the word

error

fallacy may

Observation, Perception, kind,whether of Intuition, it includes, "c. In this sense Inference, Division, Definition, besides those mentioned or above, the fallacies of Irrelevancy called Ignoratio Irrelevant Conclusion,technically Elenchi,of and also of False Premiss, Petitio Principii the question), (begging Mill calls Fallacies of Simple Inspection, of those which or
Erroneous
First and Principles

Axioms.

NON

-LOGICAL

OE

MATEKIAL

FALLACIES.

Premiss unduly assumed.

Irrelevant
ratio
or

conclusion
not

or

Igno
the

Elenchi

(the argument
to

conclusion

" 2.

II.
"

Fallacies in Deductive

Logic.
describe and
in explain

It is not

detail each
have been

should necessary that we of the fallacies mentioned made evident already In the following pages in
we

above,for most of them and illustrating explaining

shall notice and

the rules. the

more

illustrate

and importantkinds only. frequent

15"2

228

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.

A.

"

LOGICAL
1.

FALLACIES.

Inferential.
Inference. is frequent fallacy
'

(1)
"

Fallacies of Immediate
the
most

simple con version of A : All A is B, .". All B is A,' If A is, B is, .-. If B A is.' The inference is, of course, fallacious, and violates the is, that no term should be distributed in the rule of conversion, viz.,
"

In

Conversion

the

converse

which

was

not

distributed in the convertend; and

B is

the
is.'
:

valid inference The 'Some into

*

is

'

Some

A,'

'

In

some

cases

if B
same

is,A
reason

simpleconversion
A Some is not not-B

of 0 is also fallacious for the Some B is not A.' The

B,

.'.

conversion

of O

is A' is not

because admissible, the and subject

it violates the the

first rule of the

that conversion, viz., should

converse.

convertend the

the be, respectively,

of predicate predicate and the

in subject In

Obversion,^quepolence, or Permutation
"

the

are following

fallacious :

(1)All (2)All
.*.

A is

B;

.-.
are

All not-A elements

are

is not-B.
;

metals

All not-metals is is

not-elements.

(3)Cold
.-.

agreeable; disagreeable.
;

Heat

(4) Virtue
.'.

will be rewarded

"Vice will be

punished.
fallacious
is A.
:
"

In

the following are Contraposition

(1) No
(2) No
.*.

A is
man

B;
is

.-.

AU

not-B

perfect ;
men.

All

imperfect beingsare
A is B ; elements not-metals
.

(3) Some (4) Some

.".

".
are

Some

not-B
;

is A.

metals

Some

are

elements.

In

the following are Opposition

fallacious :
"

(1) 'All plants are No plantsare .*.

'

flowerless' flowerless
'

is

false;

is true.

CHAP.

VII.]
(2)
'

OF

FALLACIES.

229
'

are poets is false ; philosophers 'No philosophers are poets' is true. .". is true ; (3) Some plantscan move

All

'

.".

'Some
'

plants cannot
elements elements
men men are are are are

move'

is true.
'

(4)
.".

Some

metals
not

is true ; is true.

'Some

metals'

(5) 'Some
.'.
'

wise' is true;
not

Some

wise

'

is false.

" 3.
These

(2)
"

Fallacies of the

Inference. Syllogistic
of transgression of the
some

arise from of them is

rules. syllogistic
one or

Everyone
of the

a breach ultimately

other

of

the fundamental

of Deductive principles Logic,and proximately of the specialrules for each or rules, generalsyllogistic

of the nine generalsyllogistic figure.Regarded as transgressions rules we have given in Part III. Chap. III. the fallacies are as follows
:
"

(1) The Fallacy of of the 1st rule. gression (2) (3)

The

Four

Terms, arisingfrom Premisses, arisingfrom

the

trans

Fallacyof
rule.

Four

the

viola

tion of the 2nd The

Fallacy of

Undistributed

Middle, arisingfrom
the

the

breach of the 3rd rule.

(4) The gressionof

Minor
not

Fallacy of
the 4th rule
:

Illicit Process,arisingfrom of the and

trans term

distributed in the conclusion

Major Term, when this not in the premiss ; and

is

of the and

Term, when this term is distributed in the conclusion in the premiss. (5) The Fallacy of Negative Premisses,arising from
Fallacies also arise from 9th and rules, the of transgression
one or

the

violation of the 5th rule.

(6) 8th, and

The

the

6th,7th,
fallacies

belong to

other

of the

mentioned

above.

most

important of
Middle

the fallacies under Illicit Process.

this head Of these

are

those shall

of Undistributed

and
"

we

give the following examples:

230
1.
The The
.*.

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.

virtuous

are

The

wealthy are wealthy are

happy, happy;
virtuous. the middle
term

Undistributed
dicate in the two
2.

Middle, because
affirmative
All material

being the

pre

is not distributed. premisses,

bodies
are

extended,
bodies. Undistributed Middle.

Shadows
,*.

are are

extended;
material

Shadows

3.

Whatever Matter

thinks does does

not not

exists,
think;
exist.
Illicit Process

.'.

Matter

of the Major Term,

in the affirmative major premiss, is being the predicate is distributed in the conclusion, but which being undistributed, in a negativeproposition. the predicate which
4. All material
All
.*.

bodies bodies

have
are

material

weight, extended;
weight. of the Minor
distributed

All extended

things have

Illicit Process

Term,
in the

which minor

is distributed in the

but conclusion,

not

premiss.
5.

All All

men men

are are

mortal,
rational ; mortal.

.*.

All rational

beings

are

Illicit Process

of the

Minor

Term.

6.

All metals All metals

conduct
are

heat

and

electricity, electricity. of the

Minor Term.

elements;
conduct heat and Illicit Process

.*. All

elements

-7. All Hindus

The
.'.

are are

Aryans,
not not

Persians Persians

Hindus

The

are

Illicit Process

Aryans. of tlie Major

Term.

CHAP.

VII.]
2.

OF

FALLACIES.

231

Non-

Inferential.

"4
These

Fallacies. (i) Semi-logical arise from ambiguous language.

"

If

term

is

am

biguous,it is reallyequivalentto two, and there is thus the of this kind, it is the middle In a fallacy of four terms. fallacy that is generally term ambiguous, giving rise to what is called
the middle In some fallacyof ambiguous middle. cases, in the major premiss, and collec is taken term distributively it is taken collectively in the major in the minor ; in some tively in the minor premiss. In the former,we have and distributively and in the latter the Fallacy of the Fallacy of Composition, We shall now Division. give a few examples of each of these the varieties
1.
:
"

An is
an

organized body
Here is
a

is either

a a

plant
nation

or

an

nation
or an

organized body :
the word

therefore

is

animal; a either a plant

animal.

2.

Light
is
a

feather word
3.

mode

body is ambiguous. of motion ; feather is light mode : therefore of motion. Here the double meaning of the

is light "All

obvious. cold is to be

is

cold heat

disorder expelled by heat; this person's cold : therefore it is to be expelledby heat." Here the word is ambiguous : in the first premiss it means a low degree of the sensation of coldness, and in the second a particular or

bodilydisorder. unfit to be trusted ; this man 4. has formed are Projectors this man is unfit to be trusted." a project Here pro : therefore and formed a project do not mean the same jector thing. To be acquaintedwith the guiltyis a presumption of 5. is so acquainted: therefore we may presume that guilt ; this man he is guilty." Here the phrases 'presumptionof guilt' and 'pre that he is guilty have different significations. sume "All the anglesof a triangle 6. are equal to two rightangles, is an ABC is equal to two .'. ABC angle of a triangle; right term is a Fallacyof Division ; for the middle is taken angles," in the major and distributively in the minor premiss. collectively
" " '

232
7.
"

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.
and
a

Five
two

is
are

one one

number

; three

two

are

five : therefore Division. and

two
:

three and 8.
"

number,"
two
are

is also

of Fallacy

Three

and

two

numbers
is
a

; five is three

therefore the middle

five is two
term

numbers,"

is taken

for Fallacyof Composition; in the major premiss, and distributively

in the collectively
9.

minor.
two
a

less than are angles of a triangle all the anglesof are ABC, ACB, and BAG angles, less than two rightangles." .*. they are Here
'

"All

the

right triangle ;

ambiguous. In the major premiss the all the angles term is taken distributively to mean of a triangle premiss,it is doubtful whether it is any angle. In the minor taken collectively If it is taken or distributively. collectively, of Composition. If it is taken the argument involves the Fallacy the argument is valid. distributively, I can afford to buy "I can afford to buy these books. 10. afford to buy these statuettes. The books, these pictures. I can and the statuettes are all that I,at present, wish to the pictures, that I want to buy." purchase. I can, therefore, buy everything This is a Fallacyof Composition these books,' these pictures,' ; and 'these statuettes' are taken in or distributively separately in the second. the first premiss,and collectively or jointly The Fellows of the Royal Societyhave made the greatest 11. Fellows of the Eoyal discoveries in Science; A, B, and C are the greatestdis Society; therefore A, B, and C have made This is a Fallacy of Division. coveries in Science. under The next fallacy this head is the Fallacyof Accident, consists in taking a term which simplyor without any condition and as modified by certain accidents or as under in one premiss, in the other. For certain circumstances is example, "What bought in the market is eaten,raw meat is bought in the market ; is eaten." In the minor meat therefore raw premiss the middle while in the major term, boughtin the market, is taken simply, premissit must be understood as modified by certain accidents or two middle not present in the other. There qualities are, in fact, without anything understood bought in the market terms, one
all is
' ' ' ' '

the

word

234
the

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.

'Argument

in

and Circle/

of Premiss Falsity of Irrelevancy, or,

; and
as

(3)the

'Begging the Question'; (2)the Menchi, or the Fallacy Ignoratio

the Irrelevant Con called,

it is sometimes

clusion.

"
is

6.

(I)" Of

the Petitio

in its fallacy and proved by another proposition, the first. A For

This

Principii. form occurs simplest

'

when

this other is B

proposition again proved

B

by
and

example,
the the

is, because
is
;

is ; and the

is,

because the

is.' Here

conclusion conclusion

proved by
the A is '
'

premiss,
"

premiss by
consists the same,

and

evident,and
same

in proving really

fallacyis quite by 'A is,' the

by
In

idem per idem.

the

gism is : by the 1st syllogism

"

example, the major premiss of the 1st syllo following proved by the 2nd, and the major premiss of the 2nd
M

I.

1.

is

P,

2.

S is P,
Mis
.-.

S
.-.

isM;
is P.

S;
is P.

whose major premiss provedby a syllogism whose this premiss is proved by a syllogism is P,' and is M major premiss is 'S-is P.' Thus, 'S isP' is proved with the M is P is proved with the aid of S is P : M is P,'and aid of In this also the fallacy therefore S is P is proved by S is P.' here placed But if the two syllogisms is almost quite evident. the first and the last of a after the other were, respectively, one
Here
'

S is P'

is

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

long train of reasoning,it would not be so easy to detect the is still further increased partlyby fallacy. And this difficulty the same the difference of language in which proposition may and partly in different parts of the train, by the omission occur of many intervening syllogisms.For example
"

II. 1.

AisB, BisC;
.-.

3.

A is

D,

DisE;
.-.

A is C. A is

A is E. A is E

2.

C,

4.

E,

CisD;
.-.

isB;

A is D.

.-.

AisB.

CHAP.

VII.]
this train the of
same

OF

FALLACIES.

235
in the 4th

In

reasoning the
as

final conclusion

syllogismis
this

the the ?

minor 4th

premiss
a

of the

1st,that is,
how is this propo final

premiss is proved by
established
'

syllogism.But

final conclusion sition A is

'

By using as

premiss the

E,' which
A is B
3

has been
as a

itself proved by

taking the

conclusion the

premissin

the first syllogism.Thus

as a

final conclusion
a

is the

premiss in
In
as

part of

reallyestablished by taking itself train of reasoning.

is C' is

the

1st

'A syllogism,

proved by taking

'

is B'

premiss.
In the

2nd, 3rd,

'A

is D'

and premiss, In the

therefore 'A

proved by taking 'A by indirectly taking 'A is B' as proved by taking 'A A is B by taking indirectly
'

is

is C'
a

as

premiss.
as a

is E'

is

is D'
'

premiss, and
mate

therefore

as

an

ulti

premiss.
In the

4th,
That

A is B

'

is

provedby taking
' '

'

A is E
as

'

as an

premiss,
ultimate

and

therefore

premiss.
Or the

by taking indirectly'A is, A is B is proved by

'

is B' A

is B.'

exposed thus : A is C, because A is B ; A is E (4th syllogism), and A is E, because and A is and A is D, because A is C (2nd syllo A is D (3rd syllogism), A is B is proved gism),therefore A is B, because A is C. Thus by A is C,' and 'A is C is proved by A is B.' Here the use fallacy may B, because
be
"

'

'

of the if the of the

symbols
language

has

enabled last

us

to detect

the

fallacy easily ;
different from

but

of the

were syllogism

that

and if, of the intervening some first, syllogisms moreover, were suppressed,the train being much longerthan that repre sented above, it would not be so easy to detect the fallacy, and expose it by analysingthe whole train. The fined of
as

Petitio
a

in Principii in which fallacy in which In the

the the

stricter sense conclusion is the is

may,

then,be de proved by means

as one

or itself, premisses.

the conclusion wider

sense

same

of the

it includes

also those

fallacies

in which

the

conclusion

follows

from, or
For

is

of premissindependently

the others.

presupposed by, one example

"

236
III.
All
men

OF

FALLACIES.

[PARTIII.
not

are

mortal,
are

Those
.*.

who

mortal

are

immortal

No

man

is immortal. the conclusion the

'

In

order to prove form

of

No

man

is immortal,' two

premisses are
in the

advanced,and
a

stated argument is apparently

follows syllogism ; but the conclusion really immediately from, or is presupposed by, the first or minor which obverted givesthe conclusion are premiss 'All men mortal,'

directly.
In the stricter in
a

sense,

the

Petitio

is Principii

called is the

the
same

Argument
as

Circle because

the final conclusion the

reasoningcoming back whence it started,completes a circle. In the wider sense, including all forms, it is called Begging the Question, because it begs or
takes surreptitiously in
to

the first premiss, because

for is

meaning with, or be proved.

which is identical granted a proposition a of,the very proposition consequence

of Premiss. Falsity The of Premiss. under this head is the Falsity next fallacy of the premisses is false ; when when This fallacy one occurs is really of an event, which something is regarded as a cause

"

7.

(2) Of

the

not

the

cause,

which

is either
causa

merely

sign or

an

antecedent

of it.
cause

It is also called Non that which and this, is not

a on

cause,

pro causa, the assuming as a and Post hoc ergo propter hoc,or

after

therefore

account

of,or

Whately
causa

thus

the distinguishes "Let the

name

pro

causa:

by, this. from Non" Petitio Principii then of 'petitio principii'

cases

caused

he the question)" (begging which

sense one

of the

the

" be confined to those says, either is manifestlythe Premisses

in in

same

with
as

such
or

the

is or proved from it, Conclusion,or is actually to know, not likely persons you are addressingare

admit, except as an inference from the Conclusion ; as, should infer the authenticity of a certain for example, if any one the reality of from its recordingsuch and such facts, history, of that history. All other cases the evidence which rests on
to

in which

Premiss

or (whetherthe expressed

the

suppressed

CHAP.

VII.]
has
no

OF

FALLACIES.

237

one)
as

sufficient claim

to

be admitted, I shall designate

"

Fallacy of undue assumptionof a Premiss1" as an example of the Argument Whately givesthe following mechanicians "Some in a Circle": attempt to prove (what they ought to have laid down as a probable,but doubtful,hy gravitatesequally: pothesis) that every particleof matter because those bodies which contain more ever particles why ?
the
"

'

'

'

more gravitate

stronglyor
are

are

heavier
not

'

; but

those still densed

'

which

heaviest
more

are

they
' '

contain how do

always more particles, though

that ? because is
' '

(itmay be urged) bulky? 'no, but

more

closelycon
'

you

know it ?'
'

how

does

that prove

tatingequally,that
needs have the is
a more

mass

which

they are heavier ; all particles of matter gravi the heavier must specifically
space V
"

because

of them

in the

same

There
one or

smaller

circle in the

followinginstance
to the

"

If any

argues his

that you his

ought

to submit

guidance
maintained you

of

himself,
what is is

or leader,

party, "c.,because
that what is whom

these
so

maintain

right; and
because

then

argues

right,

it is maintained
are

by
causa

persons and

ought

to submit

to,and that these

The mistaken is
as
"

himself

his

party3."
a

of fallacy for
a

Non
or

cause,

when occurs pro causa whenever the relation of cause the cause, is false. and For

sign is
effect
cause

and the

the reversed, the effect, or

effect when

being regarded as a premiss assumed

instance, proof of
of it ; and

great

its wealth whereas

deal of money in a country is a pretty sure often regarded as a cause ; and thence has been it is
an

in truth in

effect." "So
been and of

also exposure
a cause

to want

hardship
up

youth

has
men

regardedas
brutes

of the been Yet

constitution in barren

of those

which

have

hardy brought

countries

uncongenial climate.

the most

experiencedcattle-breeders know that animals are, cceterispanbus,the more hardy for having been well fed and sheltered in all the tender, youth ; while earlyhardships, by destroying ensure
1 2

Whately's Elements, 9th Edition, p.

Ibid. p. 133.
"

132.

Ibid. p. 133.

238
the hardiness

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.

which is the cause, not the effect, survivors, of their having lived through such a training.So, loadinga gunbarrel to the muzzle and firing it does not give it strength; though it proves, if it escape, that it was strong1."

of the

"

8.

(3) Of

the

Elenchi. Ignoratio
whenever
or

This

occurs fallacy

in any

debate

or

discussion
not

the

conclusion

arrived at,
wish to

the

argument advanced, is
establish
a

to the

point:
and

you

disproveor
you

certain which

proposition,
lead to hand.
a

for this purpose is

advance

arguments
to the

conclusion which

quite irrelevant
that
a or

at subject

For

example, you wish

instead of
prove

to prove

certain doctrine

is false ; and dis really the small

adducingfacts
dilate

or both, which principles

it,you
of its
so

upon

its

consequences,

upon

number

adherents, upon
forth.
The way

the moral in which

and gators,
is at the

presentday attacked by some, will furnish us with very apt illustrations of this fallacy. On the one hand, many popularspeakersand writers attempt to refute
it

of its promulqualities the Theory of Evolution and defended by others,

by arguments

which of

have

reference

to its appearance

and to absurdity, ments of the people the other, ; and, on many attempt to prove it by arguments which are no

only to its consequences, and senti the prejudices

of its defenders better than the

former,having reference only to the high authorityof the scien tific men who believe in it, to their numerical to the strength,
of the grandeurand beauty of the Theory,to the impossibility popular doctrine being true,and so forth. Both the opponents and the defenders of the Theory are equally guiltyof the fallacy of Ignoratio as Elenchi,inasmuch they do not address them selves to the facts and principles reallybearing upon the question. Whately describes and illustrates the more important forms of this
"

follows : as fallacy It is evident," says Whately,

"

"

that

Elenchi Ignoratio refutation

135.

may op-

be

employed
1

as

well

for the

apparent

of your

Whately's Elements, 9th Edition, p.

CHAP.

VII.]

OF

FALLACIES.

239

for the apparent establishment of your as proposition, ponents' the same own thingto prove what was not ; for it is substantially what was not asserted. The latter practice denied,or to disprove is not less common because it frequently offensive, ; and it is more in attributing to a personalaffront, to a person opinions, amounts which he perhaps holds in abhorrence. "c., Thus, when in a dis cussion the ground of expediency, one on a party vindicates, of in a case particularinstance of resistance to Government the opponent may intolerable oppression, gravely maintain, that we a ought not to do evil that good may come proposition had never been denied; the point in dispute which of course case were doing evil being whether resistance in this particular not.' Or again, by way of disproving the assertion of the or hear a grave one rigidof privatejudgment in religion,' may argument to prove that it is impossiblethat every one could be In these examples,it is to be remarked rightin his judgment.'1 that the fallacy of Petitio Principii is combined with that of and often successful Elenchi; which is a very common Ignoratio the Sophist proves, or disproves, not the propo practice, viz., in question, but one which sition which is really is so dependent it as to proceed on the suppositionthat it is already on decided, admit and can of no doubt ; by this means his assumption of that it may the point in question'is so indirect and oblique, his easily escape notice; and he thus establishes, practically, he is withdrawing your attention at the very moment conclusion, will it to another from question. Tor example, an advocate of a certain act,and the prove, and dwell on the high criminality of proving) of severely punishingit ; assuming (instead propriety
' '
"

'

'

'

"

'

the commission.
"

There

are

certain

kinds
we

writers by logical Fallacies ; but

which

which very

when well

arguments recounted and named call should by no means universally used, and so far as theyare unfairly
of referred
to

fallacious, may
as

be

the

present head

; such

the

mentum

them

(or personalargument),ArguArgumentum ad hominem ad verecundiam, Argumentum ad populum, "c., all of from Argumentum ad rein regardedas contradistinguished

240
ad

OF

FALLACIES. all been

[PAKT III.
described
not

judicium. These popular language before

or

have

in the lax and

alluded to, but

Argumentum ad hominem, they say, 'is avowed circumstances,character, opinions,or past conduct of the individual, and therefore has a reference to him only,and and absolutely does not bear directly the real question, on as the the Argumentum ad Argumentum ad rem does'; in like manner, verecundiam is described as an appeal to our for some reverence memorable some respectedauthority, "c.,and the institution, Argumentum ad populum"s an appealto the prejudices, passions, "c.,of the multitude;and so of the rest1." The fallacyof Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi)is
"

: the scientifically addressed to the 'peculiar

nowhere

when one protracted controversy, of the parties havingattemptedin vain to maintain his position, his ground as to another,instead of as shifts possible covertly attack in an honestlygivingup the point. An instance occurs
more
common

than

in

made

The universities. of our system pursued at one findingthemselves unable to maintain their charge of objectors in in the year 1810) of Mathematics the present neglect (viz., in the that

place (to which

that not

decline in those that which

neglectthey attributed the late general shifted their ground, and contended studies),
'was
never

University

famous

for

mathematicians';

but absolutelyoverthrows, only does not establish, succeeded in these assertion ; for if it never their own original it would not have caused their late decline2" pursuits,

"
more,

9.

Besides

the fallacies

we

have
the

mentioned

above,
many

two

and namely, the Non sequitur also given under the class are tions, first occurs the when

Fallacyof

of material

ques fallacies. The

the conclusion does not in any way follow from connection when, in fact, there is no logical premisses, the

between The

two, anything being inferred from

occurs are

anything else.

second

assumptions
"In what

when, by way made in regard

you

of
to

subjectsdid

fail?"

certain asking questions, certain things or persons: This question assumes

Whately'sElements,

pp. 141"142.

Ibid. pp. 143"4.

242
2.
on mere

OF

FALLACIES.

[PARTIII.
argument may
be detected

In many

cases

the

of invalidity

an

or inspection.For instance,when it contains two particular middle is not the term two negative or or when distributed, premisses, of the premissesis negative and the conclusion when affirmative, one and the conclusion is particular when of the premisses one or, lastly,

universal.
3.

The But

method there
are

described
of
course

above other

seems,

on

the

whole,
may

to

be the also be

best.

methods, which
to

applied to verifythe result obtained by it or and the independently. For example, the figure
may be at
once

test the

argument

mood
one

of the in the

found

; if the

mood

be Or

valid the
or

syllogism particular
of that Or the

figure,the syllogismwill be valid.

be tested by the syllogism may to the canon figure ; if it conform the
canon or

figurebeing found, the

the rules special

to the

rules,it will be valid.

of the
case,

syllogismmay
:

be tested

by the method
follow in every

comparison of

diagrams
do not 4. of
a

if the conclusion
a

it will be valid ; if it

follow in If
an

single case,

it will be invalid1.
of
more

argument consists

than

one

that is, syllogism, the constituent

train -of

reasoning,it

should

be

analysed into

should be tested as described above. If syllogisms ; and each of them of the premisses be understood or suppressed, they should be any and the constituent syllogisms supplied, expressed. In the case fully should of Eiithymemes, the suppressed premiss, whether true or false, of Dilemmatic and other mixed be supplied. In the case arguments, they should be tested by their rules, and reduced to the categorical
form.

In be the

the able

case

of

Extra-logicalor
them
to

Material

the student fallacies, and show

should where

to refer

their

classes respective

lies. fallacy

Examples.
Test the
1.

following arguments
conducts substance
are

"

Every metal
No
are

heat;

every

metal

conducts

therefore every
2.

that conducts

heat conducts
are

electricity: electricity.
therefore
no

minerals animals.

plants; no

plants

animals:

minerals
3.

plantsare organized;no are organized. crystals

All
1

are crystals

plants:therefore

no

Bead

also the directions

given in

Part

III.

Chap. v.

CHAP. 4.
not

VII.]
All birds
are

OF

FALLACIES.
not

243
birds: therefore bats
are

feathered;bats
animals
are

are

feathered. 5. All feathered

not

birds ; bats

are

not

birds

therefore

bats

are

feathered

animals.
are

6.

Only animals
are

sentient

beings; fishes

are

animals:

there

fore fishes 7. Hindoos

8.

sentient but the

beings.
Hindoos

None
:

worship Shiva;

all

Bengalees
is
a

are

therefore all

All metals

Bengalees worship Shiva. are solid; this substance except one

either
an

metal:

therefore it is solid. 9.

Every objectof thought is

is neither:

idea of sensation is not

an

or

an

idea of reflection ; matter of

therefore matter

object
is

thought. 10. Every element

element 11.
:

is either

a a

metal
metal

or
or

a a

non-metal non-metal.

hydrogen

an

therefore it is either live in water

Fishes

j whales

live in water:

therefore whales

are

fishes.
12.

"Water is Plato is
a

liquid;ice is

water:

therefore ice is

liquid.
:

13. fore
a

Plato approves philosopher;

of communism.

of communism

there

philosopher approves
Aristotle is the
ever

14. Aristotle intellect

believes in

the

immortalityof
ever

the

rational

soul;

greatest intellect
believes in the

born:

therefore

the greatest

of the rational soul. immortality All poets are not imaginative, 15. some are philosophers poets: therefore some not imaginative. are philosophers 16. The Cretans are liars; A, B, C are Cretans: therefore A, B,
"

born

are

liars."
"

Hamilton, Vol.

in.

17. the
sun

Every planetmoves
:

round
a

the sun;

the earth

moves

round

therefore the earth is

planet.
therefore per

18.

Knowledge is power
Cognition is
:
"

is knowledge: perception

is power. ception 19.

a

mental

act; cognition is knowledge; know

is
a

ledgeis power
20.

therefore power is dictated

mental

act. to
are

by nature is allowable ; devotedness the pursuit of pleasure in youth, and to that of gain in old age,
dictated
21.

Whatever

by

nature

"That

his chief places

they are allowable." Whately. is independentof the capricesof fortune man happinessin moral and intellectualexcellence ; a
:
"

therefore

who true

16"2

244

OF

FALLACIES.

[PARTIII.

of fortune: therefore a true philosopheris independent of the caprices who philosopher is one places his chief happiness in moral and intellectual excellence." Whately. 22. unto Give thanks the Lord; for he is good; for his mercy
"

endureth
23.
"

for

ever.

Some

purpose

but of

and many
the

objectsof great beauty the sight to gratify ; many them accordingly answer no
is

answer

no

other

flowers

have

other purpose

perceptible great beauty ; but to gratify

sight."
24.
"

to be productive of evil ; therefore peace is likely of good." Whately. productive is not gold; tinsel glitters: "All that glitters therefore it is 25. not gold." Whately.
" "

War

26. sound

If the reach

rays

of
a

light reach
sensation have is

the

eye,

or

if the
a

vibrations

of

the ear, therefore

produced ;
rays the of

but

sensation

is not the eye,

produced :
nor

neither

the

lightreached

have

the vibrations

of sound

reached

ear.

is neither a form of matter nor a form Electricity all material objectsare either forms of matter or forms is not a material object. therefore electricity If two 28. oppositelyelectrified bodies be brought

27.

of energy; of energy:

near,
are

they
not

attract

each

other ; these

two

bodies

repel:
be

therefore

they

electrified. oppositely 29. each If two electrified similarly

two

bodies
not

other
not

; these

bodies other.

are

brought near, they repel electrified : therefore similarly

scientific

they do
30.
man

repeleach theory of
of the
name

The

evolution

must

be true because

every

worthy
31. A

believes in it. either solid

or

material

body is

fluid;this body
element

is solid:

therefore it is not
32.

fluid.
is either solid is solid. takes
or

Every
If
a

element

fluid ; every

is not

fluid : therefore every element

33. chemical and union

evolved; if oxygen
which

they

exist in the

place, either heat or light is nitrogen are united in the proportionsin atmospheric air,neither heat nor lightis
and takes the

produced: therefore if chemical no proportions,

34. If Darwin's

oxygen union

nitrogen place.

are

united

in

those

theory of

be originof species

not

true, every

CHAP.

VII.]
be should God have have

OF

FALLACIES.

245
; but

must species

as recognized

creation special
so

it is

impossible
he Darwin's

that could

created

many

different
a

species,when
therefore

theory of
35. Political of

easilyevolved them of species is the origin

is the father of

all from true.

few

Plato

Idealism; Plato

is the

founder

of

Philosophy: therefore the father Political Philosophy. The volume of a body diminishes 36.
"

of Idealism

is the founder

when

it is

cooled,because

the molecules 37.

"

then

become

closer."

"

Ganot's

and Impenetrability

extension

Popular Physics. aptly termed might be more

define it."
"

essential attributes of matter, since

38.
"

they suffice to
reaches ones."
"

Ganot. little

The

struggle for existence

stillsmaller of every the volume possess

even

to

these

creatures,for they devour

39.
"

Ganot.
con

Since

clude that all bodies

40.
"

body may be diminished,we physicalpores." Ganot.

"

No absolute rest is known

sun

in the universe

; for the earth and

own

the

other

planets rotate about the

"

and

about

their

axis ; and
"

there

fore all the

41.

Ganot. parts composing them share this double motion." because its Whenever a body is heated, its volume increases,
are

molecules
42.

driven

apart."
"

Ganot. it is im impenetrable ; and it occupies a certain portion of space. therefore he who murders
a

Matter

is extended
every

because

it is

because penetrable 43. murders 44. Vitellius Vitellius 45. "A

a
"

part of
man:

negro

is

negro

man." Meat

"

Whately.
drink
on are

and

necessaries and drink

:

of life ; the therefore

"

revenues revenues

of
of

were were

spent spent
who
a
man

meat

the

on

the necessaries
a

of life."

Whately.
who
calls you
a

"He

calls you
:

man

speaks truly; he
calls you
a

fool,calls you
46.
"

therefore he who alone

fool

speaks truly.'
is
a warm

Warm

countries

produce wines
"

Spain

country
47.
we

therefore
we

Spain produces wines."

eat grew

Whately.
of bread
"

"What
:

in the fields; loaves

grew

are

what

eat

therefore loaves of bread Matter is

in the fields." it is extended small in

Whately.
; and

48. tended
occupy

because impenetrable
atom

it is

ex

because
some
"

every

of

it,however

dimensions, must

little space. We
are

49.

conscious

of
"

one

mental

it from another." distinguish

Hamilton's

only as we Vol. Metaphysics,

state

contra
i.

246
50.
"

OF

FALLACIES.
of external
"

[PART III.
world

We
as

are

conscious

an

only
i.

as

we

are

con

scious of it 51.

distinct from

others."

Hamilton, Vol.

love. Truly we we freely A judgment is a simple act of mind, 52. impliesjudgment." Hamilton, Vol. i.
serve, because
"
"

for every act of mind

Every mental phenomenon is either an act of knowledge,or is a only possiblethrough an act of knowledge, for consciousness knowledge a phenomenon of cognition." Hamilton, Vol. i. 54. Certain thoughts are universal, inasmuch as they arise under the same conditions in all men; they are necessary, because their genesis under these conditions is invariable." Huxley's Hume, p. 86. those who 55. For bent on their minds are cultivating by honours is unnecessary diligent study,the incitement of Academical ;
"

53.

"

"

"

"

"

and

it is ineffectual for the

:

and idle,

such

as

are

indifferent to mental honours is

improvement
56.
"

therefore
or

the

incitement
"

of

Academical

either unnecessary Those

ineffectual." hold that

Whately.
insane should
not

who

the

be

punished

to admit also that they should not be threatened ought in consistency ; for it is clearly without threaten to unjust punish any one previously ing him." If he pleadsthat he did not steal the goods,why, I ask, did 57.
"

he hide 58.

them,
"'No

as

no

thief
can

ever

fails to do ? that

"

one

maintain that

all

Eepublics

secure

good

government who
with
to
a

bears in mind

good government

is inconsistent

licentious the

express

press.' "What premisses must be suppliedin order above reasoning in Ferio, Festino, and Ferison,
have attained

?" respectively 59. it ;

"

If all

but, none
CO. "As

would some capable of perfection, are capableof it." having done so, none
were

thought is existence, what

be the non-existent." the laws allow

contains

no

element

of

thought must
61. "Since

everything that
is
an

is

innocent, and

avarice is allowed, it is innocent." 62. from

"

Timon

being miserable
can

as happinesssprings evil-doer,

well-doing."
"

63.

You

not
you
are

stand
not

still either

or intellectually morally ; one or

if and, therefore, both

advancing in the

the

other

or

respects, you must

be

back." falling

CHAP. 64.

VII.]

OF

FALLACIES. inasmuch identical, both

247
as are

Nothing and pure being devoid of all qualities.

65.
"

are

Theft

is

crime
laws

theft

was

encouraged by the laws

"

of

Sparta: therefore the

66.
"

of

Sparta encouraged crime."

Whately.
been

Eevenge, Bobbery, Adultery, Infanticide,"c., have

of

countenanced
we

know

by public opinion in several countries ; all the crimes "c. : there are Eevenge, Eobbery, Adultery, Infanticide,
crimes
we

fore all the

know
"

of have

been

countenanced

by public
a

opinionin
67.
"

several countries."

Whately.
an

Every

hen
comes

comes

from

egg ;
"

every

egg

from

hen

therefore every 68.

"

egg

from is be
a

an

egg."

Whately.
will
any

Switzerland
is not to

stable Power
more

Eepublic, and, you found ; nor, again,is

States.

grant,

more

political society

settled
can
"

than
no

the

United

Surely, then, Eepublican

to

France

be in If
a

danger of revolution."
is
more

69.

conclusion
from

certain
are

be

wrong

where
not

the

reasoning is
unattainable
70. "No not

correct

premisses that

false,will

the best

where logician be the least safeguard in subjects ?"

one

is perfectcertainty

should

be

punished

if he

is

innocent; this
rule, and
that have

man

should 71. has

be

punished: therefore he is innocent."

rule

"Every

has

exceptions; this
there
are some

is

therefore
no

: exceptions

therefore

rules

excep

tions." 72.
my
"

If I
or

am

to pass
; and

this examination
am

I shall pass
I shall not

whether
pass
or

I do

papers

not
or

if I

not

to

pass,
no

whether
not I do

I do my

papers

not

therefore

it is

matter

whether

my

papers."
73. "A
necessary

being cannot it were, its existence would depend be no longer necessary."

74.
"

be the effect of any

upon

cause

; for if

that

of its

cause

and

would

Whatever

is conditioned

must

depend
by time
external

on

some

cause :

ex

ternal to itself ; this world

fore this world

is conditioned
some cause

and

space

there

depends upon
we

to itself."

75.
we

"

Position describe
"

must

cannot

the

acknowledge to evidently positionof a body in any terms

Matter and

be

for relative, do not

which

express relation."

Maxwell's

Motion, true,
man

p. 84.

76.

If the

theory of

evolution

be

is descended

from

248
the lower

OF

FALLACIES.

[PART III.
be

animals
:

; if the

theory of
if
man

evolution is not
a

true,

man

is not

specialcreation
descended 77. is
a
"

therefore

specialcreation,he
man :

is

from The

the lower learned

are

animals.

pedants ;
you
or

is

learned

therefore

pedant."
78.
"

If it be fated that

recover

from

your
recover

present disease,
;

whether

you

call in do not
or

doctor
recover

not, you will

your

again,if
or

it be you

fated that you call in

a

from

present disease,whether
; but
a

doctor

not, you
:

will not

recover

one

other of the is of
no con

contradictories

is fated

therefore

to call in
in.

doctor

sequence."
"

Vide

Hamilton, Vol.

pp.

462, 464.

79.
an

"

is a cognition or Perception
act of mind
; but

act of

knowledge;
act

is cognition
any

immanent

to suppose to
a

the
an

cognition of
of the action

thing

external
out

to the

mind

would

be

suppose

mind

going
of

of

in other itself,

words,

transeunt

act ; but
:

supposes

and existence, self is to Vol.

n.

nothing can
of

act where

it is not

therefore

to act out

exist out

self,which
it is

is absurd."

"

Hamilton's

Lectures,

p. 118.
"

80.

Mind

and

matter,
most

said, are

but of the different,

opposite natures
the be of whole
a

substances,not only of as some phi ; separated,

of

it, by losophers express immediately knows must

that which is

diameter

being ; but

what
to

nature

correspondent,analogous
or

known;

mind

be conscious cannot, therefore,

im
as

mediately cognizant of what

matter." 81.
"

is

so

to disproportioned
n.

its

essence

Hamilton's
"

Lectures,Vol.
can

p. 120. to which

The

mind

only
as

know

immediately that
objects can
out to go

it is

immediately present; but

come

external

neither

themselves presence is

into

the mind, therefore

nor

the mind

them, such

: impossible

external

objectscan
"

only be immediately known

Lectures, Vol.
n.

through
p. 122. 82. farther suffers
was

some

representative object." Hamilton's

which table,
to

"

The

we

see,

seems

diminish, as

we

remove

from
no

it; but

the real

alteration : it was,
the mind."
"

independentlyof us therefore, nothing but its image which

term

table which

exists

presentto
83.
"

Hume.
man.

Take, for example, the

Here

we

can

call up
or

no

notion,
This
is

no

of the class idea, corresponding to the universality For

as
man

term.

manifestlyimpossible.

involves

contradictory

CHAPTER

VIII.

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE Mill the

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM.

is not the syllogistic process All inference," we reason. process according to which says he, is from are : particularsto particulars general propositions merely registersof such inferences already made, and short formulae for making more. The major premiss of a syllogism is a formula of this description consequently ; and the conclusion is not an from the formula, but an inference inference drawn drawn according to the formula ; the real,logicalantecedent or premiss being the particularfacts from which the general collected by Induction1." The value, was proposition therefore, of the syllogistic and rules for it does of using form, correctly, and the _rules not consist in their being the form according to which or even our usually, made ; reasonings are necessarily, but in their furnishingus with a mode in which these reasonings always be represented,and which is admirably calculated, may to bring their inconclusiveness if they are to light. inconclusive, induction from followed to generals, An particulars by a syllo those generalsto other particulars, is a form gistic process from in which we always state our reasoningsif we please. It may

"

1.

ACCORDING

to

"

"

"

is not
we

form

in which and

we

must

reason,

but

it is

form

in which

to throw our indispensable : though when reasoning,when there is any doubt of its validity and there is no siisthe case is -familiar and little complicated,

may

reason,

into which

it is

Logic,Vol.

i.

p. 221.

CHAP.

FUNCTIONS VIII.]

AND

VALUE

OF

SYLLOGISM.

251
the known

picionof
The

error,

we

may,

and

do, reason
cases

at

once

from

cases particular

to unknown

universal
as

type
:
"
"

of

the

reasoning process,
have
a

Mill,is
an

follows
or

Certain

individuals

according to given attribute ;

in certain other

individual

individuals

resemble

the former

attributes

; therefore

tribute2."

This the

they resemble them also in the given at type is not, however, conclusive like the syllo
form of the
canons

gism
case,

from be

mere

expression ;
and

but

must, in every
For have
re men

examined
'

by
now

the

rules of Induction. those who

example,
heretofore semblance blance
must

all died in

men
'

living resemble
attributes
we

in

certain

; whether

from

their
resem

these

attributes

may
a

infer

also

their

in the attribute be determined

is 'mortality' its
canons.

and questionof Induction,

we

by
men

If

may

infer this attribute

of

'

all

men

now

we living,'

may who

infer it also of all other individuals have of died

a

that This

resemble process

the

in the

same

attributes.
two

of inference

admits

division

into

steps :
of

what attributes are of ascertaining mor (1) "That all circumstances, and (2)whether under tality, universally, i.e., any given individuals possess those marks." Conformably to usage, the first step or process, namely, that of establishing the generalproposition, is called Induction,* is and the second step in "the reasoning operation,which the general propositions," that of interpreting is ?.'j substantially ** called Deduction by Mill. Every process by which any thing marks
-

is inferred of the
an

respecting an
followed

unobserved

case,

consists

similarly
to

Induction

by

a a

Deduction. process

According

Mill,
or

syllogism is thus

merely

by

which

the

real

complete meaning of a general propositionestablished by In and by which is made the validity of a reason duction explicit, in other words, an interpreter of the general ing is tested. It is, and are test of reasoning. Its rules and a canons proposition merely cautions against false reasoning. They merely help us in interpreting correctlythe true meaning of general propo1

Logic, Vol.

i.

pp. 227"8.

Ibid. p. 232.

252
and sitions, in

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE

[PARTIII.
In

applying

them is

to

cases. particular

ordinary
in the its about

discourse

never reasoning form; but whenever syllogistic

the

conducted there is any

nor

stated

doubt

we validity,

may,

or

rather of

we

must, throw

it into the

syllogistic

form, and fectlysure

expressed,we may be per of its being valid. The is not,therefore, syllogistic the process according to which The uni we usually reason. versal process of reasoning is, accordingto Mill,from some and the syllogistic to other particulars; particulars process is

if it admits

being so

merely a " 2.

test of the

of validity

this process.

is the syllogistic mode of arguing Nor, accordingto Mill, sound one. a For," says he, it must be granted that in every considered as an syllogism, argument to prove the conclusion, there is a petitio are mortal, principii.When we say, all men it is unanswer Socrates is a man ; therefore Socrates is mortal,'
" " '

ably urged by

the adversaries

of the

syllogistic theory,that
'

the

proposition 'Socrates is mortal' is presupposed in the more be mortal cannot are general assumption All men ; that we assured unless we of the mortality of all men, are cer already tain of the mortalityof every individual man, "c.,"c. ; that,in such can as short, no reasonings from generalsto particulars not infer we can prove anything ; since from a generalprinciple
'

any

but particulars

those

which

the

itself assumes principle

as

known1." of Probation, the syllogisminvolves, Regarded as a mode that is,the_ of petitio principii, according to Mill, the fallacy conclusion is presupposedby the major premiss. The propo sition
' '

all

men

are

mortal
'

'

can

not

be true,unless the conclusion

truth
can

Socrates

is mortal the

is true.

The

of the

latter is pre unless the

supposed by
latter is. taken for

former,or
you have the

the former assumed

not be true

When

the

major,you

have

already
is not

granted

conclusion.

Thus

the conclusion

reallyproved by

the on premissesof the syllogism.It is, of observation which cases contrary,proved by those particular the
i

Logic, Vol.

i.

p. 210.

CHAP.

VIII.]
the

OF

SYLLOGISM.

253
are

establish alike the the

general or
of the

evidence

major premiss. It is these that major premiss and of the conclusion

of

syllogism. is thus,according to Mill,neither the process The syllogism according to which we reason, nor an argument which is sound useless ? No, says and free from fallacy. Is it, then,altogether and a generalproposition Mill,its proper function is to interpret apply it to particular cases, and its real value consists in being of the true process of reasoning. infallible test of the validity an from particulars to particulars This process is, accordingto Mill,
in accordance
an

with

the laws and from

canons some

of Induction.

But
some

when other

inference

is drawn
can

particularsto

we particulars,

not

valid

unless

it admits
'

from That is, if, and sition,

'

some

quite certain that the reasoningis into the syllogistic of being thrown form. infer a generalpropo can we particulars,'
'

be

general as a major premiss,and with form a valid syllo other particulars as a minor, we can some not be gism, then the reasoning is valid. If the general can not be formed, then the reasoning and the syllogismcan inferred, For is invalid. example, the reasoning that "all things now in past ages have died," is livingare mortal, because all men completed according to inductive methods ; but it will not be be { mortal can are valid,unless a generalproposition all men who have died in past I of men inferred from the particular cases all kings now referable to the living are really ages, and unless
if with this
" " ' J

is reasoning which actuallyand reallyconducted from particularsto particulars be tested by of Induction,may with the canons in accordance are mortal,all syllogism: all men reducing it to the following are men are living kings now living ; therefore all kings now class

'man,3

that

is, the

of validity

the

"

mortal."
This

view

of the functions

and value of the

first syllogism,

propounded by Mill, has

Dr
on

Herschel, Whewell, Mr Bailey, Professor Bain, and others. It has, the other hand, been strongly opposed by Mansel, Professor

been

adopted by

Sir John

De

Morgan, Dr

James

and Martineau,

others.

254

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE

[PART III.
Mill's view
of of the

" 3. There are syllogism, (1) that

"

two

essential

points

in

it is not

the usual

process

reasoning,(2)

of petitio fallacy priiicipii. On the first point Mill maintains, that the universal process the of reasoning is from on particularsto particulars ; and is not the second point,that the real proof of the conclusion but the facts of observation and testi of the syllogism, premisses which the major premiss itself is founded. On these on mony be made : two pointsthe followingobservations may It is true that the syllogismis not the process by which 1. usual reason But it is equally true that our we usuallyreason. unless and therefore not deserve the name, ings will not be valid, Mill form. they are capableof being reduced to the syllogistic confusion to make between the business of Psychology a seems and that of Logic. It is not the business of the latter to give of the various processes by which cor account an people reason but to give an account of the processes by or rectly incorrectly, if they wish to which reason they ought to reason, and must reason correctly. The former is the business of the Psychology of the Logic of the latter is the business ". of Reasoning,while both the I Reasoning. Mill confuses these two, and makes jbusiness of Logic. Recognizing the distinction here drawn, it be said that the syllogism is the type of all valid reasoning; may unless it can for no reasoningwill be valid,as Mill also allows, of fact, in be thrown into the form of a syllogism. As a matter draw different ways, but only inferences in many men dailylife, them will be valid, and properlydeserving of the those among which are capable of being ultimately reduced to the name, of as form, the rest being nothing but suggestions syllogistic "c.,wrongly called inferences1. imagination, sociation, fancy, that
"

it involves

the

involve the fallacy " 4. 2. Secondly, Does the syllogism ? On this most of petitio important subjectthe fol principii is well Martineau by Dr James lowing noteworthy remark deservingof beingquoted ; and as the book in which it is con"

Vide

Appendix

D.

CHAP.

VIII.]
is not

OF

SYLLOGISM.

255

tained full
"

usuallyaccessible

to

students, I

will

give

it in

:"

extricate we objection may ourselves at once by simply remembering that, in the nature of whose in the sight of a perfectintellect, or things, processes are of succession or delay, all reasoningmust unconscious involve a the conclusion being already discerned on the principii) petitio of the premiss. Ratiocination first announcement itself becomes seeing by intuition what others nugatory in presence of a mind descend reach by sequence. As soon to a more as we tardyand limited intelligence, there will be some beliefs that are mediately reached : the same truths which to one being are contained within their arche (dpxn) are seen by another lying at some distance from it. The petitio relative principiiis thus entirely to the state and range of the individual understanding, and can fault against an not be established as a argument by merely showing that the inference might be thought already in the be. If Mr Bailey assumption,but only by showing that it must convince us that it is impossibleto conceive the proposition can without birds are warm-blooded' simultaneouslycontemplating will grant that the con the particular of the swallow,we case From the embarrassment of this
'

clusion

'swallows But if

are

warm-blooded5
"

is

new can

inference be

of idem

per idem.
as

not, if the generallaw

formed, and,

allows,rationally formed, without the mind having ever encountered this special instance, it is vain to pretend that the conclusion only repeats in part the thought contained in the premiss. This is, no doubt, true of the reasoner, who, to bring invents the syllogism in question : he selects his conviction, because he foresees what it contains ; but general rule precisely, he assumes in using it, in his learners a different state of mind, in which the law has been apprehended and the example has Whenever been missed. learner are teacher and a a engaged the arguments comprehended in the, didactic process together, involve a petitio principiito the former,but not to the latter. the consciousness in one the un Upon this difference, man, consciousness in another, of what, according to the laws of
he
" "

256

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE

[PART III.

imply, depends persuasion. doctrine with no and respect, account for sanctioningit. 'When contends Mr Mill, 'you you admitted the major premiss,' iasserted the conclusion; but, says Archbishop Whately, you asserted it by implication merely : this,however, can here only I that you asserted it unconsciously mean ; that you did not know j I you were revives in this assertingit; but if so, the difficulty shape, Ought you not to have known 1 Were you warranted in the general without having satisfied yourself asserting proposition which it fairly of the truth of everything includes ? And if not, then is the syllogistic what for catching art but a contrivance Mill's Logic, Vol. I. you in a trap and holdingyou fast in it V This is a clever scolding, doubt ; but, as it seems to no p. 212. phraseologyitself is highlyobjection us, indifferent logic. The able. In order to make out that the conclusion is anticipated in the premisses,though not foreseen by the reasoner, Mr Mill
"
"

thought, a given propositionmay Mr Mill, we are aware, treats this calls Archbishop "Whately to severe

resorts

to

doctrine
with the

of

'

unconscious
sense

assertion' of

which

we

can

only compare

prophecy imagined by divines. 'Assertion' not being an automatic articulation by the of a certain but a mental act, the intentional predication lips, attribute present in thought respecting a certain subject also present in thought can not be unconscious' ; and the epithet
'

hidden

does

but

evade

the

fact

that

the

assertion

in

question is

not

mind at mind, indeed,and to the same which a future time, the proposition suggestthe application may but these are uttered did not contemplate : the sentence as and not act of predication, to the immediate phenomena foreign to Mr as entitled to be imported into its description.And shall be uttered till that no Mill's demand generalproposition it may to which the speaker holds in his thought all instances more know of nothing more or we be applied, simplyimpossible there at all. To another The fore whatever. destructive of all scientific method entirely included' in the is not cases 'fairly sight of its particular meaning or in the evidence of a generalrule ; and a person may assent to the law of refraction without any suspicion reasonably

258

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE

[PART III.

quite untenable. assumes "tacitly

assumes
we

"The the

De objection," Morgan, says of the minor, that is,tacitly superfluity

a man as soon as we

whole

j
!

know

Plato to be

know

him

to

reviewer says that if the major premiss included the conclusion, we should be able to affirm the conclusion with
"

be Plato1." The

out

the

intervention

of the minor

that
to
come
a

that is
new

impossible." No
a

case, unless

minor

premiss; but every one sees be applied can generalproposition to affirms the new case proposition
the marks

the

generalor to possess of the general. subject In reply to the first point Mill
conclusion
no one

under

the

characteristic of

would

of

course

say

that

though the
been, that
he

is not
to

ought

it ought to have presentin thought, admit the major without seeing that

'

therebyalso admits the conclusion. Martineau admits that but that it is not seen all this is actually seen by by the teacher, be a petitio what may to the former principii j the learner. Hence

Jis
the what
we
can

not

so

to the of the all

latter. mind

The

value

of

an

argument depends
To the

on

state

to which

it is addressed. involve
a

omni

scient mind is
So

reasoningmust

actually_thin^it is applicable, to which all the particulars mg of,or observing, not reasonablybe said to be guiltyof the then the syllogism can are," says Martineau, principii."There charge of a petitio grounds, whatever account we may give of them, for ascrib without going kinds of being, or ing attributes to certain natures included under them or having any prescience through the objects This is the question of questions. of their actual contents."
"
" "

time at one principii petitio without somehow proposition get a general

To us principii. petitio not so at another. ^If was

Can

we

ascribe

attributes examined other

to

certain

natures

or

kinds of

being,
of
a

/without having
A

all the

particularobjectsincluded
we

under

them

In

words, can
the truth

establish the
cases

truth

universal

from proposition

of certain ?

included in
is the of

Iit, without

examining

all the

cases possible

This

great

problem

of Inductive

Logic.
Formal

It is the

business

Inductive

Logic, p. 259.

CHAP.

VIII.]

OF

SYLLOGISM. to which

259
we

Logic to laydown
in order that
we

rules and

canons,

must

conform,

from generalor universal propositions ones. particular Logic takes for grantedthat there be given of universal propositions, whatever account are may their origin, of different nature, and grounds by philosophers not schools. the syllogism If there are such propositions, can be regardedas a petitio the reasonably principii ; it becomes, on a contrary, very useful and sound process of reasoning. If it be quitesatisfactorily for example, by the rules can established, may infer Deductive and
canons

of Induction B is
a

from of

the observation

of

some

cases, that

the attribute if in
a new case

mark

A,

"

that wherever

A is,

is ; and

infer C, I find the attribute B, I can reasonably the attribute A, of which the former an is, by supposition, mark. This reasoning, when fully unfailing expressed, givesrise to the following "All B is A, C is B, therefore C is A." syllogism It may be also thus stated, "A co-exists with B, B co-exists with the C, therefore A co-exists with C1." Here, in establishing in question was not in any way case major premiss,the new concerned. It had in fact no existence at all, real or imaginary, and therefore could not be known, or thought of, when the major
was

established.

or major premiss, questionhas the attribute B ; but granting both the premisses to be true, not you can doubt the conclusion, you must regardit as certain. And this brings us to the question of the proper nature of Deductive
"

of course may that the new in case

You

doubt

the

truth

of the

Inference.

" 5.
ference.

Hypothetically necessary
In

character

of all Deductive

In

syllogistic reasoningwe draw conclu sions from given propositions data. Given the premisses, as we infer the conclusion that follows necessarily from them. We are not in any way concerned to prove our con premisses ; but our clusion must be true, if the premissesbe true. Hence it is evident that the truth we arrive at by deductive or syllogistic is entirely of a hypothetical reasoning character, dependingfor
or
1

deductive

Vide

Appendix A,

pp. 282"284.

17"2

260

FUNCTIONS

AND

VALUE

OF

SYLLOGISM.

[PART

III.

its
If

trustworthiness
the latter be

entirely
true,
the former

on

the
must

trustworthiness be The the of

of

the

data.
of

so.

premisses
conclusions

syllogism,
prior vation, be,

though
are

they

may

be

immediately
the but
to

of Obser

syllogisms,
Perception,

ultimately
or

results whatever

Induction,
their it. All

Intuition
has

origin
that conclusions its

may it is

Deductive
with drawn

Logic
is,
the

nothing

do
the

with conclusion

concerned that

legitimacy
the the in

of

or

are

from offers

premiss following
my of

or

premisses.
wholesome

To advice Laws.
to

student
"

Deductive wish desire

to to

Logic
live

If If

"

you you and

happily
the peace laid

domain, certitude,
I take

obey
conform
account

my

enjoy
I have

the of

rules

conditions

down.

no

your

preju
and
any
or

dices,

passions,
which

instincts,
may induce

habits,
you all desire
reason

associations,
to

interests, thing
from

tendencies, thing
-"^
else:

infer

any

you

must,
my
some

under if

circumstances,
to

implicitly
your my

explicitly
you
reason

obey
from

Laws,
to

you you may

to

attain

object.
express

If

all,

against
some
cases

Law,

and

though
the
means

your

conclusions

in

be
are

accidentally
none

true,
unlawful. this down less

you If you
own

employ
reason

attain

your

end to The

the

less

from

particulars

particulars,
Law the which

you I

do

at

your is that

risk infer the

and
the

responsibility. particular
general,
and
from
not

lay
the

you from

general,

or

general

more

conversely."

CHAPTER

IX.

PROBABLE

SEASONING

AND

PROBABILITY.

"

1.

If both

the

premissesof

syllogismare

necessary,

or

or or probable,the conclusion is necessary, assertory, assertory, probable. If the modality of one premiss be different from that

of the

other,the
'B
:

conclusion be is

has C

the
:

less certain
/.

modality.
; "B

For

example,
of the From

must
.*.

A,

is B

is A' what

is

probably B
the

probably A.' Now propositions'C is probably B'

C
two

is the is

A, C is meaning
is pro

and

'C

probablyA'?
'B

premisses
may infer

'A is

is

probably;_JB' and

bably C,' we

'A

? Is the always legitimate in the conclusion in either of the same as degree of probability, conditions is the conclusion valid ? the premisses ? TJnder what first of all state the In order to answer must we questions, ^hese

probably C.' Is this inference rather is the or meaning of probably,

meaning

of

Proposition. Proba(ble
of Meaninjg
a

Proposition. 'It will probably He will probablydie,' ^^LQ. to-morrow,'or that- my belief in the event in question is subjectively, means, full or complete, is of a degree less than the highest; and not that the, ^evidence for the happening of the event objectively, in question is not of such a nature to make it a certainty. as
2.
*

"

The

Probable

That if
*

this

is the the
'

meaning meaning
sun

of in

the the
'

propositionwill
'

be
'

evident It

we

consider
is my

He

dead,'

The

assertoryform. rises,' Fire is burning

and highestdegree,

rains,'
of

in each

these

belief is of the

the event

in ques-

262
tion is

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PART III.

there is no trace of doubt, and quitecertain : subjectively, there is not the least uncertaintyabout the event. objectively, When the word probablyis added to the copula, the proposition that the state of my mind in regardto the subjectively, means, is a mixture of belief and doubt, partial event belief caused by certain evidence for,and partialdoubt caused by certain evi dence caused

against,the

event, that

is,a

state

of

incomplete belief
;

by incomplete evidence that there is some objectively,

the such

for the evidence

event

and
some

it means,

for,and

against,
is not He will
are :
*

event,
as

or

at

any the

rate event

that all the evidence

a

attainable

to

make
'

certainty. For example,

are

probablydie
symptoms
that that may there

means

that there that

certain appearances
are

that
are

of
are

death, and
certain

there marks

others from
are

which
we

not

death
infer

will the

signs or and that result,

so

which

may which

infer
we

there

others

from

contrary ;
a

that

and the state conflicting, a state of partial or belief, In this

sense

of mind mixture
'

altogetherthe evidence resultingmay be said to

of belief and
'

is be

doubt.
' '

probability probably,'probable,' and any evidence mean any degreeof belief less than the highest, full belief and for the event less than certainty.If we represent by 1, we may represent different degrees of highestcertainty by fractions such as f ",|,",J,"c. In ordinary probability 'more likelythan not,' language the word 'probable'means and in this sense by probability would always be represented in which fractions greater than \. But, in the widest sense be represented it is used here, it may by any fraction however and correspondsexactlyto the mathematical small or large,
the words
' ' , ' '

word

'

chance.3
of probability But
a

The

proposition may,
is the The
exact

by
and

fraction.
how do
we

what

then, be represented meaning of the fraction,

'It will proposition that the probability of the the propo

get it?
to-morrow'

probably rain
of its sition

meaning is,we may

"

of the say,

raining to-morrow
'

is

or

the
'

meaning
is that

He

will

probably die

this year

probability

CHAP.

IX.]

AND

PROBABILITY.

263

dying is ", or J,or any other fraction. Now, how is this We is its real meaning ? cannot fraction obtained,and what shall adopt the view held by We discuss this question here. Dr Venn, which appears to be the best and most reasonable. I consider," chance) (probability, says he, that these terms class the indefinitely series ; within numerous a presuppose smaller class is distinguished which a a by the series, composes
of his
" "

presence

or

absence

of

some

attribute classes
'

or

attributes.

are commonly respectively and of its happening in a spoken of as instances of the event,' given particular which, with wray.' Adopting this phraseology, define the explanations,is suitable enough, we proper may probabilityor chance (the terms are here regarded as synony mous) of the event happening in that particularway as the numerical fraction which represents the proportionbetween the two different classes in the long run. Thus, for example, let the be that of a given infant living to be 80 years of age. probability The all men, the smaller all who live largerseries will compose to 80. Let the proportionof the former to the latter be 9 to 1 ; that 1 infant in 10 lives to 80. Then in other words, suppose the chance that any given infant will live to 80 or probability is the numerical fraction ^V Conversely,if the probability that in every 10 per of a man livingto 80 be ^y, this implies if the probability one sons only lives to that age. Similarly, be " this implies that in every three of its raining to-morrow like the present,rain happens in two cases the following on cases of a man's dying of a certain disease day. If the probability dies. be ", it means that in every three cases of that disease one the propor The two one classes, largerand the other smaller, which tions between constitute the probability are, in the last had who have that disease, example, (1) the class of persons class within who have and (2) the special the other of persons died of it ; and the proportionof the second to the first is repre sented by the fraction ".
' ,

These

larger and

smaller

Venn's

Logic of Chance, 2nd

ed., p. 145.

264

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PARTIII.

" 3. The Eules of Immediate Inference. is thus connected with what Every probableproposition Venn m aptlycalls a Proportional propositionof the form
'

Dr A's

in

11

are

B.'

It

can

be

shown
a

that

every

probable proposition

proportional propositionof that we form, and that,without tracingit to such a proposition, can is give no rational account of its meaning, when the probability represented by a fraction. A proportionalpropositionis to be from universal of the form All A is B.' From a distinguished
'

must

be ultimately

traced to

the From

latter the

we

may
we

infer that

'Any

or

sub-class A is

of A

is B.'

former

may

infer that the

'Any

probably B,'the
Given
.

probability being representedby

men

fraction

^
may

that

in 10

of any

assigned age
a man men

live to

40, we
age
we

infer that the Given

of probability

of that

immediately to 40 is -f^. living

may

that 3 in 4

in India
a

are man

Hindus,
in India

immediately

infer that the Given may that

2

of probability in 4 candidates

candidate's a immediately infer that we passing is ^. Thus, from every proportionalproposition, of which is represented infer a probable one, the probability may from a probable proposition we by a fraction. Conversely, may Given the probableproposition A is infer a proportional one. of which is representedby the frac probablyB,'the probability infer the proportional tion ",we proposition 2 in 3 A's are may under certain circum of a man that the probability B.' Given
' *

will pass at the probability of

being a Hindu is f-. the examination,we

stances
man

becoming
under

rich is the
same an

^y, we
event

can

immediatelyinfer
becomes
,

that Given

in 10

circumstances

rich.
can

that the
3 events

of probability

in 5 of that nature

do

happening is f we usually happen.

infer that

Examples.
'Most any A A's
are

B':

from

this

we

can

infer that

the

of probability

being B is greaterthan
A
are

".
in 4
are

'" of
the

B'

or

'3 A's

B':
.

from

this

we

can

infer that

of any probability

being B is f

206
are

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PART III.
the

respectively if
sum or are

and

TRF. Therefore
=

chance
drawn

of

drawing
is certain
The
ono

either is the
to be events
a

of
a

1^ + ^

1 ; that
can

the ball is,

not

red here the

blue ball and exclusive

can can or

anything else. because while incompatible,

a

be

happens
drawn,
course
one a

other

not; when
not

red

is ball,for instance,
same

blue ball
two

be drawn
after and is
a

at the

time.

I may

of

draw

balls
be

one

another,but,while drawing once,

it must be either red
or

ball must

drawn,
are now

blue.

Suppose
the and

the ball first drawn then there

bag ;
the

red one, and is not replaced in 9 red and 6 blue balls in the bag,

chances

are respectively

^
;

and
now

T65. Suppose
there
are

at

the
5

second

drawing a
on

blue ball is drawn chances

time and
5

9 red and

blue balls in the

Suppose
there
are

bag,and the drawing a third

bag
8

in the

red

and T54. are respectively T9j red ball comes a out; now blue balls, and the chances

are respectively

and ^. ^3sort of
one
or

The
"

is a following of of

to corollary

the above

"

If the chance the chance

other

of two

events incompatible

be

"

and

one

alone be

the chance
,

of the remaining

one

will be

"

"

For
.

example, if

the

chance

of any

year is ^, and his chance of dying of some par ticular disease is T^, his chance of dying of any other disease is Y^Q1." In the example given above, the chance of drawing a red
one a or a

dying in

blue

ball is

1, and
of

the

chance

of

drawing
"

blue
=

ball is
y.

T6g,

therefore the chance

ences

drawing a -fy {$= We also make can (ii) Kules of DependentEvents. division. Suppose that the two or by multiplication
"
"

red ball is 1

infer
events

instead

being incompatibleare connected togetherin the sense Let us of the other. that one is contingent upon the occurrence of the class or be told that a given proportion of the members and a given proportionagain of series possess a certain property,
of these possess then another property, the of proportion the whole

Venn's

Logic of Chance,

p. 152.

CHAP.

IX.]
possess
two

AND

PROBABILITY.

267
be

which

both

will properties

found

by multiplying
two
a

togetherthe
tions. Of

fractions which of

the inhabitants

representthe above in London, twenty-five

propor

thousand,

of the year ; we suppose it to be known say, will die in the course should then infer death in five is due to fever ; we also that one that
one

in 200 year.
a

of the inhabitants It

will die of fever in the be

course

of the
to make

would, of
converse

course,

equallysimple by
Given the total

division

sort of

inference.

mortality

per cent, of the populationfrom to the aggregate of other cases

inferred, by dividingone total mortality per cent, from all cases. "The expressed in the rule,as given above, is variously and best statement Perhaps the simplest languageof probability. is that it gives us the rule of dependent events,that is,if the
chance of
one

and the proportionof fever fever, of mortality, cases we might have fraction by the other, what the was

event

is

"

and
,

the

chance

that

if it

m' another will also

happens

happen

is

then
,

the chance

of the latter is

"

In
.

this

case

it is assumed

that

the

latter is

so

entirely

mn

dependent upon the former that, though it does not always will not happen without it; the happen with it,it certainly of this assumption,however, may be obviated by saying necessity
that what

speaking of in the latter case is the jointevent, both togetherif they are simultaneous viz., events, or the latter in consequence of the former,if they are successive1."
we
are

Examples of (ii). Suppose

chance
age

the chance
age

of

boy
is

of 10 years of his

livingto

20

is

f and
,

if the

he lives to that of his

the chance

being educated
f
.

is

", then

being educated
live to 20 and

"

That

is,2 boys in 9 of the

this
season

of 10 years

become

educated. is

Suppose the chance

and the chance

of there

of the crops
1

being plenty of rain growing f, if the former

"

event

happens;

Venn's

Logic of Chance, pp. 153

4.

268
then the the chance

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PART III.
growing,i. e.,
of the of

of there

being rain
This

and

of the crops

joint event, is f x|=f. happens

the chance is

is in fact the chance of the first.

last

event, which

in consequence

Suppose
circumstances

of

person's acting prudently under

acts

certain

-f and
,

if he

then the chance happy is -|, happy, or, in other words,

consequence

of

prudently,the chance of his being his both actingprudently and being

being happy which
=

of his

happens
of the
events

in

of the

first event, is
cases

x| -f

^-f f. As the second

=

event
one are

depends in all these is dependent upon

called
on

upon

the first, as of the

the

happening
two

the

happening

other, the

Dependent or Contingent events, and should be distinguished, the one hand, from incompatibleevents, and, on the other, from
events.

independent
the chance That

if Similarly, of B
A

the

chance

of A

being B

is

this happening, f and if,

,

being C is |, then the chance

of A

being C

is f

"= J.

is,1
Here

in 4 is C.

we

may

take up
state
we are

the

example given at
condition under
"

the

beginningof
the inference

this

chapter,and
so

the

which

is valid

far

as

able to do at present:

A is

probably B (probability
="

is

probablyC

f
,,

=-

.".

A is probably C

(
V

mn

Here the in

of the conclusion will be the product of probability of the premisses, if they are probabilities dependent events
sense

the

the

explained above.
of

That
as

is, the reasoning will

:
"

be

valid if it admits

being stated

follows

"

The of B

chance

of A is

being B
then
,

is

"

and, this happening,the

of A

chance

being C
as

the chance in A
m

being C is
this

"
"

"

; or

follows

n
"

mn

One

A
one

is in

B, and,
is

happening, one
or

B "A

in

is

C, there

fore

mxn

C";

as

follows:

is

probably B

CHAP.

IX.]
=
"

AND

PROBABILITY.

269

(probability
therefore A
statements

whatever

C A isB is probably

(probability
=

; j

is

probably C (probability
=

"

j."
samo

These

three of

express

in

different

ways

the

matter

fact.

"

6.

(2) The
rules

ExperimentalEules
"stand

of Mediate upon
a

Inference. different

The

of this class

somewhat

footingfrom the above in respect of their, cogency and freedom from appeal to experienceor to hypothesis. In the first class, the data were considered in which we cases supposed to be given which the under the condition that the propositions distinguish different kinds of events, whose were discussed, frequency was
known respectively nected.
to
us.

to

be

disconnected that
no

and such

known conditions

to

be
are

con

Let

us man

now

suppose

given
of

One

in

10, say, has black hair,and

could
one we

1 in 12 to the

is short chance

what sighted, any

conclusion

then

draw

as

given man both or neither, questionmight

be found

having
? It is

or only of these two attributes, clearlypossiblethat the propertiesin

be inconsistent in the
same

with

one

another, so
or

as

never

to

combined black

person,

all the be

short-eyed
allotted in

might
almost

have

any other the arithmetical conditions. these be

we

hair,or the propertiesmight whatever, except as proportion

If
we are

restricted

by

ignorant upon perfectly

inferences whatever the other
"

points,it would
about the in warranted

seem

that

no

could

drawn
are

required chances1." making

each the of the above

If,on

hand,
sub in the

assumption

that

the division should

into classes caused divide each

same

by

distinctions

of the classes created it subdivides

"

by
the

the other

distinction the

ratio in which

whole," then
p and
p

following

rule of inference will hold "If the chances then

, '

of

good : thing being

are

respectively
q

"

and

"

the chance

of its being both

and

is

"

the
, '

mn

Venn's

Logic of Chance,

pp.

154

"

5.

270

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PART III.
and
,

chance

of its

being p
not
sum

and

not

is

the chance

of its

beingnot
pendent. ought
to

p and The

q is

^n~
"

' ,

where

p and

are

inde
it

of these
one or

chances

is

obviously unity,as
four alternatives must

be,

since

other

of the

exist." necessarily

This of the

is the rule of the

so-called

events, the nature

independencebeingdenned
"

independent by the sup

stated above. position

above, let us take a batch of Taking the instance mentioned Now, from the data which were 1,200 as a sample of the whole. be seen that in every such originally given to us, it will easily
and hair, therefore 1,080 who have not. And here in strict rightwe ought have appealed again to experience but to stop, at least until we ; From data which do not stop here. that we we assume," is, from the data which follow from granting the assumption stated above to be true, "we go on to infer that of the 120, 10 (i.e. ^ and of 120) will be short-sighted, 110 (theremainder) will not.
on

batch there will be

the

average

120 who

have black

we Similarly

infer that

of the

1,080

90

are

and short-sighted, thus

990

are

not.

On

the

whole, then, the 1,200 are

;
are

divided

:
"

10 Black-haired, short-sighted,

hair,90
who
are

; black- haired

men

who

without short-sighted not short-sighted, 110

black
"

men

neither had those

;

nor short-sighted

990." black-haired,
should of the
not

If that

assumption in drawing
black-haired
120

not

been

true,we

have

been

justified
be 120 of the and suf

for inferences, the

100

1,200 there would

be
none

and
black of

might short-sighted
so

who

had

hair,and
our

forth.

The

necessary

ficient condition who have black

inferences
must

hair,10
the the

be

being valid is that of the 120 also the same as short-sighted,

not

proportionof
taking likewise
10 sighted, must

1,080 who
black
not

have

black the
as

hair ; and who

same are

that short

of short-sighted first, hair

as

100

have
are

well

the

proportion

of the which caused

1,100 who
is assumed

short-sighted.That
true

is,the condition
each of

to

be

is,that

the

division into classes

by

each

of the

givendistinctions

should subdivide

CHAP.

IX.]

AND

PROBABILITY.

271
same

the classes created which it subdivides

by

the

other

distinctions in the
This condition

ratio in

the

whole.
is

being true, the

rule of inference

given above
leads
to

objection. In
and objection, the
events

the form

quite correct and free from all in which it is usuallygiven it is open to inferences which not formallyvalid, are
to

being
the

assumed

be

independentwhere
properties. But
possess
some can

nothing
we

is

known
seen

about that

distribution that

of the
we

have

it is necessary

should
we

positive

knowledge of
We which
can now

the distribution further

state

before
the in

condition the
case

the
:
"

inference

is valid

apply the rule. under or supposition of our ex original

ample

A is

probably B

probability
=

"

is

probably C ( probably CM

,,

"

.".

is

"

,,

of the conclusion will be the product of the probability of the two premisses,if the subdivision of A created probabilities ratio in which the whole of B is by B be subdivided in the same subdivided to be by C. For example, suppose the probabilities The and | and J respectively, then, according to the according to the second A
to be

representedby

sample

of 36

premiss, 24 A's in 36 are B, and premiss, and the condition assumed, C : therefore, 8 B's in these 24 are 8 A's in 36 are C," that is, the probability of A being C is ^, or f which is equal to the of the two premisses. product of the probabilities In certain cases, however, it is possibleto draw valid in
,

first

ferences in which
events

without the
sum

any

assumption

whatever

"

mean

those

cases

of the

of the probabilities

two

independent
as

exceeds

the third is
as

unity,and in which the two premisses are syllogistic figure. The rule of inference in such
"

in

cases

follows:
"

if the

chances
then
,

of

thing being
of its

and

are, q

respectively, and

the chance

being both

p and

272
is
m

PROBABLE

REASONING

[PART III.
p

--\
n

1. and

the chance

of its

being

and

not-q is
m

n'

if

"

be

greater than
3 A's

-,

where

and

are

independent. For
1 A

example,
12 must
,

in 4 B

are

B, and C,
"

1 A

in 3 is C ; therefore

in

the probability of A being B is, of A being C is ", therefore the proba is f and the probability according to the given rule,of A being both B and C is bility,
4

be both

and

that

"

3-

1) or

-is*

ket

be is

24

men,
are

of whom

f,

that

is

18,

are

rich,C, then f + "-1, or T^, and rich, be both educated and f that is 2, must that i, or T52, if f of A are B is 10, both educated and not rich. Similarly, of A must and if f of A are C, then |be both B and C, and \ of educated,B,
8,
-

and

J, that

both B and not

B's
are

C.
some

From

the
are

first conclusion

it follows

that

some

C,

and

C's

B.

"
1. draw

7.

Exercises.
of the and propositions, following
:
"

Fully explainthe meaning

the inferences The which A follow is substance

from

them

(a)
(c)

(b) B is probablya
D

probably a prudent man.

metal.

probably pass at the F. A. Examination. (d) E will probablylive to the age of eighty. (e) The sun will most probably rise to-morrow. are probablyhappy. (/) All virtuous men
will

(g) (h)
2.

This The The

fossil is

probably carboniferous.
ether

luminiferous

probablygravitates.

is ^; and if it is of a fossil being mesozoic probability is f ; and of its being cretaceous if it is mesozoic, the probability in the English chalk of its being found cretaceous, the probability Calculate the probability is fformation of the fossil being found in the English chalk.
.

3. years

The is

of probability

new-born

child

living to the

age

of 25

of its being well" ; and if it lives to that age, the probability of its being a educated is " ; and if it is well-educated, the probability of the new-born distinguishedperson is ""$. Calculate the probability child

being a distinguished person.

APPENDIX.

A.

"

CANONS

OR

AXIOMS
TO

OF

THE

SYLLOGISM

ACCORDING

LOGICIANS.

" 1. Lambert's Canons for the so-called Imperfect Figures. to the view that all the figures In opposition except the first are of their own like the imperfect,because they have no canons de Omni for the first or perfect Dictum and that, et Nullo figure, be reduced to the therefore, syllogisms in those figuresmust Lambert (in his Neues Organon, Leipzig, first, 1764) enunciates a for each and thus places them distinct canon all on an figure, equality. For the first figure Lambert recognizesthe 'dictum de omni usual. For the second figure he lays down et nullo as called de Diverso,' which is as follows : If Dictum a canon be contained term one in, and another excluded from, a third is as self-evident This dictum term, they are mutually excluded." de omni dictum et nullo.' On applying it to the sixteen the as that the of premisses it will be found possiblecombinations
"

'

"

"

same

valid

moods in the
term

are

obtained Cesar e,
'

as

on

any

other

method.

It

holds In

good

moods
'

and festino, Camestres,

Baroko.

(takingA, B, and C as standing for the in 'BJ is included major, middle, and minor terms respectively) in the minor premiss,and in the major premiss the term 'AJ is de excluded from 'B'; therefore,according to the 'dictum the diverse,3 C; and 'A' are excluded from each other, that is,
Cesare the C
'

conclusion

is

'

No

is A.'

In Baroko

the term

'

A;

is included

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM,

ETC.
'

275

and the term C is excluded some major premiss, B in the minor from according to the premiss ; therefore, excluded from each other, A are same dictum, Some C and C is not A.' The dictum de that is,the conclusion is Some and thus to Camestres and Festino, diverse is similarly applicable the valid from the invalid moods in the second distinguishes figure. Lambert enunciates the following For the third figure canon, in
*

'

in the
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

which contain
a

is called
a
common

'

Dictum

Exemplo': part,partlyagree, or
"

de

"Two if
one

terms term

which contains

part which the other does not, they partlydiffer." This is also
be easilyapplied to syllogismsin the may * the valid mood B ' is a Darapti of this figure also
a

and self-evident, third figure. In

part of 'A' in the major premiss,and

minor
' ' ' '

part of 'C' in the

' '

C have a common premiss,that is, A and part B ; therefore they partlyagree, that is,'Some C is A,' according de exemplo.3 In the mood to the first part of the 'dictum the term C contains B in the figure Felapton of the same minor to premiss,while B is not contained in A,'according the major premiss; therefore 'C' and 'A' partly that is, differ, C is not A,' according to the second part of the same Some dictum de exemplo is similarly The first part of the dictum. to the other affirmative moods, and the second part applicable moods to the other negative the valid ; and thus it distinguishes in the third figure. from the invalid moods Lambert For the fourth figure called 'Dictum givesa canon de Reciprocal which is stated as follows1 : If no M is B, no B is this or that M ; if C is or is not this or that B, there are B's
'
'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

"

"

which thus from

term
: a

are

or a

are

not

C."

But in
a

If

term

be included the in

it may second

be

more

stated clearly is excluded if first; which

a

term

which the

third,then
included in
a

third

is excluded

from second

be

(or excluded
a

from) a

term

is

included

then third,

part of the third is included in (or

Vol. Lectures,
iv.

Vide

Hansel's

Aldrich

(1849), p. 80; Hamilton's

372.

p. 441 ; and

Ueberweg'sLogic,p.

18"2

276
excluded mood

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM

from)

the

first. The

first

Camenes, while the second Bramantip, Dimaris, Fesapo,and

Both

part is applicableto the to the moods part is applicable

Fresison in the fourth

parts of the dictum

not

are

and requireno self-evident,

figure. expla
canon

nation. Lambert for each their

only

abolishes Eeduction, and

gives a

of the so-called

independenceof
that each

by showing
for and than
attract
a

but he also establishes imperfectfigures, the first figure and their equality with it, figureis by its nature especially adapted

kind of argument, and that we naturally think particular in one thoughts in certain cases figurerather express our in another. "For Some example, the proposition,
stones
a

iron,everyone
iron. of

will

admit, because

The

magnet

is

stone

and

attracts

This
one

is in syllogism

the third

figure. In
run

the
:
"

first, by conversion (A)

(I)
Some Some
we as are

of its premisses, it would

iron
...

thus

All magnets attract

stones stones
are

magnets
iron

...

(I) .*.
"

attract

...

(majorpremiss), (minorpremiss) ; (conclusion).

minor

Here

unaccustomed
we

to the

it appears order to

if out

must

have from
stone

all stones among is

a

while proposition, under review,in

On the far other
more

pick
the

magnets
a

them.

hand,
like

that

magnet is
A circle is This

which proposition
no -for

and naturally suggests itself,

manner:
"

demands square;
"

consideration.

In
"

no

the circle is round,

as

the square

not.

is proof (in the second figure)

"

follows,

when

cast

in the first :
What A

is not

round

is

no

circle,

square

is not

round,

Consequently,"c.
of a major propositionis converted by means terminus injinitus and its truth is manifested (i.e. contraposed), to us only through the consciousness that all circles are round. should we not hesitate, of this proposition, For, independently there being innumerable things which are not round, whether "Here the
"
"

the

circle

were

one

of those which

belongedto

this

category?

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

277 apparent that we each as propositions,

We
use

think not ; because every

we

are

aware.

It is thus the

where there, figure syllogistic

familiar and more The current. figurerequiresthem, are more difference of the figures not only on their form, rests,therefore, but extends itself, by relation to their employment, also to

things themselves,so
more

that

we

use

each

figurewhere

its

use

is

forfindingout or proving the Attributes ; the Second for finding out or proving the Difference of a thing proving Examples and of things ; the Third for finding out and Species of Exceptions ; the Fourth for finding out and excluding
natural: The First
a

Genus1." Mill has the lines following

on

Lambert

and

his work

"A

philosopher, Lambert, whose Neues Organon (published other things one in the year 1764) contains among of the most which have ever elaborate and complete expositions been made of has expressly the syllogistic examined which sorts of doctrine,
German into each of the four arguments fall most naturallyand suitably is characterized by great ingenuity figures ; and his investigation and clearness of thought. His conclusions are : The first figure of a thing; is suited to the discoveryor proof of the properties the second to the discoveryand proof of the distinction between
*

or proof of instances and excep things; the third to the discovery exclusion of the different or tions; the fourth to the discovery of a genus.' The reference of syllogismin the last three species de omni et nullo is, dictum in Lambert's opinion, to the figures
' '

strained
to

and
a

unnatural

; to

each

of the

three

belongs, according

him,

separateaxiom, co-ordinate and

and
to

with of equalauthority,

of 'dictum de gives the names de exemplo for the 3rd,and for the 2nd figure,dictum diverse de reciproco for the 4th Mr Bailey dictum 74) takes a similar (Theory of Reasoning, 2nd edition, pp. 70
that

dictum,
'

which

he

'

'

'

"

view

A subject2." and by Dr bishop Thomson of the

similar

view

is also taken

by

Arch

Martineau.

1 2

Hamilton's Mill's

Lectures, Vol.
i.

iv.

p. 439.

Logic, Vol.

pp. 194"5.

278 " 2. Thomsons the general canon

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM

law regardsthe following inference depends : as upon which all mediate The agreement or disagreement of one conceptionwith another inasmuch is ascertained by a third conception, this whollyor as by the same part agrees with both,or with only one, of the con
"

Canons.

Thomson

"

"

to ceptions

be

compared1."
modifies it thus
:
"

he For the first figure

"

The

agreement

or

and disagreementof a subject to the conception,predicate inasmuch with

one as

is ascertained predicate former and subject to the

same

by
the

third

this

wholly or by
the he figure

of only, the

conceptionsto

part agrees with be compared2."

it thus
a :
"

latter; both,or

For of two

second

modifies

"

The

agreement
the

conceptionsis ascertained by
as

third
as

which conception,

stands
same

to predicate with

both ; inasmuch with

one

this

whollyor by
the

part agrees
For the third

both, or

of only,

conceptions
agreement of
the

to be

compared2."
he figure modifies it thus
:
"

"

The

two

conceptionsis
as

ascertained

by

third
as

conception,which

stands
same

subject to both; inasmuch part agrees with both, or with one

this

wholly or by
the

only,of

conceptions

to be

compared2."
the and dismisses the recognizesonly three figures, what ground that,in the conclusion in that figure,

Thomson
on fourth, was

the the

was

the subject, and what in a premiss becomes predicate leading subjectin a premiss becomes the predicate.

says, is not the natural natural order is inverted. The

This, he

order,but
seen

that

order

wholly
in the

in

the

somewhat first,

distorted in the

second

and

third,and

wholly inverted

fourth,against which the mind rebels3. These specialcanons, well as the general law, are and do not as quite self-evident, applicableto the requireany explanation. They are directly and make Reduction in each figure, and syllogism unnecessary
^

superfluous.
1 2

Thomson's

Laws

of Thought (1864), p.
3

163.

Ibid. p. 175.

Ibid. pp. 177"8.

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

279

TVhately regards the 'dictum de Whatcly's Canons. omni the ultimately of all Rule or Maxim et nullo as supreme to all syllogisms, applicable reasoning ; but as this is not directly for all pure categorical two he gives the following canons syl third, logisms: (1) "If two terms agree with one and the same they agree with each other; (2)if one term agrees and another and the same with these two with one third, disagree disagrees and the first is for affirmative conclusions, each other1." The built the syl On these two canons second for negative. are

"

3.

"

'

"

"

rules logistic
to

or

cautions the

which purpose

are

to

be

observed

with

respect

whether those ascertaining observed or not2." been strictly Canons have By these rules and then in each figure, Whately determines the valid syllogisms further confirms those in the 2nd, 3rd,and 4th figures by Reduc the 'dictum de omni et nullo' is directly to which tion to the 1st, for syllogisms, of

applicable. Hamilton divides all categorical Canons. " 4. Hamilton's into Deductive and Inductive. The former are divided syllogisms again into Intensive or Extensive according as the reasoning is All extensive in the quantity of comprehension or of extension. "What are belongs to the* regulated by the canon syllogisms belongs to the speciesand individual ; what is repugnant genus and individual, or more to the genus is repugnant to the species what pertains to the higher class pertainsalso to the briefly,
"

lower3."

givesthe followingthree proximate rules by which a and fullyexpressed extensive categorical syllogismis regularly governed: (1) "It must have three and only three terms con three and only three propositions stituting ; (2)of the premisses, in quantity be definite, that the sumption or major premiss must and the subsumption or minor universal, premiss in quantity is, affirmative ; (3)the conclusion must correspondin quantitywith with the sumption4." the subsumption, and in quality
He then
"

1 3

Whately's Elements, 9th edn., p.

Hamilton's

54.

2 4

Ibid.

p. 54.

Lectures,Vol.

in.

p. 303.

Ibid. p. 305.

280

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM

in the first figure Accordingto Hamilton syllogisms only are and regularly while all syllogisms in the 2nd,3rd, expressed, fully and 4th figures and are imperfectlyexpressed. To irregularly the former the three rules are, therefore, applicable, directly while the latter must be regularly and fully expressed,or, in other

words, reduced
them.

to applicable

before the rules will be figure, rules for the 2nd, He, however, givesspecial first rules
are

to the

3rd,and 4th figures. These given in Part III. ch. in.

All intensive

the

same

as

those

we

have

"What are regulated by the canon syllogisms belongs to the predicate belongs also to the subject;what is repugnant to the subject1." repugnant to the predicate In his later

is

writings Hamilton

adopts

the

doctrine

of the

divides abolishes the fourth figure, of the predicate, quantification and (2)figured, and the categorical into (1)unfigured syllogisms
canons givesthe following :
"

I.

"

For

the

or unfigured syllogism,

that in which

the terms

relation of compared do not stand to each other in the reciprocal either both subjectand predicate, being in the same proposition, both predicates, the canon is : In so far as or subjects (possibly) either both agree, or two notions (notions proper, or individuals), the other does not, with a common third notion ; one agreeing, in so far, these two notions do or do not agree with each other." II.
are
"

For

the

in syllogism, figured

which

the terms

compared
to

subjectand severally

consequentlyin reference predicate,

in the is : What
counter
worse

each

other,containingand contained Intension and Extension,the canon subsists between subjectand predicate
common

wholes
relation terms and

of of
a

either of two

third

term, with which

one, at the two

is positively least, related,

terms

that relation subsists between Hamilton As then the

themselves2."

examplesof
1

for each of the three figures. gives a canon : unfiguredsyllogismhe givesthe following
"

Hamilton's
Ibid.

Lectures, p. 303.
iv.

Vol.

p.

357, and Discussions, pp. 653"5.

282

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM

two canons gives the following or fundamental of Syllogism or Eatiocination : principles (1) "A thing which co-exists with another thing, which other co-exists with a third thing, also co-exists with that third thing1."
s
"

" 6.

Mitt

Canons.

Mill

"

(2)
other third
"

thingwhich third thing does

co-existence of the
same

"

co-exists with
not

another
not

thing,with
with

which that

is co-exist,

co-existent

thing2."
The
meant

is," says Mill,

The of

"

that of of

being jointly being born

in mature of man,

attributes without

subject.

attribute

and teeth,

the attribute

having thirtyteeth
attributes
same man

age, are, in this sense,

both being co-existent,

of the
same

though
The

ex

vi termini

never

at the

time3."

and the principleof affirmative syllogisms, second of negativesyllogisms. Mill thus analyses affirmative an "All men are : /. all kings mortal,all kings are men; syllogism
"

first is the

are

mortal.

The

minor

premiss
in

asserts

that

the

attributes those

denoted fied

by kingshiponly exist
the word
are man.

conjunctionwith
asserts

signi

by

The

major

that the last-mentioned attribute of

attributes The

never

found

without

the

mortality.

the attributes of kingshipare that wherever is, found, that of mortalityis found also4." "If the major premiss," continues Mill, "were negative,as No men it would assert not that the attributes are omnipotent,' but that they never exist without, exist connoted by man never with those connoted by omnipotent : from which, togetherwith that the same the minor premiss,it is concluded, incompatibility conclusion
* ' ' ' '

exists between
a

the

attribute

king4."

That

is,the
be
as

omnipotenceand those constituting of a negative syllogism, when analysis

follows
:
"

would fullystated,

No

men

are

omnipotent, all

kings are
with those

men;

.*. no

kings are
of

asserts that

the attributes

omnipotent. The minor premiss kingship exist only in conjunction

The

signified by
Logic, Vol.
I.

'man.'

major

asserts

that

the last-

Mill's

p. 203.
4

Ibid, p. 204.

Ibid. p. 205.

Ibid. p. 203.

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

283

named
tent.'

attributes
The

never

exist with

those

connoted

by

omnipo
the

conclusion those

is,that the attributes of kingship never

exist with former For above

are

connoted

by
are

'

omnipotent/or
not

that wherever

found,the latter practical purposes,

a

found.
two
canons

Mill founded

gives the
upon

quoted
of

in

different form

the

of a the meaning of a proposition. The expressing mortal' is that the attribute con like 'All men are proposition noted by 'man5 exists only in conjunction with the attribute connoted by 'mortal'; that wherever humanity is found, mor talityis also found, that is, the presence of the attribute humanity is a sign or mark of the presence of the. attribute affirmative the meaning of an proposition 'mortality.'Hence the attri that purposes, be taken to be this, may, for practical
"

mode practical real meaning

'

'

'

bute

connoted the

negative proposition, that 'the attribute connoted by the subject is a mark of the For example, absence of the attribute connoted by the predicate.' that the attribute the proposition No are men perfect means In accord humanity is a mark of the absence of perfection.' of expressingthe meaning of propositions, with this mode ance axioms Mill gives the following two for practical or canons

by

by the subjectis a mark and the meaning predicate';

of the attribute of
a

connoted

'

'

'

'

'

purposes

:
"

(1) "Whatever the minor of,"when

proper
name

has

any

mark is
a

has, that

which

it is

mark
a

for its

premiss subject.
is
a

singularpropositionwith
mark is
a

(2)
which the

"Whatever this last is

a

mark

of any

mark

of that well
as

mark

when of,"

the minor

premiss as

major is universal.
For
"

example : If the attribute A is a mark of the attribute B, and if an objecthas the attribute A, it has also the attribute (A) has that (B) of B, that is,an object that has the mark Thus the meaning of the first syllogism, which it (A) is a mark. given above,would be as follows: The objects'kings'have the which is a mark therefore the of mortality,' mark humanity,' taking the term objects(kings)have the mark mortality ; or
" "

'

'

'

'

284
'

CANONS

OF

SYLLOGISM,

ETC.

the attributes of a king which are connotation, of humanity which is a mark of of mortalityare a mark a mark the last (mortality).The meaning of the second syllogism given

kings

'

also in its

above
are a

would mark

be thus of the of

expressed:
"

The

attributes which

of

king,which
a

attributes

of

humanity,
a

are

mark

of

the

absence

omnipotence, are
the

mark

of the

last

of (absence

omnipotence).
On this view
"

general formula
a a a

of

is syllogism

as

fol

lows

Attribute B is
Attribute
.

mark mark mark

of attribute of attribute of attribute

A,
B ; A.

C is C is

'. Attribute

Here
two

correspondsto
be
true

the

middle the

term, and A and

terms.

C to the
first state
or

extremes, the major and

must

minor the

The

ment

in all cases, and

second in all
all
or

in

some

cases, and

the conclusion

in accordingly thus
a

in

some

cases.

Barbara
1.

and

Darii
cases

are

: expressed

In all In all

B is

mark

of A, C is C is
a a

".

In all

(orin some) cases (or in some) cases

mark mark

of B ; of A.

Celarent and
2.
In In
.

Ferio,thus
cases cases

all all

is

mark
some

of the absence

of

A,
of B ; of A.

(orin
(orin

cases)C is

mark

".

In all cases

some

C is a mark cases)

of the absence

Mill givescanons
can

for the first figure as only, considers universal

"

the other

figures

and be reduced to that, easily the of the first figureas forms the one ratiocination, and the affirmative,
"

the two

elementary
proved is though

types
to

of all correct

when other

the when

conclusion it is

be

negative,even

certain

arguments may have a tendencyto clothe themselves in the form of the 2nd, 3rd,and 4th figures ; which, however,cannot happen with the only class of arguments which are of possibly
first-rate sal

importance,those in which the conclusion is an univer of proofin the such conclusions beingsusceptible affirmative,

firstfigure alone."

DILEMMA

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

285

B.

"

THE

DILEMMA the

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.
"a

Wkately1 defines
logism with
minor." Mansel2 ditional defines several

true

Dilemma in the

as

conditional
and
a

syl

antecedents

major

disjunctive
a con

the Dilemma
more

as

"a

having syllogism,
one

major premiss, with minor." disjunctive

Both I.

than

antecedent

and

Whately
Simple
But
.-.

and

Mansel

forms give the following

"

:
"

Constructive

If A is B, C is D ; and either A is B,
or

if E

is

F, C is D,

is F ;

C is D.

II.

Complex
If A is
But
.-.

Constructive
D
; and
or

"

B, C is
C is

if E

is

F, G is H,

either A is B,

is F ;

Either

D,

or

is H.

III.

Destructive
If A But

complex) (always
"

is B, C is D ; and either C is not A is not

if E
or

is

F, G
F.

is H
;

H,

D,
or

is not

.".

Either

B,

is not

forms among others on the Whately excludes the following ground that they hardly differ from simple conditional (thatis : Syllogisms" Hypothetical-categorical)
"
"

(1)
.".

If A

is B, C is neither B.

D,

is
nor

F, and G is H,
E

But
A

C is

D,

is

F,

nor

is

H,

is not

(2)

If A

is B, C is D,

If A is But
.*. A

E,

is H,
C is B
nor

neither

D,

nor

is

H,

is neither

E.
2

Elements, p. 72.

Mansel's

Aldrich,1849, p. 93.

286

DILEMMA

ACCORDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

(3)

If A is But

B, C is D and also D,
or

E E

is

F, F,

either C is not B.

is not

.*. A

is not

"The another of the

Dilemma form
as a

is sometimes conditional
is

exhibited," says
which the whole E is

Mansel, "in
consequent
in the denied G is A

in syllogism

the

major premiss
*
"

and disjunctive, is

minor,
neither This

e.g. C is is

If A

is

B,
E

either C is

D,

or

F,

or

H;

but B.'

D,

nor

F, nor

is H ; therefore

is not

given by Wallis1 as well as by Wolf and Kant. But it is a perversion of the Dilemma proper, and introduces no distinction whatever, being merely a common disjunctive syl logism,as is shown by Wallis himself."
form

ProfessorFowler*

defines

the

Dilemma

as

"a

complex syl

logismof
the other Mansel

which
a

and

namely, that
as single

and (hypothetical), premiss is a conjunctive proposition." He follows in the main disjunctive them from Whately, differing only in one point, the antecedent of the conjunctivepremiss may be
one as

well
If A But

double.

Thus
and
E
or

"

is B, C is D

is E

F,
is not F ;

either C is not B.

D,

.*.

A is not

Here Three

the antecedent other forms

is

single.
as

given by Professor Fowler are the same and Whately. those given by Mansel Jevons follows Whately and Mansel, and adopts Professor
their forms.

all

Thomson3

defines

the

Dilemma

as

"

with syllogism
or

con

ditional premiss,in which

either the antecedent

consequent is

He givesthe following forms disjunctive."

of it :

(1)
.-.

If A But

is B

or

is

F, then C is D,
or

either A is B

is F ;

C is D.
1
2 3

Wallis's
Deductive

Lib.,in.
Laws

cap. 19.

Logic, 6th ed.,pp. 116"119. of Thought,

pp. 203"5.

Thomson's

DILEMMA

ACCOKDING

TO

LOGICIANS.

287

(2)
.".

If A

is

B, then C is D
C is D
nor

or

is

F,

But

neither B.

is F ;

A is not If
some

(3)

A is
are

B, either the M that

that

are

A,

or

the N

that

are

A,
But
.".

B,
the M
are

neither B.

A, nor

the N

that

are

A,

are

B ;

A is not

Hamilton^-.

"

"If
once

syllogismbe

at

the major premiss) of a sumption (i.e. and disjunctive, and if in the hypothetical

the

as a conse subsumption (minor premiss) the whole disjunction, in order to sublate the antece e. denied), quent, be sublated (i. dent in the conclusion ; such a reasoningis called an Hypotketicoor syllogism, disjunctive is the following :
"

Dilemma.

The

form

of this

syllogism

"

If A But

then either exist, neither

B
nor

or

C exists ;

C exists ;

/.

A does not

exist."
a

"

In

the be

of sifting

proposed dilemma,
"

the
a

following points
veritable
conse

should quence

examined: carefully between the

(1) Whether
and

subsists

antecedent

consequent of the

the opposition in the consequent is sumption; (2) whether thorough-going and valid; and (3) whether in the subsumption the disjunctivemembers sublated. For the are legitimately

example of : following
"

dilemma

which

violates

these

take conditions,

the

If virtue
or

were

habit worth
or

it must acquiring,

insure either power,

wealth, or honour
But

pleasure;
of these ;
a

virtue insures

none

Therefore,virtue is
Here:" may

not

habit worth

attaining.
a

(1) The

inference

in

general is invalid;for
it does
not
secure

thing

be worth

acquiring though
(2) The
which

any

of those

advantages enumerated. there are other goods

1

is incomplete; for disjunction virtue insures, though it may not

in.

Hamilton's

Vol. Lectures,

p. 350.

288

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

insure those here

for virtue has

opposed. (3) The

subsumption is also vicious ;

very

obtained for its possessors the frequently Vol. III. pp. 352"3. advantageshere denied.*" Hamilton,

C.

"

NOTE

ON

MIXED
AS

SYLLOGISMS IMMEDIATE

REGARDED

BY

SOME

LOGICIANS

INFERENCES.

Hamilton

in his later

and Hypothetical

writingsregards Mixed Syllogisms (the Disjunctive Syllogisms, as "c., of Logicians)

a

Immediate
He whether and
ence.

Inferences.
:
"
"

says the

It has been

matter

class which

I call

disputeamong logicians, the Hypothetical (viz. explicative

or

of

be Disjunctive Syllogisms) The

of Mediate

Immediate

Infer

hold them to be mediate; a small majority of Kant minority,of which I recollect only the names [Fisher, hold them to be immediate. The Weiss, Bouterwek, Herbart], inference is dispute is solved by a distinction. Categorical

immense

mediate,the
cal and clusion

medium

of conclusion

Disjunctive Syllogismsare
"

being a term; the Hypotheti of con mediate,the medium

that which I call the Explication. being a proposition, So far they both agree in being mediate,but they differ in four that the medium of the Comparativesyllogism points. The first, is
a a term; of the Explicative, proposition. The

second,that

the medium than

one.

of the The

Comparativeis one

; of the

more Explicative,

is third,that in the Comparative the medium it varies according to the always the same; in the Explicative, various The conclusion. fourth,that in the Comparative the medium enters the conclusion ; whereas,in the Explicative, never conclusion1/'' medium the same is reciprocally or proposition and Disjunctive Syllogisms) Again, (1) They (Hypothetical but more not composite by contrast to the regularsyllogism, are simple; (2) if inferences at all,they are immediate and not
"

Lectures,Vol.

iv.

p. 378.

290
"The forms
:
"

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

DisjunctiveProposition may
"

appear

in the

following

I.
II.

is either
B
or

or

C.

Either Either
a
a

exists.
or

HI.
" '

is
or

B,
a

is D.
c

He

is either
if not
a

fool

means rogue,' a

If not

a
'

he fool, Not

is

rogue, and he fool,

are

rogue, he is
*

fool.'

Otherwise,
a

beinga

is

and rogue,'

not

beinga

rogue, he is

fool.' These

equivalentforms ; and the supposed reasoning consists one according to the facts of the alternative, merely in electing the alternative The datum we use case. being, he is not a fool,' 'he is a rogue,' and so on1."
'

all

"The

Dilemma

combines antecedent what

conditional
a

and

disjunctive
disjunc

proposition. If the tive,there emerges

Dilemma.
therefore the
more

of

conditional

is made

Jf either A
C is."
usual "The
"

type :

Whately calls a simple Constructive B is,C is; now, either A or B is; or gives consequent being made disjunctive, If A is, either B or C is. If the barometer
wind the
or or

there will be either falls, be made, bringing out may

rain.

Various

suppositions
Thus
:
"

alternatives. possible

(1) (2)

A is ;

then, B

C is.

C is not ;

B is. then, if A is,

(3) (4)
(5)

C is ; then, if A
B

is,B is

not.

is ; then, if A

is,C is not.
is.

B is not ; B is not

then, if A is,C
C is not ;

(6)
"

and

then, A is not.
which is :
"

This

last

(6)is

the true dilemma

is Destructive" If B A A is, is ; and if C

"Another A is, is.

form

of

simpledilemma
or

Now,
Mixed

either B

C is.

Whence

is2."
and
not
:
"

That

Syllogismsare
from the

mediate

inferences

imme

will diate, I. the The

two

be evident
a

considerations following
are

In

mixed

there syllogism the

three propositions^ namely,

" "

premisses and
does not

conclusion, as
one

in

pure

syllogism.
but from

conclusion
1

follow from

premissalone
2

Bain's

Deduction, 2nd ed.,p. 119.

Ibid. p. 121.

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

291

syllogism, together. In a hypothetical-categorical the for example,the major premiss is a hypothetical proposition, minor premiss a categorical one, and the conclusion also a cate B is; A is; therefore B is;" here the major "If A is, gorical: the of the existence of B on premiss expresses the dependence, of two propositions existence of A, and is not a combination as maintained by some logicians.The minor premiss erroneously that A exists. It is 'A is' is a categorical affirming proposition, of the major premiss,which the antecedent not the same as idea, thought,or simple apprehensionof the expresses the mere with a subjectand a predi It is a proposition existence of A. of the major premiss is merely a cate, while the antecedent The two can not be regardedas identical, term. many- worded unless a term and a proposition identical. The conclusion are *B is; is likewise not the same the consequent of the major as that B exists, proposition affirming premiss. It is a categorical while the consequent is a many-worded term, expressingthe mere idea,thought, or simple apprehension of the existence
the two taken of B. The exists.

major premiss does

Its antecedent and

not

affirm that A
are

exists
two

or

that B

consequent

not

categorical

but two many-worded terms. It expresses propositions, only the relation of dependence of the consequent on the antecedent, and says nothing as to the real existence of either. It laysdown A is, the generalrule that wherever B is, that the existence of of the existence of A. B accompanies every case The minor premiss A is asserts that this is a case of the existence of A.
"

'

Whence

it is inferred that

there is

case

of the existence

accompanying this case of the existence of A, or, in other that B is (conclusion). The minor premiss may be taken as a hypothetical proposi with 'this case3 for its understood tion, antecedent;thus, "if A is." From this case is, this and the original hypothetical major follows the that "if this B case premiss conclusion, is, is," or, in other words, that 'B is' (conclusion), taken as a hypothetical understood with this case for its antecedent. proposition
' ' * '

B, words,

of

19"2

292

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

In the destructive form

is

"

If A

B is ; is,

is not ; therefore A
minor in the
are

and the not,"the major premiss is hypothetical, and the conclusion are categorical as propositions
tive form. the minor The

premiss
construc

differences between

the

two

forms

(1) that

premiss and the conclusion are affirmative in the con structive form, and negative in the destructive, and (2)that the minor premiss of the one and the conclusion of the other have the same but differ in quality. Thus subjectand predicate, (1)
'A is' and 'B is' are the minor propositions in the constructive premiss and the conclusion, respectively, 'B is not' and 'A is form, and the two negative propositions not the minor in are premiss and the conclusion, respectively, the destructive form. (2) 'A is' is the minor premiss in the constructive form, and A is not is the conclusion in the destruc tive form; in the former 'B is' is the conclusion, and in the latter 'B is not' is the minor premiss. The conclusion of the has the same and predicate the minor premiss of one as subject the other. From this fact has probably arisen the mistaken notion that in these syllogisms the minor premiss and the con clusion indifferently Hamilton V The change places says : that in the Comparative the medium the enters never fourth, in the Explicative conclusion; whereas (i.e. syl hypothetical medium or "c.) the same propositionis reciprocally logisms, is not the same. conclusion." Its subject Now, the proposition and predicate only are the same, but its quality is different. The minor premiss of the one, and the conclusion of the other, not be regarded as the same, unless an affirmative and a can negativeproposition, are having the same subjectand predicate, unless A and E, A and O, E and I, I and 0, are the same, identical. With equal justicemight the conclusion in one, and the minor premiss in the other, of the two forms,namely, affirtwo
' ' ' ' "
"

the

affirmative

This

point
it to be from
a

is

(Hind for 1877, p.

consider is evident
on

differently interpretedby Professor Eobertson 264) and Mr Keynes (Formal Logic, p. 234). They
which, I think, Hamilton
him and
is

blunder, from

free,as
book

the

examples given by

quoted in this

page

289.

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

293

mative

and

of negative, identical
1.
:
"

the

be syllogisms, followingcategorical

regarded as

: Categoricals Affirmative
"

(1)
.V

All
All

men

are are are

mortal,
men,

(2)
.'.

All

men

are

mortal,
are

kings kings

Some Some

kings

men,

All

mortal. 2.

kings are
"

mortal.

: Negative Categoricals

(1) All
All
.*.

men

are
are

mortal,
not not

(2)

All No

men

are are

mortal,
mortal,
men.

kings kings

mortal,
men.

kings

All

are

.'. No

kings are

1.

CorrespondingConstructive
If all

: Hypothetical-categoricals
"

(1)

kings
are

are

men,

all

(2)

If

some

kings are
are

men,

some

kings
All
.*. All

mortal;
men;

kings
Some
.*.

mortal;
men;

kings are

kings are
kings
are

kings are

mortal.
Destructive men,

Some

mortal.

2.

Corresponding
If
all

Hypothetical-categoricals:
"

(1)

kings
are

are

all

(2)

If

some

kingsare
are

men,

some

kings
All
.*. All

kings are kings

are

mortal; not mortal,

not
men.

kings are mortal;

No
.*.

kings kings

mortal,
men.

No

are

The the

minor

premiss in

one

and

the

conclusion

in the

other of

and negative Categoricals have the same subject affirmative and stand to each other in the same relation in and predicate, which the minor premiss in one and the conclusion in the other of the constructive and destructive hypothetical-categoricals stand But who would maintain that in those categorical to each other. "the minor and the conclusion syllogisms, change indifferently that the is medium or same places," or proposition reciprocally
"

conclusion"?
II. In
a

mixed In the

syllogismthere

are

three terms

as

in

pure
a

syllogism.
many-

worded

example taken above, the consequent as term, is the major term, the antecedent as a many*

worded

term, is the middle term, and

this case'

or

the

case

in

294

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

is the minor question' understood^ the mixed syllogism is reduced to

: (i) Categorical

term. the pure

This form

will be
:
"

if evident,

Every
case

case

of the existence of A is

case

of the existence

of B ; the

in
case

the

is a case of the existence of A: therefore question (orthis case) in question (orthis case)is a case of the existence of B.

Here

the

three

terms

are

"

(1)

case

of of A

the

existence

of

(major term), (2) case (3) the

middle lated ;
"

of the existence

case

in

term

that

question or this case to which (1) and (3),the two is, a relation between (1) and
of them
to
a

(middleterm), and (minor term). (2) is the

extremes,
are re

(3) is

established
as

from

relation of each
case

third

(2) or middle term,

in the

of

categorical syllogism.

: (ii) Hypothetical

If A

is,B is; if this

is
a

case

is,A is : therefore if this

case

is,B is.

Here the in Barbara. hypothetical syllogism middle is the antecedent and con term in the major premiss, sequent in the minor, as it should be in that mood. From this it is evident,that the objection that a mixed syl logism has no middle term, and consists of two terms only,is unfounded. It has arisen from a entirely misunderstanding of pure

This

the true
been

hypotheticalmajor premiss,which has erroneously regarded as consistingof two propositions

nature

of the

instead middle worded

of two term
term.

many-

worded

terms.

It is also evident
a

that the
a

is not, as

Hamilton

says,

but proposition,

many-

III.
.-.

If A

AisB,

CisD;
C is D.

being B,
a

regardedas an syllogism immediate inference is stated ; and it is argued that the con clusion follows immediately from tha-t no the premiss, and minor that a be shown premiss is necessary. Now, it can likewise be stated in the above form ; categorical syllogism may

This

is the form

in which

mixed

NOTE

ON

MIXED

SYLLOGISMS.

295

and
ence

should
?

it, therefore, be

regarded

as

an

immediate

infer

All
.-.

men

are

mortal,
men,
are

All

kings, being

mortal.

Here is evident
ment
are

also that

the the

conclusion conclusion

follows is but the

from
a

the
or

premiss.
abridged
*

But
state

it

short minor

of two

propositions, namely,
and the

premiss,
are

all

kings
Some

men,'

conclusion,

'all

kings
that
even

mortal.' in the

logicians indeed syllogism, the

follows from

actually
minor

maintained

categorical
conclusion
cate
con

premiss

is unnecessary, Thus

that would

the

the

major
as

premiss.
and

they

regard
But follow from of A

gorical syllogisms sequently

have the
seen as

consisting
not

of two
as

propositions only, and

inferences. does
not

immediate 257
"

mediate

we

(pp.

8)

that
nor

the from

conclusion the minor And The

from the

major premiss alone,

and the
as

alone, but
this is true
'

major
C

minor well
as

taken of
a

jointly.

mixed

syllogisms
is

categoricals.
short minor
or

conclusion
statement

being B,
two

D,'

is

merely

abridged premiss
'A

of and

pro
con

positions, namely,
clusion Here He he the
sees no
'

the

is

B,J

the

is D.3 be noticed
an

may real
a

objection raised syllogisms.

contained

by

Professor

Bain.

inference

in mixed that is not This

nature

By
or

real inference

means

proposition
or

in,

implied by,
on a

premiss

premisses.
of the
to
a

objection
of

is founded

mis It is

understanding

true

deductive

inference. In these also which

equally applicable
conclusion contained is
not
or

categorical syllogisms.
real

the is dis

inference, but
the said
two

proposition

in,
about in

implied by,
it may be

premisses.
the

Without

puting
and

words,
mixed

that

inference and

is mediate real in
cate

real

syllogisms,if

it is mediate

goricals.

296

NOTE

ON

REDUCTION

OF

INDUCTIVE

D."

NOTE

ON

THE TO THE

REDUCTION

OF

INDUCTIVE FORM.

REASONING

SYLLOGISTIC

of Inductive principles Reasoning (what and nature) are be their origin the two Laws of Causation ever The first law includes the two and Uniformity of Nature. propositions (1) every phenomenon has a cause, and (2) the of a phenomenon is the invariable, cause or, as Mill says, the invariable antecedent of the phenomenon. The unconditionally second law means that (3) the same antecedent cause or will, under the same effect. All circumstances,produce the same inductive in accordance reasoningsare conducted either directly
"

The

fundamental

with them.

one

or

other

of these

laws the

or

with

laws

that

follow

from

propositionof the first law follow such laws as the following given by Professor Bain1 : to the (4) whatever antecedent can be left out,without prejudice be no can (5) when an antecedent effect, part of the cause ; be left the consequent disappearing, such not out without can antecedent be 'the cause must or a part of the cause;3 (6) 'an antecedent and a consequent rising and fallingtogether in
' ' *

For

-example,from

second

numerical also the

concomitance
*

are

to

be

held

as

cause

and

if two or more instances of : (7) following under investigation have only one circumstance in common, non of the phenomenon ; is the cause that circumstance (or effect) (8) if an instance where a phenomenon occurs, and an instance
'

and effect,' a phenome

'

where

it does

not
one

occur,

have

every

circumstance

in

common

except one, present in part of the

1 2

that the

occurringonly in
absent

the first; the circumstance

first and of the

in the

second,is the

cause,

or

cause,

given phenomenon'2.
ed.,pp. 47, 48, 57.
and (4),(5),(6), (7), be shown of
as

Bain's That the

Induction, 2nd
the

from

marked propositions marked proposition (2)can

converse
"

(8) follow
then

follows

"

(4) is the
convert

of the the
cause
"

obverse
of
a

(2). Obvert
is not of

and (2),

the obverse ; of the

phenomenon

the variable which

antecedent

phenomenon

[E, obverse

That (2)].(4)

298
.'.

NOTE

ON

REDUCTION

OF

INDUCTIVE

That

circumstance

is the

cause

of the

phenomenon
of
a

(theconclusion). Or, the syllogism may

as

be stated

in the form

categorical
of

follows The

"

invariable antecedent

of

phenomenon
of the

is the

cause

the

phenomenon (major premiss).

A is the invariable antecedent

phenomenon

(minor

premiss).
.'.

is the

cause

of the

phenomenon
ABC BC

(theconclusion).
b
c

(2)

The

antecedents

produce a
"

be,

.'.

The

antecedent

is the

cause

the

phenomenon a according to the marked one (8)above, and called the Canon be Difference. This inductive reasoningmay
"

of part of the cause principle also a derivative

or a
"

of the

Method

of
to

likewise reduced

the

form syllogistic If
an

as

follows
a

"

instance
not

where
occur,
one

phenomenon
have every

occurs,

and

an

instance
common

where

it does
one,

circumstance in the

in

except
stance
or a

that

occurring only
absent of the
a

first ; the

circum

presentin
instance instance in A B

the first and

in the second is the cause,

part of the
An
an

cause,

given phenomenon (major premiss). be, where the phenomenon a occurs,

where it does not occur, have that
one

and

C
common

be,

every
oc

circumstance

curringonly in
in the second

the

except one, namely, A, first (minor premiss).

A
a
or

Therefore,the circumstance
is the cause,
a

presentin part of the

the first and cause, of the

absent

given

phenomenon
Or, as
When

(conclusion).
:
"

follows
an

antecedent

can

not

be

left out without

the

con or a

be the cause, must such antecedent sequent disappearing, part of the cause, of the consequent (majorpremiss). The
a

antecedent

can

not

be left out without

the

consequent

(minor premiss). disappearing

REASONING

TO

SYLLOGISTIC must

FORM.

299
or a

Therefore

the

antecedent. A

be the

cause,

part of
to

the cause,

of the

consequent
inductive

a.

other Similarly, form. syllogistic Let

us

reasoningsmay example
the

be

reduced

the

take

as

concrete

first of

one

we

have

"givenin 123):"

the

chapter on
Air

the

Different

Kinds

Reasoning (page

expands by heat, "Water expands by heat, Mercury expands by heat, Copper expands by heat,
"c.
.'.

"c.

All material

bodies

expand by heat1.
are

Here

the

antecedent

circumstances

the

material

bodies

bodies plus heat, and the consequents or effects are the same plus the phenomenon of expansion. All the antecedents agree of being heated material bodies ; and, there in the circumstance

fore, according to
circumstance in is, of the

the
cause

Canon

of the

Method

of

is the

of the

phenomenon

Agreement, this of expansion,that

antecedent More

heat given instances,

being the

invariable

expansionis
and is
a

the. cause
the

of this

phenomenon.

accurately,
"

the different

steps of

(1) Air
bodies the

other bodies

argument may be stated as follows : expand by heat,the expansion of these

therefore has it has
a a

phenomenon;
of this

cause,

according to
invariable

principle 'everyphenomenon

cause;' (2)the

antecedent shown

by the namely, 'the invariable antecedent of a phenomenon is the ciple, of the phenomenon,' the application cause of heat to material bodies is the cause of the expansion in the given instances ; and antecedent (3) according to the principle, or namely, 'the same under 'the same cause will, circumstances, produce the same it may be inferred that the application of heat to other effect,'
1

phenomenon is the applicationof heat, as given instances ; therefore, accordingto the prin

This 75.

is proposition But

not

page

that does not

See an exception on true. universally affect the line of reasoningadopted here.

300
material

NOTE

ON

EEDUCTION

OF

INDUCTIVE

as bodies,

well other

as

to

the

same

expansion ;
heat. The

or, in

words,
has
a

all

will produce future, material bodies expand by

in

different

steps may
a

be thus

stated

: syllogistically
"

(1) Every phenomenon

other bodies

cause, the

expansion of
it has
a

air and
cause. cause

by

heat is

phenomenon
of

; therefore
a

(2)
of the

The

invariable antecedent

phenomenon
is the in

is the

phenomenon, the applicationof heat antecedent of the phenomenon of expansion

stances
; therefore

invariable

the
cause

given

in

phenomenon
(3)
The

of
same

applicationof heat is the expansion in the given instances.

antecedent
or cause

the

of the

under the same cir will, effect or consequent, that is, if a cumstances, produce the same certain antecedent under certain circumstances, a certain produces, under the same consequent, then it will, circumstances, produce the same of consequent; the antecedent, namely, the application heat to material under the circumstances of there being bodies, no counteractingagencies, produces the consequent,namely, the expansion of those bodies ; therefore the same namely, antecedent, the application of heat to material cir under the same bodies, of there being no counteracting cumstances will produce agencies, the same consequent, namely, the expansion of those material
"

bodies. like mathematical reasonings, (seep. 123), be reduced to the syllogistic form : usuallytheir conformity may to an axiom, principle, law, canon, or rule recognizedas true is consti even as regarded as a sufficient proof of their validity, itself ; but in all cases where they are valid, tuting their validity form. In they are capable of being reduced to the syllogistic of causation Physics, for example, conformity to the principles and rules derived and of uniformityof nature, or to the canons of the reason the validity from them, is regarded as constituting Thus
or ings; but we have seen that,taking the principles and the data as minor, we as major premisses, can,

all inductive

the

canons

in all cases,
as

construct

which syllogisms

have

the

same

conclusions of the

the the

reasoningsthemselves ; and the best of their reasoningsis the possibility

test

of validity

reduction

to the

syllogistic

REASONING

TO

SYLLOGISTIC

FORM.

301

form
this

any

weakness

in

the

argument

is

sure

to

come

to

light by

process.

To data
"

see

clearly

what

premisses
and facts
a
"

have
the

been

assumed,

or,

on

what

both

principles
to

conclusion
or a

ultimately
of of

rests,
to

it the

is

necessary

reduce In

reasoning
form every should be
or

train

reasoning
the

syllogistic
be

form. exhibited laid

this and and

every

step

argument
to

will the

clearly

proposition
there
to

required
any
error

prove in the

conclusion of
or

bare,
it

be

process canons, there universal assumed

nor can

reasoning,
rules any of

will

brought

light by

the Of data

axioms,
course,
"

Deductive
or

Syllogistic Logic.
in the fact

if any

be

falsity
or

fallacy

ultimate
has been

if

principle
"

any be

particular

unwarrantedly
canons or

it it be

can

not

detected

by
canons

those and For

axioms,
rules the

rules
as

detected British
must

by

the

of

any

Logic,

understood ultimate

by
appeal
and for

Logicians.
be made
to

particular fact,
external is made
or

the in
to

observation,
the

ternal;
the and

the

universal

principle
that
or

appeal

(1)

Experience
Generalisation
to

of the

Individual,

is, to Repeated Experiential Knowledge by

and
;
or

Experience Theory);
the Eeason of Ex Ex be
;
or

(the Empirical
that

(2) (the
the

Intuition,

is, to
;
or

Immediate
or

Intuitional Mind of

Theory)

(3)
Kantian

to

the

Forms

Categories (4)
to

(the A-priori
the

Theory)
Inherited The
to

the and
can

perience perience
decided and and the

Race,

that

is,

to

Tendencies first

(the Evolutional

Theory).
science science and

question
the fact

only by
second of

the

special

which which which

belongs

question
universal the

by

the

treats has

of the been

origin

nature

principles,
Science "c.
of

variously
Science

called of the

Metaphysics,
most

First

Principles, the

General

Laws,

302

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

E.

"

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

OF

OBJECTIVE

LOGIC.

and the thingsignified are ObjectiveLogic,' by it, I intend,therefore, to give here extracts comparatively new. from the writingsof Logicianswith a view to indicate the nature

The

name

and

of province

the

thingas
View,

conceived

by

them.

"

1.

Hamilton's

"The scientific the forms

doctrine...which

procedureshould
of

expounds the be governed, in

laws
so

by
as

which

our

far

these lie in

thought, or in the conditions of the mind itself, which is the subjectin which knowledge inheres, this Science be called formal, or Subjective, or or Pure Abstract, Logic. may which The Science,again, expounds the laws by which our scientific procedureshould be governed,in so far as these lie in the contents, materials, about which or Knowledge is objects, or or conversant, this Science may be called Material, Objective,
" "

or Concrete, Applied Logic1."

" 2.
In
occurs

Mill's View. Mill's

writingsthe
the

name

if Logic'rarely, 'objective

ever,

He defines thingis to be found in abundance. in his Examination and treats of the thing of Hamilton's Philo and expounds and criticises sophy and also in his System ofLogic, There is, doctrines from that point of view. however, a logical
; but

difference between
and the

the

thing as
of in

conceived the

in the In

Examination,
the former he

thing as

treated

Logic.

speaks of concepts, judgments, and reasonings,and requires be right or true, that is,that they should that they should fact or reality. In the latter he treats of phe agree with
nomena

instance,stand for for relations of things; and arguments are things; propositions about the relations of those relations. In the Logiche givesup
or

facts

themselves:

names,

for

Hamilton's

Lectures, Vol.

iv.

p. 231.

OF

OBJECTIVE

LOGIC.

303
theories of
not

concepts and judgments,and

which tion,
or are

condemns ideas of

the

founded

upon

and things,

predica upon things

of

phenomena

themselves.

The

treats therefore, Logic,

things
he

and

their relations ; and

it is from the

this

point

of view

that

finds the Inference Mill's

guiltyof Syllogism
as no

and principii, petitio

Immediate

inference

at all.

conceptionof Logic has

the first

thus

two

phases :

"

(1) (2)
or

In

judgments,and cepts,
In the second

phase Logic is conceived to treat of with things. reasoningsas agreeing phase,Logic is conceived
to treat of

con

things

and of their relations and correlations. phenomena themselves, to occupy an seems Among English Logicians Mill,in fact, such intermediate Subjective Logicians as position between Hamilton and and

Mansel, and

such

Logiciansas Spencer Objective

Lewes1.

" 3.
"A abstract

Spencers View.
distinction exists
not

nature, is

Logic and an account of that Logic formulates in brief, tion is, this,

which, in consequence between easilyperceived, the process of Keasoning

the most

of its

highly
of distinc

the science The

generallaws existences considered as objective; while an of correlation among the most of the process of Eeasoning,formulates account general correspondingto those exist The certain con ences. one contemplates in its propositions, involved with certain nexions predicated, which are necessarily other connexions exist as given ; regardingall these connexions ing in the nonego not, it may be, under the form in which wre
laws of correlation
among

the ideas

"

On

the difference

between

Formal

Logic (Hamilton's view)and Venn,

of the and

Material

Logic

Logic (the first phase of Mill's view of Logic), see of some of Chance, 2nd ed. chapter x., "Discussion
as

Views Principal

to

the Nature

and

Province

of

Logic,Material

Conceptualist." On
dicated distinction of

the difference between

the two

in phases, briefly

above, of Mill's conception of Logic,

compare

Ueberweg's

Logic and Metaphysics. See Logic, "" 1, 2, 3, 8.

304
know
cess

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

them,

but in

some

form.
these

The

other

the contemplates
of connexion
come

pro
to

in the ego

by

which

necessities

be

recognised. "Why
this
see.

distinction
the with

has
one

eluded

it observation, the

is not

difficultto

ing
terms to
so

on

the are,
some as

Logic on other, deal

far
as

hand, and
from

theoryof

Reason

relations

which

all concrete

use

terms

they may the relations dealt or even attribute, action, relation) ; otherwise with can not be expressed, from one another. or distinguished
But

that

expelled.They are severally obliged possible, (which,however, are by preference symbolic, indifferently express any kind of existence,

ignore they intentionally

themselves abstract with the relations. The

the

natures

of

the

terms, and

occupy most

most

of these general dependencies result is that, in the absence

to the outer

of terms
or

either as specified belonging definitely

world

the one relations, belonging and the other to the inner world,become to the outer world in there arises this confusion between Logic, Hence distinguishable. division of the science of objective which is as much existence a as Mathematics, and the theoryof Reasoning,which is a division
two

to the inner

world,the

sets of

of

Science. subjective
"

To

show

that the affirmations

as

of

Logicrefer to
our

the connexions

among and of
not

things considered
to the correlative

existing apart from

among the
our case

consciousness,

connexions but
to take

correlative states of

we consciousness, as

need

tions I

in quantified, numerically condensed

statements not

the

system of

logical proposi Prof, de Morgan.

; for

quote Mr Mill's de Morgan's own

that symbols, I
can

statement
are so

of the doctrine with

Prof,

encumbered
one

details and
once

find in his work

that is at

brief

and adequate.
"'From it may
two

the

premises
with

most

B's

are

C's,most

B's

are

A's,

be concluded

portionsof the class in part consist of the same individuals. half,must necessarily out this line of thought,it is equallyevident that if we Following what proportion the knew exactly most' in each of the premises
'

A's are C's, that some since certainty than B, each of them comprising more

306
of the necessary

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

correlations are statical, while all the objective correlations are dynamical; and only in so necessary subjective be so arranged as to symbolize far as dynamicalcorrelations may statical correlations, the necessary dependencies of Reason be can the necessary dependenciesof Logic1". made to parallel

See,then,the inevitable implication.No one questions the fact that while I was arith using these marbles to exemplify metical truths and geometrical and truths,I was contemplating, ective correlations. Can it be that when was teaching, necessary obj
"

I used among I

these groups

same

marbles

and

necessities of correlation exemplify sub-groups, distinguished by certain marks, to

necessities to the region of passedfrom the regionof objective I think,have the hardihood necessities? No one will, subjective
to assert
as

much.

There

is

no

choice

but to leave these

most

laws general with the

or

of correlation of numerical

which

laws

outside along Logic formulates, correlation and geometricalcorre into the mind laws
as

lation ;
rjo

else, bringingthem
them
sense,

laws laws

of of

to bringwith

these

mathematical
other

as

thought, thought

in ^ j|
; to

the
merge

same

and, by

steps equallyunavoidable,
thus

I the

facts: facts in subjective objective and object2 ". distinction between subject
all
Mr Carveth

abolishing

/
v

view of Logic, with these adoptsSpencer's that Logic "may the two first, qualifications, very well consider and second, that Logic deals correlation of ideas among themselves," Vol. On See n. some Mind, Principles only with laws of phenomena." Mr Critical of Bead's Notice For 336. a of Logic," p. "Theory of Dr Vol. 539. See also see in. Mind, Venn, p. Logic : an Essay,"by " 'Matter-of-fact' on Logic,"by Mr J. N. Keynes, hi Mind, Vol. a note For a criticism of Spencer'sview of Logic, by Dr Venn, iv. p. 120. Dr Difficulties of Material Logic,"p. 35. Mind, Vol. rv., "The see to correspond to UeberVenn suggestsa view of Logic which seems weg's view and to the first phase of Mill's conceptionof Logic (see of regardingLogic as a Mill's View). "Instead purely objective Note.

Bead

"

"

J 2

ofPsychology Vol. Principles Vol. of Psychology, Principles

,

n. u.

" 302, pp. 90"91. " 302, pp. 92, 93.

OF

OBJECTIVE

LOGIC.

307
more

science," says
a

Dr

Venn,

"we

might with

science which

givesthe rules for converting the

Vol.
iv.

proprietyterm into subjective

it the

(Mind, objective"

p.

46). Compare
of

Ueberweg's definition,
know
of the

namely, "Logic is the science ledge" (Logic " 1), and

conditions
on

the

laws of human regulative of

Mill's view

Logic

as

"the and

science

which

right concepts, judgments,

4th Philosophy,

reasonings de

pend" (Examination of Hamilton's

ed. p.

464).

"

4.

L"wes's
us

View.
for
a

"Let

pause

moment

to

consider It

the

very

different for
:

meanings assignedto

the word

Logic.

commonly

stands

(1)
(2)

the art of the

reasoning ;

theory of reasoning ;

(3) Seasoningitself;
of (4) the laws of mental operation, irrespective operatedon (Formal Logic); the

symbols

(5)
"The
art of

the rules of Proof. first of these I hold to be absurd. there is

an

There

is

no

more

an

Reasoning than
little is this found how

art

of

But

so

understood
we

that
must

or Breathing, Digesting. even thoughtfulwriters

will be
we

that declaring
to fence
or

learn

how

to

reason,

as

learn

to swim.

In consequence

of this mis

certain studies, conception, notably Mathematics, are popularly believed 'to strengthen the Faculty,'to develop the logical to 'invigorate the judgment.' The psychological notions powers, which lie at the basis of such declarations are sadly defective. "The secdnd and third meanings of the word are objectionable because when restricting Logic to the process of Ratiocination the ratios and
are

abstract.

This

restriction

is

got rid

of

in the

meanings, which may be accepted as compre hensive. The fourth designates the universal Logic,it includes all Laws of Grouping (Xe'yeti/ to bind together, to group), means and is therefore applicable to Feeling and Thought (in the sub and to Cause (inthe objective jective world), world).

fourth

fifth

308
"The

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

fifth has

the

technical

and In

restricted this last be likened Thus the certain

are

Codification of
Logic be
a

the rules

of Proof.

meaning of a sense only can

to the science

of Grammar of various
or

It may separateDiscipline. apart from Language. nations embodies and

speech of

men

exhibits words
treat

according to which tendencies, tendencies grammarians detach and

of

generalrules; grouped. These

Laws

as separately

Speech, Hules
certain them
treat
"

detach and

Logicians may in like manner intellect, general procedures of the investigating apart as
the Rules of Rational

of Grammar.

Having fixed on the meaning Logic may for a SpecialDiscipline, namely, the codification of the rules of Proof, we complete it by assigningto Metaphysics the may of a codification of the laws of Cause. It will thus position parallel the place assigned to it by Hegel, namely, occupy very much that of ObjectiveLogic. The Object and the Subject would have one viewed as the Logic of Intelli generalLogic,separately
gence, In the Cosmos, viewed Logic of the Cosmos. things influence each other and events succeed each objectively, laws. other according to invariant When these or tendencies, phenomena are reproduced in consciousness they are also repro duced according to invariant tendencies ; and thus it is that a law of Cause becomes a rule of Proof. Logic in its widest sense the generaltendencies is Grouping. The laws of Grouping are the and

Inquiry. bear when employed

Things and the generaltendencies of Thought. The common of Thought from the thingsthought of,is an artifice ; separation but it is one so deeply inwoven Math our philosophyand practice, and untutored in such researches, is astonished that the mind between of the identity distressed at the statement Thing and this Thought, Object and Subject. With what qualifications
of statement I
am

has

to be

received
to

we

shall hereafter the

discuss.

Here

only concerned
"

define

positionof Metaphysics as
the
no

ObjectiveLogic the codification of The Cause. SubjectiveLogic takes and processes by which instruments
it is with occupiedsolely

most account

abstract of the

laws

of

each

science reaches

special Proof,
In

the codification of the

processes.

OF

OBJECTIVE

LOGIC.

309

like

manner

the of

processes abstract

details in the special ObjectiveLogic disregards Causation,solelyoccupied with codifyingthe most whatever lies beyond SubjectiveLogic rejects and thus demarcates from Pos verification, Reality whatever from Fiction. lies ObjectiveLogic rejects world the of sensibles range of and extra-sensibles and which
can

results. of

the range

Fact sibility, beyond that

come

within

Experience;
the
two

thus

demarcates

Metaphysics from
"

Metempirics.
between

This the

distinction distinction

aspects of Logic repre

the

sents

between

one identityunderlyingthis find the laws of Investigation; the abstract conditions to we all knowledge is subject. In the other we which find the laws the abstract conditions to which of the Investigated, the know

Knowing and Being; and is also represented. In diversity

of ledgeis subject. Only on the assumption of the invariability relations objective and subjective is Philosophy possible. In the
most

abstract No

of the

that sciences,

of

Number,
be

this valid

is identity
were

manifest.
not

arithmetical between
an

operation would
internal
runs

there the

this accord

the accord

and

the external ; and

assumption
the axioms and
convex

of such of

throughout Science.
of Science
are

Indeed
concave

Logic and
to

the axioms
same

the

aspects of the
footnote written the Mr

curve1."
: a
"
"

In view

a was

above, Lewes remarks Spencer has propounded

Since view

this of

new

Logic. Startingfrom the propositionthat the Syllogismrefers to the dependencies of Things and not of Thoughts, he comes to
the conclusion that

Logic

must

be carried

over

entirelyto
Mathematics that
'
"

the
as

world. He Objective it is placed in Comte's lates the

most
as

therefore

placesit

beside

latest scheme.

He

holds

it formu

considered

general laws of correlation among objective.'Referring the reader to Mr

et

existences

Spencer's
here add

n. exposition (Psychology, "" 302 chief divergence from that my

I seq.),

will

merely
my

it arises

from

to inability

Lowes's

Problems

of Life

and

Mind,

3rd

ed.

Vol.

i.

pp.

72"75.

310

THE

NATURE

AND

PROVINCE

accept his conceptionof

ence

there and

between

the

inner

being only a symboliccorrrespondit I hope to make outer worlds.

clear that the

is real1." correspondence

" 5.

Summary.

Logic is the science of the Accordingto Hamilton, Objective forms of the objects Logic the science of known, and Subjective the forms of the Knowing subject. Accordingto Spencer,Logic
is the

general laws of correlation among existences considered as objective," and the Theory of Reasoning the the science of the most general laws of correlation among ideas corresponding to these existences." Spencer'sLogic and to correspond to Hamilton's Objective Theory of Reasoning seem According to Spencer, Logic and Subjective Logic,respectively. and treats of the Logic,like Mathematics, is an objective science, It is as laws of objects in the outer world. most existing general Mathematics. Its mental little dependent upon as processes by the processes and laws of processes and laws are determined and not of thoughts. objects
science of "the
most
"

Logic as identical with Metaphysics. regardsObjective The Object and the Subject would have one generalLogic, and the Logic of viewed the Logic of Intelligence as separately the Cosmos." This generalLogic is Objective Logic applicable alike to the Subject and to the Object,to both thoughts and
Lewes
"

things. Subjective Logic

the codification of the rules

is

concerned,according to him, with of Proof,of the processes of Know

codification of the most of This
to

and Objective Logic with the ing, laws of Cause, of the processes
tween

abstract

Logics. According to Lewes, Thought and Things, Knowledge and and convex aspects of the same Being are, like the concave and objective existence; aspectsof the same curve, the subjective and the Logic of the one really correspondsto, or is identical
of these two
1

and Subjective distinction Hamilton's and Spencer's

Being. ObjectiveLogic seems

distinction be

correspondto

Problems

of Life

and

Mind, 3rd ed. Vol.

i.

p. 75.

OF

OBJECTIVE

LOGIC.

311

with, the Logic of the other. While, according to Spencer,the the Ego and the Non-ego are two separate Subjectand the Object, and the Logic of the one has only a certain symbolic realities; to the Logic of the other. or parallelism correspondence

F." Text, p. 104

There
are

two

classes of verbal
names,

: propositions (1)those
"

that agree

explain
with which

meanings of facts,and (2) those

the do
agree

which

may

or

may

not

that

explain the meanings

In the

of names, the

with

facts.

text, I have

in view

second class of verbal

propositions.

G." Text, p. 223

Mr

Keynes gives two

syllogismsare

examples
in the

of Sorites 2nd and

219
"

in which 3rd

all the

constituent

the
220.

figurere

See spectively.

his Formal

Logic,pp.

It is worth

noting that,by merely transposingthe premisses,his examples His first example be reduced to the forms can given above. C is B, all D is C, all E is D, all F is E, All A is B, no is :"
"

A no therefore, all E is D, all D In this only the

are

is F." is

Write
C is

it

as

follows

:"

"

All

is

E,

in

the

B is
as

C, all C
:"

follows

B, all A is B, therefore no A is F." last syllogismis in the 2nd figure, the others first. His second example is : "All B is A, all Write is D, all D is E, therefore, E is A." it some All B is C, all C is D, all D is E, all B is A, C, no
"

"

some therefore,

E is A."

In

this also

only the

last

is syllogism

in the 3rd

the figure,

others in the 1st.

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...It speaks well for logical study in India that it should have of such a high degree of merit as the one called forth a text-book Professor before us undoubtedly possesses Eay's discussion of Inference is more Immediate complete than that of most text-books I am with which acquainted,and his views of obversion, contra The value,not indeed of this clear and consistent. are "c., position, the whole of it,is enhanced by the large part of the book only but of of the chapters con most of useful examples with which number clude.""
"

J. N.

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1884.

Logic of an His book is a text-book of Elementary Deductive The subjectis Jevons. order similar to that of the late Professor well adapted is It with b ut treated uncontroversially great grasp Westminster Review. for use by students."
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