DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

UNIT 1

Chapter 1 The Living World Chapter 2 Biological Classification Chapter 3 Plant Kingdom Chapter 4 Animal Kingdom

Biology is the science of life forms and living processes The living !orld comprises an ama"ing diversity of living organisms #arly man co$ld easily perceive the difference %et!een inanimate matter and living organisms #arly man deified some of the inanimate matter &!ind' sea' fire etc ( and some among the animals and plants

A common feat$re of all s$ch forms of inanimate and animate o%)ects !as the sense of a!e or fear that they evo*ed The description of living organisms incl$ding h$man %eings %egan m$ch later in h$man history +ocieties !hich ind$lged in anthropocentric vie! of %iology co$ld register limited progress in %iological *no!ledge +ystematic and mon$mental description of life forms %ro$ght in' o$t of necessity' detailed systems of identification' nomenclat$re and classification The %iggest spin off of s$ch st$dies !as the recognition of the sharing of similarities among living organisms %oth hori"ontally and vertically That all present day living organisms are related to each other and also to all organisms that ever lived on this earth' !as a revelation !hich h$m%led man and led to c$lt$ral movements for conservation of %iodiversity ,n the follo!ing chapters of this $nit' yo$ !ill get a description' incl$ding classification' of animals and plants from a ta-onomist.s perspective

#rnst /ayr &1014 2 2114(

Born on 3 4$ly 1014' in Kempten' 5ermany' #67+T /A86' the 9arvard :niversity evol$tionary %iologist !ho has %een called ;The <ar!in of the 21th cent$ry.' !as one of the 111 greatest scientists of all time /ayr )oined 9arvard.s =ac$lty of Arts and +ciences in 1033 and retired in 10>3' ass$ming the title Ale-ander Agassi" Professor of ?oology #merit$s Thro$gho$t his nearly @1Ayear career' his research spanned ornithology' ta-onomy' "oogeography' evol$tion' systematics' and the history and philosophy of %iology 9e almost singleAhandedly made the origin of species diversity the central B$estion of evol$tionary %iology that it is today 9e also pioneered the c$rrently accepted definition of a %iological species /ayr !as a!arded the three pri"es !idely regarded as the triple cro!n of %iologyC the Bal"an Pri"e in 10@3' the ,nternational Pri"e for Biology in 1004' and the Crafoord Pri"e in 1000 /ayr died at the age of 111 in the year 2114

;Living.E 1 2 <iversity in the Living World 1 3 Ta-onomic Categories 1 4 Ta-onomical Aids

C9AP T#6 1 T9# L,D,7 5 W < 1 1 What is

9o! !onderf$l is the living !orld F The !ide range of living types is ama"ing The e-traordinary ha%itats in !hich !e find living organisms' %e it cold mo$ntains' decid$o$s forests' oceans' fresh !ater la*es' deserts or hot springs' leave $s speechless The %ea$ty of a galloping horse' of the migrating

%irds' the valley of flo!ers or the attac*ing shar* evo*es a!e and a deep sense of !onder The ecological conflict and cooperation among mem%ers of a pop$lation and among pop$lations of a comm$nity or even the molec$lar traffic inside a cell ma*e $s deeply reflect on 2 !hat indeed is lifeE This B$estion has t!o implicit B$estions !ithin it The first is a technical one and see*s ans!er to !hat living is as opposed to the nonAliving' and the second is a philosophical one' and see*s ans!er to !hat the p$rpose of life is As scientists' !e shall not attempt ans!ering the second B$estion We !ill try to reflect on 2 !hat is livingE 11 W9AT ;L,D,75.E ,+

When !e try to define ;living.' !e conventionally loo* for distinctive characteristics e-hi%ited %y living organisms 5ro!th' reprod$ction' a%ility to sense environment and mo$nt a s$ita%le response come to o$r mind immediately as $niB$e feat$res of living organisms Gne can add a fe! more feat$res li*e meta%olism' a%ility to selfAreplicate' selfAorganise' interact and emergence to this list Let $s try to $nderstand each of these All living organisms gro! ,ncrease in mass and increase in n$m%er of individ$als are t!in characteristics of gro!th A m$lticell$lar organism

B,GLG58 gro!s %y cell division ,n plants' this gro!th %y cell division occ$rs contin$o$sly thro$gho$t their life span ,n animals' this gro!th is seen only $p to a certain age 9o!ever' cell division occ$rs in certain tiss$es to replace lost cells :nicell$lar organisms also gro! %y cell division Gne can easily o%serve this in in vitro c$lt$res %y simply co$nting the n$m%er of cells $nder the microscope ,n ma)ority of higher animals and plants' gro!th and reprod$ction are m$t$ally e-cl$sive events Gne m$st remem%er that increase in %ody mass is considered as gro!th 7onAliving o%)ects also gro! if !e ta*e increase in %ody mass as a criterion for gro!th /o$ntains' %o$lders and sand mo$nds do gro! 9o!ever' this *ind of gro!th e-hi%ited %y nonAliving o%)ects is %y acc$m$lation of material on the s$rface ,n living organisms' gro!th is from inside 5ro!th' therefore' cannot %e ta*en as a defining property of living organisms Conditions $nder !hich it can %e o%served in all living organisms have to %e e-plained and then !e $nderstand that it is a characteristic of living systems A dead organism does not gro! 6eprod$ction' li*e!ise' is a characteristic of living organisms ,n m$lticell$lar organisms' reprod$ction refers to the prod$ction of progeny possessing feat$res more or less similar to those of parents ,nvaria%ly and implicitly !e refer to se-$al reprod$ction Grganisms reprod$ce %y ase-$al means also =$ngi m$ltiply and spread easily d$e to the millions of ase-$al spores they prod$ce ,n lo!er organisms li*e yeast and hydra' !e o%serve %$dding ,n Planaria &flat !orms(' !e o%serve tr$e regeneration' i e ' a fragmented organism regenerates the lost part of its %ody and %ecomes' a ne! organism The f$ngi' the filamento$s algae' the protonema of mosses' all easily m$ltiply %y fragmentation When it comes to $nicell$lar organisms li*e %acteria' $nicell$lar algae or Amoe%a' reprod$ction is synonymo$s !ith gro!th' i e ' increase in n$m%er of cells We have already defined gro!th as eB$ivalent to increase in cell n$m%er or mass 9ence' !e notice that in singleAcelled organisms' !e are not very clear a%o$t the $sage of these t!o terms 2 gro!th and reprod$ction =$rther' there are many organisms !hich do not reprod$ce &m$les' sterile !or*er %ees' infertile h$man

co$ples' etc( 9ence' reprod$ction also cannot %e an allA incl$sive defining characteristic of living organisms Gf co$rse' no nonAliving o%)ect is capa%le of reprod$cing or replicating %y itself Another characteristic of life is meta%olism All living organisms are made of chemicals These chemicals' small and %ig' %elonging to vario$s classes' si"es' f$nctions' etc ' are constantly %eing made and changed into some other %iomolec$les These conversions are chemical reactions or meta%olic reactions There are tho$sands of meta%olic reactions occ$rring sim$ltaneo$sly inside all living organisms' %e they

T9# L,D,75 WG6L<

$nicell$lar or m$lticell$lar All plants' animals' f$ngi and micro%es e-hi%it meta%olism The s$m total of all the chemical reactions occ$rring in o$r %ody is meta%olism 7o nonAliving o%)ect e-hi%its meta%olism /eta%olic reactions can %e demonstrated o$tside the %ody in cellAfree systems An isolated meta%olic reaction&s( o$tside the %ody of an organism' performed in a test t$%e is neither living nor nonAliving 9ence' !hile meta%olism is a defining feat$re of all living organisms !itho$t e-ception' isolated meta%olic reactions in vitro are not living things %$t s$rely living reactions 9ence' cell$lar organisation of the %ody is the defining feat$re of life forms Perhaps' the most o%vio$s and technically complicated feat$re of all living organisms is this a%ility to sense their s$rro$ndings or environment and respond to these environmental stim$li !hich co$ld %e physical' chemical or %iological We sense o$r environment thro$gh o$r sense organs Plants respond to e-ternal factors li*e light' !ater' temperat$re' other organisms' poll$tants' etc All organisms' from the pro*aryotes to the most comple- e$*aryotes can sense and respond to environmental c$es Photoperiod affects reprod$ction in seasonal %reeders' %oth plants and animals All organisms handle chemicals entering their %odies All organisms therefore' are ;a!are. of their s$rro$ndings 9$man %eing is the only organism !ho is a!are of himself' i e ' has selfAconscio$sness Conscio$sness therefore' %ecomes the defining property of living organisms When it comes to h$man %eings' it is all the more diffic$lt to define the living state We o%serve patients lying in coma in hospitals virt$ally s$pported %y machines !hich replace heart and l$ngs The patient is other!ise %rainAdead The patient has no selfAconscio$sness Are s$ch patients !ho never come %ac* to normal life' living or nonAlivingE ,n higher classes' yo$ !ill come to *no! that all living phenomena are d$e to $nderlying interactions Properties of tiss$es are not present in the constit$ent cells %$t arise as a

res$lt of interactions among the constit$ent cells +imilarly' properties of cell$lar organelles are not present in the molec$lar constit$ents of the organelle %$t arise as a res$lt of interactions among the molec$lar components comprising the organelle These interactions res$lt in emergent properties at a higher level of organisation This phenomenon is tr$e in the hierarchy of organisational comple-ity at all levels Therefore' !e can say that living organisms are selfAreplicating' evolving and selfAreg$lating interactive systems capa%le of responding to e-ternal stim$li Biology is the story of life on earth Biology is the story of evol$tion of living organisms on earth All living organisms 2 present' past and f$t$re' are lin*ed to one another %y the sharing of the common genetic material' %$t to varying degrees

H 12 <,D#6+,T8 ,7 T9# L,D,75 WG6L<

B,GLG58

,f yo$ loo* aro$nd yo$ !ill see a large variety of living organisms' %e it potted plants' insects' %irds' yo$r pets or other animals and plants There are also several organisms that yo$ cannot see !ith yo$r na*ed eye %$t they are all aro$nd yo$ ,f yo$ !ere to increase the area that yo$ ma*e o%servations in' the range and variety of organisms that yo$ see !o$ld increase G%vio$sly' if yo$ !ere to visit a dense forest' yo$ !o$ld pro%a%ly see a m$ch greater n$m%er and *inds of living organisms in it #ach different *ind of plant' animal or organism that yo$ see' represents a species The n$m%er of species that are *no!n and descri%ed range %et!een 1 >A1 @ million This refers to %iodiversity or the n$m%er and types of organisms present on earth We sho$ld remem%er here that as !e e-plore ne! areas' and even old ones' ne! organisms are contin$o$sly %eing identified As stated earlier' there are millions of plants and animals in the !orldI !e *no! the plants and animals in o$r o!n area %y their local names These local names !o$ld vary from place to place' even !ithin a co$ntry Pro%a%ly yo$ !o$ld recognise the conf$sion that !o$ld %e created if !e did not find !ays and means to tal* to each other' to refer to organisms !e are tal*ing a%o$t 9ence' there is a need to standardise the naming of living organisms s$ch that a partic$lar organism is *no!n %y the same name all over the !orld This process is called nomenclat$re G%vio$sly' nomenclat$re or naming is only possi%le !hen the organism is descri%ed correctly and !e *no! to !hat organism the name is attached to This is identification ,n order to facilitate the st$dy' n$m%er of scientists have esta%lished proced$res to assign a scientific name to each *no!n organism This is accepta%le to %iologists all over the !orld =or plants' scientific names are %ased on agreed principles and criteria' !hich are provided in ,nternational Code for Botanical 7omenclat$re &,CB7( 8o$ may as*' ho! are animals namedE Animal ta-onomists have evolved ,nternational Code of ?oological 7omenclat$re &,C?7( The scientific names ens$re that each organism has only one name <escription of any organism sho$ld ena%le the people &in any

part of the !orld( to arrive at the same name They also ens$re that s$ch a name has not %een $sed for any other *no!n organism Biologists follo! $niversally accepted principles to provide scientific names to *no!n organisms #ach name has t!o components 2 the 5eneric name and the specific epithet This system of providing a name !ith t!o components is called Binomial nomenclat$re This naming system given %y Carol$s Linnae$s is %eing practised %y %iologists all over the !orld This naming system $sing a t!o !ord format !as fo$nd convenient Let $s ta*e the e-ample of mango to $nderstand the !ay of

T9# L,D,75 WG6L<

>

providing scientific names %etter The scientific name of mango is !ritten as /angifera indica Let $s see ho! it is a %inomial name ,n this name /angifera represents the gen$s !hile indica' is a partic$lar species' or a specific epithet Gther $niversal r$les of nomenclat$re are as follo!sC 1 Biological names are generally in Latin and !ritten in italics They are Latinised or derived from Latin irrespective of their origin The first !ord in a %iological name represents the gen$s !hile the second component denotes the specific epithet Both the !ords in a %iological name' !hen hand!ritten' are separately $nderlined' or printed in italics to indicate their Latin origin The first !ord denoting the gen$s starts !ith a capital letter !hile the specific epithet starts !ith a small letter ,t can %e ill$strated !ith the e-ample of /angifera indica

7ame of the a$thor appears after the specific epithet' i e ' at the end of the %iological name and is !ritten in an a%%reviated form' e g ' /angifera indica Linn ,t indicates that this species !as first descri%ed %y Linnae$s +ince it is nearly impossi%le to st$dy all the living organisms' it is necessary to devise some means to ma*e this possi%le This process is classification Classification is the process %y !hich anything is gro$ped into convenient categories %ased on some easily o%serva%le characters =or e-ample' !e easily recognise gro$ps s$ch as plants or animals or dogs' cats or insects The moment !e $se any of these terms' !e associate certain characters !ith the organism in that gro$p What image do yo$ see !hen yo$ thin* of a dog E G%vio$sly' each one of $s !ill see ;dogs. and not ;cats. 7o!' if !e !ere to thin* of

;Alsatians. !e *no! !hat !e are tal*ing a%o$t +imilarly' s$ppose !e !ere to say ;mammals.' yo$ !o$ld' of co$rse' thin* of animals !ith e-ternal ears and %ody hair Li*e!ise' in plants' if !e try to tal* of ;Wheat.' the pict$re in each of o$r minds !ill %e of !heat plants' not of rice or any other plant 9ence' all these A ;<ogs.' ;Cats.' ;/ammals.' ;Wheat.' ;6ice.' ;Plants.' ;Animals.' etc ' are convenient categories !e $se to st$dy organisms The scientific term for these categories is ta-a 9ere yo$ m$st recognise that ta-a can indicate categories at very different levels ;Plants. 2 also form a ta-a ;Wheat. is also a ta-a +imilarly' ;animals.' ;mammals.' ;dogs. are all ta-a 2 %$t yo$ *no! that a dog is a mammal and mammals are animals Therefore' ;animals.' ;mammals. and ;dogs. represent ta-a at different levels 9ence' %ased on characteristics' all living organisms can %e classified into different ta-a This process of classification is ta-onomy #-ternal and internal str$ct$re' along !ith the str$ct$re of cell' development

B,GLG58 process and ecological information of organisms are essential and form the %asis of modern ta-onomic st$dies 9ence' characterisation' identification' classification and nomenclat$re are the processes that are %asic to ta-onomy Ta-onomy is not something ne! 9$man %eings have al!ays %een interested in *no!ing more and more a%o$t the vario$s *inds of organisms' partic$larly !ith reference to their o!n $se ,n early days' h$man %eings needed to find so$rces for their %asic needs of food' clothing and shelter 9ence' the earliest classifications !ere %ased on the ;$ses. of vario$s organisms 9$man %eings !ere' since long' not only interested in *no!ing more a%o$t different *inds of organisms and their diversities' %$t also the relationships among them This %ranch of st$dy !as referred to as systematics The !ord systematics is derived from the Latin !ord ;systema. !hich means systematic arrangement of organisms Linnae$s $sed +ystema 7at$rae as the title of his p$%lication The scope of systematics !as later enlarged to incl$de identification' nomenclat$re and classification +ystematics ta*es into acco$nt evol$tionary relationships %et!een organisms 13 TAJG7G/,C CAT#5G6,#+ Classification is not a single step process %$t involves hierarchy of steps in !hich each step represents a ran* or category +ince the category is a part of overall ta-onomic arrangement' it is called the ta-onomic category and all categories together constit$te the ta-onomic hierarchy #ach category' referred to as a $nit of classification' in fact' represents a ran* and is commonly termed as ta-on &pl C ta-a( Ta-onomic categories and hierarchy can %e ill$strated %y an e-ample ,nsects represent a gro$p of organisms sharing common feat$res li*e three pairs of )ointed legs ,t means insects are recognisa%le concrete o%)ects !hich can %e classified' and th$s !ere given a ran* or category Can yo$ name other s$ch gro$ps of organismsE 6emem%er' gro$ps represent category

Category f$rther denotes ran* #ach ran* or ta-on' in fact' represents a $nit of classification These ta-onomic gro$psK categories are distinct %iological entities and not merely morphological aggregates Ta-onomical st$dies of all *no!n organisms have led to the development of common categories s$ch as *ingdom' phyl$m or division &for plants(' class' order' family' gen$s and species All organisms' incl$ding those in the plant and animal *ingdoms have species as the lo!est category 7o! the B$estion yo$ may as* is' ho! to place an

T9# L,D,75 WG6L<

organism in vario$s categoriesE The %asic reB$irement is the *no!ledge of characters of an individ$al or gro$p of organisms This helps in identifying similarities and dissimilarities among the individ$als of the same *ind of organisms as !ell as of other *inds of organisms 1 3 1 +pecies Ta-onomic st$dies consider a gro$p of individ$al organisms !ith f$ndamental similarities as a species Gne sho$ld %e a%le to disting$ish one species from the other closely related species %ased on the distinct morphological differences Let $s consider /angifera indica' +olan$m t$%eros$m &potato( and Panthera leo &lion( All the three names' indica' t$%eros$m and leo' represent the specific epithets' !hile the first !ords /angifera' +olan$m and Panthera are genera and represents another higher level of ta-on or category #ach gen$s may have one or more than one specific epithets representing different organisms' %$t having morphological similarities =or e-ample' Panthera has another specific epithet called tigris and +olan$m incl$des species li*e nigr$m and melongena 9$man %eings %elong to the species sapiens !hich is gro$ped in gen$s 9omo The scientific name th$s' for h$man %eing' is !ritten as 9omo sapiens 1 3 2 5en$s 5en$s comprises a gro$p of related species !hich has more characters in common in comparison to species of other genera We can say that genera are aggregates of closely related species =or e-ample' potato' tomato and %rin)al are three different species %$t all %elong to the gen$s +olan$m Lion &Panthera leo(' leopard &P pard$s( and tiger &P tigris( !ith several common feat$res' are all species of the gen$s Panthera This gen$s differs from another gen$s =elis !hich incl$des cats 1 3 3 =amily

The ne-t category' =amily' has a gro$p of related genera !ith still less n$m%er of similarities as compared to gen$s and species =amilies are characterised on the %asis of %oth vegetative and reprod$ctive feat$res of plant species Among plants for e-ample' three different genera +olan$m' Pet$nia and <at$ra are placed in the family +olanaceae Among animals for e-ample' gen$s Panthera' comprising lion' tiger' leopard is p$t along !ith gen$s' =elis &cats( in the family =elidae +imilarly' if yo$ o%serve the feat$res of a cat and a dog' yo$ !ill find some similarities and some differences as !ell They are separated into t!o different families 2 =elidae and Cancidae' respectively

11 1 3 4 Grder

B,GLG58

8o$ have seen earlier that categories li*e species' gen$s and families are %ased on a n$m%er of similar characters 5enerally' order and other higher ta-onomic categories are identified %ased on the aggregates of characters Grder %eing a higher category' is the assem%lage of families !hich e-hi%it a fe! similar characters The similar characters are less in n$m%er as compared to different genera incl$ded in a family Plant families li*e Convolv$laceae' +olanaceae are incl$ded in the order Polymoniales mainly %ased on the floral characters The animal order' Carnivora' incl$des families li*e =elidae and Cancidae 1 3 3 Class This category incl$des related orders =or e-ample' order Primata comprising mon*ey' gorilla and gi%%on is placed in class /ammalia along !ith order Carnivora that incl$des animals li*e tiger' cat and dog Class /ammalia has other orders also 1 3 H Phyl$m Classes comprising animals li*e fishes' amphi%ians' reptiles' %irds along !ith mammals constit$te the ne-t higher category called Phyl$m All these' %ased on the common feat$res li*e presence of notochord and dorsal hollo! ne$ral system' are incl$ded in phyl$m Chordata ,n case of plants' classes !ith a fe! similar characters are assigned to a higher category called <ivision =ig$re 1 1 Ta-onomic categories s h o ! i n g hierarchial arrangement in ascending order

1 3 > K i n g d o m All animals %elonging to vario$s phyla are assigned to the highest

category called Kingdom Animalia in the classification system of animals The Kingdom Plantae' on the other hand' is distinct' and comprises all plants from vario$s divisions 9enceforth' !e !ill refer to these t!o gro$ps as animal and plant *ingdoms The ta-onomic categories from species to *ingdom have %een sho!n in ascending order starting !ith species in =ig$re 1 1 These are %road categories 9o!ever' ta-onomists have also developed s$%Acategories in this hierarchy to facilitate more so$nd and scientific placement of vario$s ta-a Loo* at the hierarchy in =ig$re 1 1 Can yo$ recall the %asis of arrangementE +ay' for e-ample' as !e go higher from species to *ingdom' the n$m%er of common characteristics goes on

T9# L,D,75 WG6L<

11

decreasing Lo!er the ta-a' more are the characteristics that the mem%ers !ithin the ta-on share 9igher the category' greater is the diffic$lty of determining the relationship to other ta-a at the same level 9ence' the pro%lem of classification %ecomes more compleTa%le 1 1 indicates the ta-onomic categories to !hich some common organisms li*e ho$sefly' man' mango and !heat %elong TABL# 1 1 Grganisms !ith their Ta-onomic Categories
Common 7ame /an 9o$sefly Biological 7ame 9omo sapiens /$sca domesti ca /angife ra indica Tritic$ m aestiv$ 5en$s =amily Grder Class Phyl$ mK <ivisio Chordata Arthropoda

9omo /$sca

9ominidae /$scidae

Primata <iptera

/ammalia ,nsecta

/ango

/angife ra Tritic$m

Anacardiace ae Poaceae

+apindal es Poales

<icotyledonae

Angiosperm ae Angiosperm ae

Wheat

/onocotyledon ae

14

TAJG7G/,CAL A,<+

Ta-onomic st$dies of vario$s species of plants' animals and other organisms are $sef$l in agric$lt$re' forestry' ind$stry and in general in *no!ing o$r %ioAreso$rces and their diversity These st$dies !o$ld reB$ire correct classification and identification of organisms ,dentification of organisms reB$ires intensive la%oratory and field st$dies The collection of act$al specimens of plant and animal species is essential and is the prime so$rce of ta-onomic st$dies These are also f$ndamental to st$dies and essential for training in systematics ,t is $sed for classification of an organism' and the information gathered is also stored along !ith the specimens ,n some cases the specimen is preserved for f$t$re st$dies Biologists have esta%lished certain proced$res and techniB$es to store and preserve the information as !ell as the specimens +ome of

these are e-plained to help yo$ $nderstand the $sage of these aids

1 4 1 9er%ari$m
9er%ari$m is a store ho$se of collected plant specimens that are dried' pressed and preserved on sheets =$rther' these sheets are arranged

12

B,GLG58

=ig$re 1 2 9er%ari$m sho!ing stored specimens

according to a $niversally accepted system of classification These specimens' along !ith their descriptions on her%ari$m sheets' %ecome a store ho$se or repository for f$t$re $se &=ig$re 1 2( The her%ari$m sheets also carry a la%el providing information a%o$t date and place of collection' #nglish' local and %otanical names' family' collector.s name' etc 9er%aria also serve as B$ic* referral systems in ta-onomical st$dies

1 4 2 Botanical 5ardens
These specialised gardens have collections of living plants for reference Plant species in these gardens are gro!n for identification p$rposes and each plant is la%elled indicating its %otanicalKscientific name and its family The famo$s %otanical gardens are at Ke! &#ngland(' ,ndian Botanical 5arden' 9o!rah &,ndia( and at 7ational Botanical 6esearch ,nstit$te' L$c*no! &,ndia(

1 4 3 /$se$m
Biological m$se$ms are generally set $p in ed$cational instit$tes s$ch as schools and colleges /$se$ms have collections of preserved plant and animal specimens for st$dy and reference +pecimens are preserved in the containers or )ars in preservative sol$tions Plant and animal specimens may also %e preserved as dry specimens ,nsects are preserved in insect %o-es after collecting' *illing and pinning Larger animals li*e %irds and mammals are $s$ally st$ffed and preserved /$se$ms often have collections of s*eletons of animals too

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13

1 4 4 ?oological Par*s
These are the places !here !ild animals are *ept in protected environments $nder h$man care and !hich ena%le $s to learn a%o$t their food ha%its and %ehavio$r All animals in a "oo are provided' as far as possi%le' the conditions similar to their nat$ral ha%itats Children love visiting these par*s' commonly called ?oos &=ig$re 1 3(

=ig$re 1 3 Pict$res sho!ing animals in different "oological par*s of ,ndia

1 4 3 Key
Key is another ta-onomical aid $sed for identification of plants and animals %ased on the similarities and dissimilarities The *eys are %ased on the contrasting characters generally in a pair called co$plet ,t represents the choice made %et!een t!o opposite options This res$lts in acceptance of only one and re)ection of the other #ach statement in the *ey is called a lead +eparate ta-onomic *eys are reB$ired for each ta-onomic category s$ch as family' gen$s and species for identification p$rposes Keys are generally analytical in nat$re

14

B,GLG58

=lora' man$als' monographs and catalog$es are some other means of recording descriptions They also help in correct identification =lora contains the act$al acco$nt of ha%itat and distri%$tion of plants of a given area These provide the inde- to the plant species fo$nd in a partic$lar area /an$als are $sef$l in providing information for identification of names of species fo$nd in an area /onographs contain information on any one ta-on

+://A68
The living !orld is rich in variety /illions of plants and animals have %een identified and descri%ed %$t a large n$m%er still remains $n*no!n The very range of organisms in ter ms of si"e' colo$r' ha%itat' physiological and morphological feat$res ma*e $s see* the defining characteristics of living organisms ,n order to facilitate the st$dy of *inds and diversity of organisms' %iologists have evolved certain r$les and principles for identification' nomenclat$re and classification of organisms The %ranch of *no!ledge dealing !ith these aspects is referred to as ta-onomy The ta-onomic st$dies of vario$s species of plants and animals are $sef$l in agric$lt$re' forestry' ind$stry and in general for *no!ing o$r %ioAreso$rces and their diversity The %asics of ta-onomy li*e identification' naming and classification of organisms are $niversally evolved $nder international codes Based on the resem%lances and distinct differences' each organism is identified and assigned a correct scientificK%iological name comprising t!o !ords as per the %inomial system of nomenclat$re An organism representsKocc$pies a place or position in the system of classification There are many categoriesKran*s and are generally referred to as ta-onomic categories or ta-a All the categories constit$te a ta-onomic hierarchy Ta-onomists have developed a variety of ta-onomic aids to facilitate identification' naming and classification of organisms These st$dies are carried o$t from the act$al specimens !hich are collected from the field and preserved as referrals in the form of her%aria' m$se$ms and in %otanical gardens and "oological par*s ,t reB$ires special techniB$es for collection and preservation of specimens in her%aria and m$se$ms Live specimens' on the other hand' of plants and animals' are fo$nd in %otanical gardens or in "oological par*s Ta-onomists also prepare and disseminate information thro$gh man$als and monographs for f$rther ta-onomic st$dies Ta-onomic *eys are tools that help in identification %ased on characteristics

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1 2 3 4 3 Why are living organisms classifiedE Why are the classification systems changing every no! and thenE What different criteria !o$ld yo$ choose to classify people that yo$ meet oftenE What do !e learn from identification of individ$als and pop$lationsE 5iven %elo! is the scientific name of /ango ,dentify the correctly !ritten name /angifera ,ndica /angifera indica H > <efine a ta-on 5ive some e-amples of ta-a at different hierarchical levels Can yo$ identify the correct seB$ence of ta-onomical categoriesE &a( &%( &c( @ +pecies 5en$s +pecies Grder +pecies 5en$s Phyl$m Grder Grder Kingdom Kingdom Phyl$m

Try to collect all the c$rrently accepted meanings for the !ord ;species. <isc$ss !ith yo$r teacher the meaning of species in case of higher plants and animals on one hand' and %acteria on the other hand <efine and $nderstand the follo!ing termsC &i( Phyl$m &ii( Class &iii( =amily &iv( Grder &v( 5en$s

11 9o! is a *ey helpf$l in the identification and classification of an organismE 11 ,ll$strate the ta-onomical hierarchy !ith s$ita%le e-amples of a plant and an animal