JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

PAGES 10031020

1997

The Skaergaard Layered Series. Part III. Non-dynamic Layering

ALAN E. BOUDREAU1 AND ALEXANDER R. McBIRNEY2
1 2

DEPT. OF GEOLOGY, DUKE UNIVERSITY, DURHAM, NC 27708-0227, USA DEPT. OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF OREGON, EUGENE, OR 97403, USA

RECEIVED MAY 6, 1996 REVISED TYPESCRIPT ACCEPTED MARCH 18, 1997

Layering in the Skaergaard Intrusion has been divided into two general types, one produced by magmatic ow and another by processes resulting from variations of rates of nucleation and crystallization, and, in the case of the Layered Series, by compactionrelated processes. Modal variations caused by shifts of cotectic proportions produce thick layers which, in the Layered and Upper Border Series, are diuse and normally lack strong foliation and lineation. In the Marginal Border Series, the layers are thinner and sharper; possibly because the rate of accumulation was slower. Oscillatory nucleation may have played a role in producing nescale cyclic layers, but it was less important than solution and reprecipitation during slow cooling and Ostwald ripening. Evidence for compaction is found in deformed plagioclase laths and a relative deciency of incompatible elements in rocks formed on the oor. Layering related to compaction becomes sharper with increasing height in the Layered Series until it suddenly disappears above the trough horizon near the base of Upper Zone b. Mechanical sorting during compaction may have produced crude layering, but if it did the evidence has long since been destroyed by the superimposed eects of solution and reprecipitation when interstitial liquid rose through the overlying crystals and re-equilibrated with them. Numerical simulations illustrate how small dierences of surface energy caused by variations of grain size, textural dependence of solubility, and pressure solution can cause segregation of minerals into layers during solution and reprecipitation.

INTRODUCTION
Recent studies of the structural and textural features of the Skaergaard Intrusion (McBirney & Nicolas, 1997) have distinguished two broad types of layering, one produced by the dynamic eects of magmatic ow and another by processes that operate in situ such as varied nucleation and growth of crystals, recrystallization, or by compaction-related mechanisms. We refer to layering formed by these latter processes as non-dynamic to emphasize that it is not the result of uid dynamic processes. Although most layering combines elements of more than one process, the contribution of each mechanism can usually be recognized from its distinctive form and setting. The distinguishing features of dynamic magmatic layering have been described in Part II of this series (McBirney & Nicolas, 1997). They are best seen near the steep margins of the Layered Series in what Wager & Brown (1968) referred to as the cross-bedded zone where the layering is disrupted by slumping and channeling and the rocks have a marked foliation and lineation. Layering not associated with magmatic ow takes a variety of forms, but we can distinguish two general end-members, each of which has a distinct origin and characteristics. The rst results from varied rates of nucleation and crystal growth; it can be seen throughout the intrusion. The second is associated with compaction and is conned to rocks formed on the oor. Although these mechanisms are closely associated and tend to reinforce one another, each has its own distinctive characteristics.

KEY WORDS:

compaction; layering; metasomatism; pressure solution

Corresponding author. Telephone: (919) 684-5646. Fax: (919) 6845833. e-mail: boudreau@geo.duke.edu

Oxford University Press 1997

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

GENERAL FEATURES OF NONDYNAMIC LAYERING Layering produced by variations of intensive parameters

The basic mechanism Wager (1961) credited for welllayered rocks that formed on the steep walls was also responsible for the indistinct layering in the interior of the Layered Series and nearly all the layering in rocks that crystallized under the roof. It is thought to be the result of transitory excursions about the cotectic proportions of precipitating minerals (Harker, 1909; Wager, 1959; Maale, 1978). These variations may have been brought on by any of a variety of events including convective overturn, invasions of new magmas, contamination with country rocks, gain or loss of volatiles, and any other factor aecting intensive parameters, such as the composition, temperature, or oxygen fugacity of the magma (Hort et al., 1993; Naslund & McBirney, 1996). [A mechanism based on double-diusive convection was thought to be an important eect of this kind (McBirney & Noyes, 1979), but closer examination of its theoretical basis (McBirney, 1985) raised doubts as to its importance in natural magmas.] In the case of rocks formed on the oor or under the roof, these layers tend to be diuse and, though conspicuous when viewed from a distance, may be far from apparent at close range. The most conspicuous example is the Triple Group (Fig. 1), a set of three felsic layers near the top of Middle Zone. From almost any part of the intrusion they are seen extending for hundreds of meters across almost the entire width of the intrusion, but on an outcrop scale they are so indistinct that they easily pass unnoticed. We nd no systematic spacing of these layers; their distribution seems totally random. Modal variations are normally gradational on a scale of tens or hundreds of centimeters, but in the Marginal Border Series individual layers are thinner and much sharper, possibly because the sequence accumulated more slowly and is relatively compressed. Similarly, grading from mac to felsic minerals is much more pronounced in the Marginal Border Series where the outer, wallward side of an individual layer is normally more mac. Except in the special case of crescumulate textures produced by constitutional supercooling close to the contact, fabrics are essentially isotropic. An unusual variety of this diuse layering, found in a few local parts of the Layered Series, is cyclical on a scale of one or two centimeters. It is conned to small areas, mainly in Upper Zone a (Fig. 2a), and is also observed in a nearby rhyolitic dike (Fig. 2b). The rhythmic spacing was rst ascribed to oscillatory nucleation (McBirney & Noyes, 1979), but we now assign more importance to competitive growth of crystals during slow cooling

(Boudreau, 1987, 1994, 1995). Small initial dierences of grain size or modal proportions are accentuated and repeated by cyclical solution and crystal growth under conditions similar to those of Ostwald ripening. None of the examples we have found in the Skaergaard Intrusion measures more than a few meters in vertical or horizontal extent, but in larger bodies, such as the Stillwater Complex, they are much more extensive (Boudreau, 1987; Naslund & McBirney, 1996).

Layering associated with compaction

At the other extreme of non-conventional layering is a more conspicuous variety seen throughout most of the interior of the Layered Series. It consists of sharply dened mac and felsic layers, a few centimeters or decimeters thick and separated by thicker intervals of homogeneous gabbro of widely diering thickness. We will not describe this layering in detail, for it has been the subject of several detailed studies (Wager & Deer, 1939; Wager & Brown, 1968; McBirney & Noyes, 1979; Irvine, 1987; Conrad & Naslund, 1989). We attribute this layering to the mineral segregation that accompanies or is signicantly enhanced by compaction. Although we discuss several mechanisms that can give rise to this type of layering, its development is broadly analogous to that of metamorphic banding in the sense that it is the result of solution and reprecipitation of minerals in response to the stresses of compaction. On a broad scale, these layers become sharper and more numerous with increasing height in the Layered Series until they suddenly disappear above the trough horizon near the base of Upper Zone b. On a local scale, however, they are particularly well developed in the vicinity of blocks that fell from the roof and disturbed the mush of crystals on the oor. Because this sharp, intermittent layering is normally more mac at the base and felsic at the top and has a supercial resemblance to sedimentary deposits laid down by turbidity currents, it was once thought to be the result of crystal-laden magma descending from the walls and sweeping across the oor. The objections to this explanation are now well known. No gaps, unconformities, or other evidence have been found to support the notion that sections of the walls supplied the large masses of crystals forming extensive layers in interior parts of the oor. Similar layers are equally well developed in many larger intrusions, such as the Bushveld and Stillwater Complexes, where the walls were less steep and turbidity currents could scarcely have had sucient energy to ow for tens or hundreds of kilometers across the oor. Although they may have a well-developed foliation (Brothers, 1964), the rocks rarely have a strong lineated fabric in which elongated minerals have a preferred orientation within the plane

1004

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

Fig. 1. Triple Group at the top of Middle Zone is clearly visible from a distance (a) but is scarcely noticeable at close range (b). In places the plagioclase-rich units have ne-scale rhythmic layers.

of foliation or layering. This is not to say that currents moving across the oor did not inuence the orientation of mineral grains, but that they did not deposit them by conventional sedimentary processes.

Perhaps the most curious type of layering is seen in a set of trough-like structures near the boundary between Upper Zones a and b. Wager & Deer (1939) originally proposed that these features resulted from turbidity

1005

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

Fig. 2. (a) Fine-scale cyclic layering near the top of Upper Zone a. Layering of this kind is restricted to areas of limited extent, mainly in the upper half of the Layered Series. (b) and (c) Fine concentric layers in a rhyolitic dike ~500 m beyond the eastern margin of the Skaergaard Intrusion (McBirney et al., 1990).

currents sweeping across the oor, an explanation that Irvine (1987) has elaborated in detail. We see several objections to this explanation. The most obvious is the total absence of any of the features normally associated with high-energy, sedimentary deposits. The troughs are concordant synforms with sides that become steeper upward in narrowing stacks of layers. The cross-bedding, scour and ll, and lateral migration of channels so typical of sedimentary deposits laid down by agrading distributory streams are conspicuously absent. Taylor & Forester (1979) and Sonnenthal (1992) have commented on isotopic and trace-element relations they nd dicult to reconcile with the turbidity current hypothesis.

STRUCTURES AND TEXTURES PRODUCED BY COMPACTION

Although lter-pressing has been considered a potential mechanism of dierentiation since it was rst proposed by Bowen (1928), it is only in recent years that compaction has been given serious consideration. This neglect is due mainly to early impressions that its eectiveness would be severely limited by the small density dierence between crystals and iron-rich interstitial liquids and by the inferred low permeability resisting the force of this weak density contrast (Sparks et al., 1985; Morse, 1986). However, these objections have not considered reactions

1006

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

between liquid and the crystals through which it rises, nor the growth of large crystals at the expense of small ones during crystal coarsening, both of which can augment permeability manyfold. Numerical simulations (Sonnenthal, work in progress) show that, when these factors are taken into account, the process is eective even in thick sills and ponded lavas. This conclusion nds support in the facility with which liquids ooze into fractures in partly crystallized lavas and shallow sills where the pressure dierences driving ow are very small. Although rarely obvious in the eld, the eects of compaction have been recognized in a growing number of studies of ponded lava ows (Helz, 1987; Helz et al., 1989; Philpotts et al., 1996) and thick sills (Shirley, 1987). In the case of the Skaergaard Intrusion, it appears to have been pervasive throughout most of the Layered Series, where it was a primary factor in the compositional evolution of the magma (McBirney, 1995). The evidence for this is both chemical and textural.

Geochemical eects
The geometric conguration of the intrusion provides a convenient way of identifying the relative importance of any petrologic mechanism driven by gravity. By comparing the compositions of rocks that crystallized simultaneously on the oor, walls, and under its roof, one can relate their dierences to the geometrical orientation in which they formed. On doing this, one sees that the roof series has consistently larger concentrations of incompatible elements than equivalent units on the oor or walls (Fig. 3). Long thought to be the result of contamination, isotopic evidence shows that the greater abundance of lithophile elements, such as Ba, Rb, Zr, and Nd, in the Upper Border Series could not have come from assimilated Archean gneiss, for the strontium isotopic ratios of these same rocks are, on average, even less radiogenic than those of the Layered Series (McBirney, 1995). The relatively depleted character of rocks formed on the oor is more logically attributed to a gravitational process, either compaction or convective fractionation, or possibly both. Density relations make convective fractionation less likely, at least during the early stages of crystallization when the dierentiating liquid increased in density and would have been heavier than the overlying, less-dierentiated magma. These same relations probably account for the relative depletion of the Marginal Border Series where heavy, dierentiated liquids are thought to have owed down the wall to pond on the oor. At a later stage after iron enrichment passed its peak and concentrations of silica and volatiles greatly reduced the density of the residual liquid, extraction of these late liquids by convective fractionation would have augmented the eects of compaction.

Fig. 3. Concentrations of Ba, a representative incompatible element in the principal series of the Skaergaard Intrusion.

Petrographic and structural eects

Our co-worker, Robert Hunter, has drawn our attention to several signicant petrographic features of igneous cumulates that have strongly inuenced our view of how these rocks form (Hunter, 1987; McBirney & Hunter, 1995). Planar fabrics that have long been taken as a natural consequence of sedimentation and compaction must now be viewed with caution. As Higgins (1991) pointed out, foliation, in itself, is not a reliable criterion for mechanical rotation of plagioclase by compaction alone. This conclusion has been reinforced by geochemical evidence that the strong foliation to which Wager & Deer (1939) gave the name igneous lamination has little if any correlation with the amount of interstitial liquid the rocks retained (McBirney & Hunter, 1995). Quantitative petrofabric and compositional analyses of rocks from the Stillwater Complex have shown that development of these fabrics is a function not only of compaction but also of a number of other factors including interaction with exsolved uids (Meurer & Boudreau, 1997). The origin of this strong foliation in the Skaergaard is still unclear, but we suspect that rotation of grains can be aided by dierential solution and reprecipitation of crystals with dierent crystallographic orientations with respect to the principal stresses. Two distinct mechanisms contribute to the development of foliation during compaction, one mechanical rotation and the other selective pressure solution and recrystallization (Meurer & Boudreau, 1997). In the rst, crystals with an initially random orientation (Fig. 4a) are rotated toward a weak planar orientation of their long axis (Fig. 4b). This eect is then

1007

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

plagioclase laths, that are unequivocal signs of anisotropic strain. Unfortunately, evidence of this kind is far less common in large intrusions that cooled slowly enough to permit extensive recrystallization and annealing. Individual crystals are weakly deformed, if at all, when they grow in the presence of interstitial liquids that take up much of the strain caused by dierential stresses, and even when grain-to-grain contacts make crystals self supporting, dissolution and reprecipitation can accommodate a large measure of deformation. Lineation, although it is an important consequence of magmatic ow, does not normally develop during compaction unless there is a component of simple shear. In the interior regions of the Skaergaard Layered Series lineation is weak or undetectable, except where foundered blocks have caused local deformation or where irregular compaction has led to strong warping of the layers (McBirney & Nicolas, 1997). With this exception, foliation without lineation is more likely to reect pure shear and compaction than the simple shear expected from magmatic ow.

LAYERING RELATED TO COMPACTION

Demonstrating that the Skaergaard gabbros have undergone compaction is one thing; proving that this compaction resulted in modal layering is quite another. The evidence is largely circumstantial and stems not only from the inadequacies of the alternative explanations but also from an improved understanding of magmatic crystallization. We know of only two mechanisms that have been seriously proposed to account for compactionrelated layering, one through mechanical sorting and the other through solution and reprecipitation.

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram illustrating the formation of igneous lamination during compaction. In this diagram the number, sizes and shapes of crystals remain unchanged during mechanical rotation (a to b), whereas only the total cross-sectional area is constant in the transition from b to c.

accentuated by solution of stressed corners, edges and small crystal faces, and by equivalent growth that favors large, sub-horizontal faces (Fig. 4c). We nd (Park & McBirney, work in progress) that the large (010) faces of plagioclase are normally more stable than the smaller (001) faces and that the boundaries between the two tend to lie close to the plane of foliation. From this we infer that plagioclase crystals with long axes at steep angles to the horizontal are less stable and tend to dissolve and contribute to growth of other grains with stable faces normal to the direction of maximum stress (Fig. 5). This is supported by observations from the Stillwater Complex, where the aspect ratio of plagioclase shows a strong positive correlation with a quantitative measure of foliation (Meurer & Boudreau, 1997). This interpretation is also in accord with other signs of mechanical deformation, such as bent or broken

Mechanical segregation during compaction

More than half a century ago, Coats (1936) observed that crystals of diering sizes and densities tend to sort themselves in crude layers as they settle from a suspension and compact under the force of gravity. His simple experiments were largely ignored, possibly because they had no satisfactory theoretical basis. Apart from a few studies of industrial materials that show that particles can be segregated by upward-inltrating liquids (e.g. Font, 1990), no adequate explanation has been given for the layering produced during compaction. We are convinced, however, that the phenomenon is real, for our experiments have fully veried all of Coats observations. To do this, we used natural minerals in a size range of 0105 mm and bromoform diluted with acetone to a density slightly less than that of the lightest mineral. A

1008

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

Fig. 5. Distorted and broken laths of plagioclase are a conspicuous result of compaction of the layering. Twinning tends to be much more intense where the crystals have been deformed. Vertical thin sections were cut from an oriented sample of Middle Zone. The top of the photograph is toward the top of the specimen. Width of eld is 5 mm.

50:50 mixture of plagioclase and pyroxene was placed in a 250 ml mixing cylinder with a somewhat smaller volume of bromoform, brought into suspension by vigorous shaking, and allowed to settle. Little if any segregation was observed during the initial stage of settling, but as the bed of crystals continued to compact, irregular aggregates of plagioclase began to form. Even though the crystals formed a self-supporting framework, they continued to compact, reducing the pore space and driving out interstitial liquids. The rising liquid seems to entrain the lighter crystals of plagioclase, carrying some to the top of the bed but segregating others into crude layers (Fig. 6). As Coats noted, the eectiveness of separation is a function of several factors, including: (1) density contrast of the crystal species; (2) density contrast of the solids

and liquid; (3) proportions of the crystal species; (4) grain size and shape; (5) proportions of liquid and solids; (6) viscosity of the liquid; (7) ow velocity of the liquid. The last parameter is not independent of the others. To assess these various eects properly, one should conduct a series of experiments in which each factor could be varied independently. To date, however, our eorts to do this have had only limited success, owing mainly to the problem of nding materials with appropriate physical properties. At this stage, we can only oer a few broad generalizations. Alternating layers develop best when the density contrast is small and the proportion of liquid is less than that of the crystals. In mixtures in which the density contrast between liquid and crystals is very large or the proportion of liquid is greater than that of the crystals,

1009

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

the extensive recrystallization that subsequently aected more slowly cooled bodies. Lacking any rmer evidence, one can only speculate on the importance of this unusual type of mechanical sorting.

Solution and recrystallization

Interstitial liquids escaping from a compacting pile of crystals rise to levels where temperature and cotectic relations dier from those deeper in the section. The liquids are therefore reactive and must re-equilibrate, both thermally and chemically, with the new environment through which they rise. Under conditions of slow crystallization this equilibration can proceed, even when the dierences of chemical potential are small. In addition to temperature dierences, several factors aect the relative free energy of crystals and may alter the fabric and modal proportions of the original liquidus assemblage. Just as the textures of igneous rocks are governed by the physical and chemical properties of the liquid from which they crystallize, liquids in equilibrium with crystals have local dierences that stem from three factors: (1) dierential pressure solution; (2) dierences of grain size; (3) the anities of like and unlike crystals.
Fig. 6. Crude layers produced by segregation of plagioclase and pyroxene during compaction of a slurry suspended in dilute bromoform.

Pressure solution
Because the surface energy of a crystal increases with stress, points where stress is concentrated tend to dissolve, whereas those under smaller stress grow. The eect of pressure diers from one mineral species to another. In a mixture of two minerals, the more pressure-sensitive phase has a greater free energy when the proportions of that mineral are large than when they are small and stress is taken up by grains of a more resistant mineral. Pressure solution has long been considered an important factor in metamorphic rocks (Fyfe, 1976), but Dick & Sinton (1979) seem to have been the rst to suggest that it could produce layering in igneous rocks. They proposed that some of the layering in the ultramac rocks of ophiolites developed when olivine and pyroxene were segregated into separate layers of dunite and pyroxenite in a zone of strong tectonic deformation close to the base of the crust. Because olivine dissolves and reprecipitates more readily than pyroxene, individual crystals of pyroxene in olivine-rich rocks bear a disproportionately greater share of the total stress than do crystals of pyroxene in an olivine-poor rock. Thus, they tend to dissolve in regions where they are less abundant and reprecipitate where they are modally more important. As the relative sizes of grains are reduced by pressure solution, the chemical potential dierence is further increased by the size-dependent dierence of surface energy. Thus modal and grain-size dierences are

the light and heavy crystals are able to separate completely and form two layers with the light mineral overlying the heavy. Although the forces responsible for this sorting are poorly understood, they seem to be related to some form of self-organization of particles according to their drag coecients in a viscous uid. The fact that the mechanism seems to operate only within a restricted range of conditions may explain why it is not more common. Until more has been learned about the phenomenon, we can only speculate on its importance, but we can point to a few possible cases of what could be interpreted as Coatsian layering. All known examples are in sills that have a basal zone of coarse mac minerals that were carried in suspension at the time of intrusion and settled to the oor as a single mass. Bruce Marsh has shown us plagioclase-rich lenses in the Yorkhaven Sill that closely resemble the crude layers produced in our experiments, and has supplied photographs of similar layers in the Ferrar Dolerites of Antarctica (Fig. 7; B. D. Marsh, personal communication, 1995). In both places, the plagioclase-rich lenses developed in a coarse bronzite-rich mass that was brought in as a dense suspension and underwent gravitational compaction on the oor. The scarcity of this type of layering in larger intrusions may be due to the slower accumulation of crystals or to

1010

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

Fig. 7. Example of Coatsian layering in a dolerite sill in Antarctica (photo courtesy of B. D. Marsh).

enhanced, and an initially weak inhomogeneity can develop into layers that are increasingly monomineralic. This mechanism could be equally eective under either simple shear, as Dick and Sinton proposed, or under pure shear associated with compaction. The stability of crystals is also a function of the crystallographic face on which stress is concentrated. As we observed in an earlier section, the large 010 faces of tabular plagioclase crystals appear to be more resistant than other smaller faces. When contacts bear stress, the latter tend to dissolve whereas the former will grow and increase the proportion of grains oriented with 010 normal to the direction of maximum stress. We credit much of the foliation in plagioclase-rich rocks to this eect.

those rocks in which the mineral is modally dominant and probably explains a similar correlation observed in graded layers of the Skaergaard Middle Zone (Conrad & Naslund, 1989). Crystal aging can occur in a noncompacting assemblage, but would aid any other compaction-driven eects. The tendency for large crystals to grow at the expense of smaller ones is a function of the size-dependent concentration variations dened by the GibbsThomson equation (see Table 1 for explanation of symbols): C=C xexp 2 . RTr (1)

Grain size
Owing to their greater volume-to-surface ratio, the free energy of small crystals (and hence their solubility) is greater than that of larger ones. This dierence is the driving force by which Ostwald ripening leads to a general coarsening of grain size as large crystals grow at the expense of smaller ones. Crystal size distributions of slowly crystallized rocks, which typically show a pronounced paucity of smaller grain sizes, are one line of evidence that their minerals have undergone modication by the aging process (Waters & Boudreau, 1996). The positive correlation between grain size and modal abundance of olivine and chromite seen in olivine chromitites of the Stillwater Complex ( Jackson, 1961) was attributed by Boudreau (1995) to more rapid aging of minerals in

A small dierence of surface energy gives larger grains a competitive advantage, so that small initial variations owing to some random eect are magnied and can lead to cyclic layering. Examples of such layering have been described in detail and successfully modeled by computer simulations (Boudreau, 1987, 1994, 1995; McBirney et al., 1990).

Anity of like crystals

The magnitude of surface free energy of a given mineral is not a unique value but depends on the nature of the crystals surroundings. In general, one would expect the surface energy of a crystal to increase as the surrounding material, whether it be a silicate liquid or other crystalline phases, becomes less compatible with the surface of the crystal structure. For example, McLean (1957; in Spry,

1011

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

Table 1: List of symbols and units

A, B component A or B, respectively liquid concentration of component A (mol/cm3) equilibrium liquid concentration for a crystal of innite (large) radius equilibrium liquid concentration of component A for the case in which mineral a has 0% contact with other a mineral grains (mol/cm3) equilibrium liquid concentration of component A for the case in which mineral a has 100% contact with other a mineral grains (mol/cm3) concentration of component A in a liquid that is in equilibrium with a rock of mode/texture characteristics ratio of mass of mineral a to that of mineral b (non-dimensional) source term for component A (mol/cm3/s) gas constant (J/mol/K) temperature (K) liquid velocity (cm/s) denotes mineral a or b, respectively liquid fraction (nondimensional) fraction of solids composed of mineral a crystal number density (per cm3) crystal growth constant (cm/s) radius (cm) supersaturation (non-dimensional) time (s) distance (cm) maximum mode/texture-dependent concentration variation (mol/cm3) fraction crystallized (non-dimensional) variable describing the rock mode/texture crystal density (mol/cm3) surface tension (J/cm2) (overbar) non-dimensional value of a variable characteristic quantity of a variable

C Cx C0 C 100 C( ) H Q R T V a, b f fa n q r s t z

1969) noted that the surface energy of copper may vary by as much as two orders of magnitude, and is generally lower when in contact with other copper phases (crystals or Cu liquid). This is also supported by the tendency for monomineralic strings of minerals to be among the last material to melt during fusion (Philpotts & Carroll, 1996). It is thus apparent that the solubility of a mineral depends not only on grain size and stress but also on the nature of its contact with surrounding phases. Specically, it is probable that certain precipitating mineral grains have lower solubility against like mineral grains than against unlike ones. As with crystal aging, this phenomenon can occur regardless of whether the system is undergoing compaction, as it is driven by interfacial energy eects alone. Mineral segregation can occur in the following manner. Cotectic crystallization of two minerals a and b will nominally result in random variations of the distribution of a and b with no preferred arrangement of aa, ab, and bb contacts. However, minor irregularities may

result in zones or protolayers in which, for example, aa contacts are slightly more abundant than in the immediately surrounding rock (e.g. Coatsian layers). Because of this small dierence, crystals of a in this zone will have a lower solubility and will grow at the expense of crystals in the surrounding rock. Similarly, for a twocomponent liquid, the local abundance of aa contacts means that mineral b is relatively less stable than in the surroundings, where it is slightly more abundant and hence will dissolve as components of b migrate out into the surrounding rock. The result is that the initial textural irregularity will not only continue to grow with time but will accelerate as the number of aa contacts increases and the number of bb contacts decreases. Furthermore, this mechanism is self-propagating as regions dominated by aa contacts cause the surrounding regions to be dominated by bb contacts and vice versa. This growth of textural irregularities is similar to that proposed by Ortoleva and others for formation of metamorphic banding (e.g. Ortoleva et al., 1987).

1012

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

In layered intrusions, some of the most striking layered mineral assemblages involve spinels (chromite or magnetite). The most extreme examples consist of alternating layers of almost pure spinel and silicate minerals (Fig. 8). Textural evidence indicates that initial modal variations may have been enhanced by surface energy dierences at spinelspinel contacts (i.e. contacts involving an isotropic mineral) and spinelsilicate contacts. The relative ease by which chromite grains nucleate together and even 1ink together to form extensive chains during growth (e.g. Hunter, 1987) suggests that spinel spinel contacts have relatively lower surface energies than other types. Because of the lower surface energy, spinelspinel contacts would have lower equilibrium liquid concentrations than would sites of spinelsilicate mineral contacts. This would result in spinel grains at mixed contacts dissolving in favor of grains in which spinelspinel contacts predominate. Over time, this might lead to a nearly complete segregation of spinel from silicate minerals.

B) which crystallizes two minerals a and b. For a twocomponent system, any change in the liquid concentrations of component A will result in an equal but opposite change in the liquid concentration of component B. Hence, one can relate all changes of the liquid solution to that of component A alone, as is done in the following formulations (i.e. the quantity C refers to the concentration of component A). It is further assumed that both minerals are in contact with an interstitial liquid, that the liquid is moving through the system under the inuence of a mechanism such as compaction or convection, and that mass transport by advection is dominant over that by diusion and hence diusional transport is ignored (but see the scaling discussion, below). At any location, the change in liquid concentration of component A is equal to its net rate of ux of liquid into or out of the location, plus the rate at which it is produced or destroyed within the system by reaction with the solid assemblage. For a one-dimensional transport, one has C C =V Q. t z (2)

Combined eects
It is important to note that the eects of these three factors (dierential pressure solution, grain size and anity of like crystals) tend to reinforce one another, so that any small initial inhomogeneity is enhanced as crystals coarsen, the relative abundance of one of the minerals increases, and more grains of the dominant mineral are in direct contact with one another. In this process, the intergranular liquid plays a crucial role. If the liquid does not move and mass transport is solely by diusion within the liquid, the scale of the eects is on the order of centimeters only (Boudreau, 1994, 1995). In the presence of a moving uid, however, the eciency and scale of mass transfer is potentially much greater. Thus, liquid expelled by compaction and rising through the crystal mush surmounts the limitations of diusion and increases the vertical dimensions and intensity of the layering.

The term Q is a source term dened by the gain or loss of solution component A by growth or dissolution of minerals a and b (assumed to be spherical with average radius r): C r Q= r t =na
a

(3) ra r +nb b4 (rb)2 b . t t

4 (ra)2

Assuming a rst-order reaction mechanism, the rate of precipitation or dissolution of crystals can be expressed as ra qa = [CC( )] t a and rb q = b [CC( )] t b (5) (4)

QUANTITATIVE MODEL OF LAYER GROWTH

Presented here is a very general model for separation of two crystals in a two-component system into modally segregated layers. It is much simplied from the more detailed treatment of the general phenomenon of selforganization in geologic systems discussed by Ortoleva (1994), but illustrates the pertinent mechanisms of interest as they might occur in a large layered intrusion. Following a similar derivation by Boudreau (1994), we consider a two-component system (components A and

where q is the crystal growth constant and is the density of the crystalline phase. C( ) is the solution concentration in equilibrium with a rock with modal/textural characteristics . That is, it is assumed that all the mechanistic mineralogical/textural phenomena that aect local equilibrium liquid concentrations as described previously can be summarized in a general phenomenological expression for C( ). In detail, is a function of mineral modes as well as grain size, shape and orientation. As a rst approximation, C( ) is taken to be a simple function of local mineral mode, which is itself a function of grain size, r, and the crystal number density, n, such that

1013

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

Fig. 8. (a) Layers of chromitite alternating with anorthosite at the Dwars River in the Bushveld Complex of South Africa. (b) Detail of coarse, plagioclase-rich segregation or residual clot within a magnetite layer.

C( )=C100+(1fa) where fa= na(ra)3 na(ra)3+nb(rb)3

(6)

(7)

and is a constant. The quantity C 100 is the equilibrium liquid concentration for the situation where mineral a is

completely surrounded by a. (It is noted that the liquid can be crystallizing at the eutectic but that in any small region there may be no ab contacts.) is a constant equivalent to the maximum concentration dierence between an assemblage where mineral a is surrounded entirely by a and one where a is surrounded entirely by b. The value of can be small if one is considering solubility variations arising from surface energy eects alone, but could be substantial for the case where crystals

1014

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

of one phase are experiencing most of the strain during compaction. A qualitative view of the situation is shown schematically in a two-crystal, two-component system, where the location of the eutectic is assumed to be a function of the local mode/texture as shown in Fig. 9. In this gure, the eutectic for the case where a is surrounded completely by a is at a lower concentration (i.e. at C 100) than is the case for which a is surrounded by b (i.e. at C 0). It should be noted that we are assuming that the eutectic does not change its location with respect to temperature, although a temperature dependence could be readily added (Boudreau, 1994). Also, the eect of the rock mode/texture term as dened in equations (6) and (7) includes grain size and number but not orientation of the mineral grains as would be required if one were not considering spherical grains. Finally, liquid velocity will not be constant but will change as the porosity changes. It is assumed that for small changes in total solid fraction, f, then V f . V= f (8)

Nondimensional equations
Additional dimensionless equations equivalent to the above, derived in the Appendix, are presented below. It is assumed that mineral a is the more reactive mineral phase, and parameters of mineral b are scaled to the properties of mineral a. Thus, the reaction/transport equations (2) and (3) become 1 s r r s =V na(ra)2 a +Hnb(rb)2 b t z t t nr3 H= b b3 n ar a
b a

(9) (10)

The quantity H is the ratio of the characteristic amounts of the two minerals a and b initially present and, for most cotectic crystallization systems, the ratio is close to one. The grain growth equations (4) and (5) become ra =[s(1fa)] t rb =qb[s(1fa)] t where r2 q qb= a2 a b . r b bqa The liquid velocity equation (8) becomes (11) (12)

Fig. 9. Schematic representation of the expected shift of the eutectic position in a two-component system as a function of mineral mode. It is assumed that minerals a and b both have lower free energies when in contact with like grains than unlike grains. Where mineral a is surrounded by b (i.e. b is modally dominant), bb contacts are predominant and hence a is relatively soluble and b less soluble. The location of the eutectic is then as shown by the continuous lines. Where a is surrounded mainly by a (i.e. a is modally dominant), then aa contacts predominate and hence b is relatively soluble and a is relatively insoluble. The location of the eutectic is then shifted to the location shown by the dashed lines. The maximum concentration dierence between rocks rich in a (at C 100, where 100% of the contacts are aa contacts) and those rich in b (at C 0, where 0% of the contacts are aa contacts) denes the maximum mode/texture-dependent concentration dierence term, .

V =

1 f

(14)

The mode/texture dependence of the equilibrium liquid concentration dened by equations (6) and (7) is expressed through the term fa in equations (11) and (12). The term in equation (9) is a scaling constant and is given by = 4 na a(ra)3 . (15)

(13) This scaling constant, , is simply the ratio of the moles of component A initially present as crystals a (per unit

1015

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

volume) to the maximum molar liquid concentration dierence in component A that can develop by a change in rock mode or texture between regions (as illustrated in Fig. 9). Finally, the characteristic time and length scales are given by t= and z= t V . (17) ra qa
a

(16)

Estimates of characteristic times and scaling constant,

Rearranging equation (17), the characteristic time can be expressed as a function of the characteristic length, scaling constant and interstitial liquid velocity: t= z . V (18)

Thus, the time it takes for a layer to develop increases as either the thickness of the layer increases or as the scaling constant increases, both of which imply there is a relative increase in the amount of material that must be transferred between regions to eect mineral segregation relative to the maximum amount of material that can be transported in a unit volume of liquid. In contrast, the time it takes a layer to develop is inversely proportional to the velocity of the interstitial liquid, as a higher liquid velocity speeds up transfer of material between regions. From estimates of the cooling time and interstitial liquid velocities one can estimate permissible values of the scaling constant, , and from this the required supersaturation dierences, , required to eect layer formation. A plot of characteristic times as a function of velocity of interstitial liquid and values ranging from 103 to 106 is shown in Fig. 10 for a characteristic length of 1 cm as a typical length scale for non-dynamic igneous layering. An interstitial liquid velocity of 106107 cm/s is equivalent to 330 cm/yr, or in the range of estimated values for compaction-driven uid velocities in a typical large intrusion (Shirley, 1987; Sonnenthal & McBirney, 1997). Shirley (1987) estimated a minimum compaction time of 200 years for the Muskox intrusion, and this can be taken as a minimum time scale for non-dynamic layering to develop. A long characteristic time is consistent with the observation that well-developed modal segregation layering is not common or well developed in small or relatively thin intrusions such as the Palisades sill. It is only in intrusions the size of the Skaergaard or larger that a

liquid+crystal mush zone is both thick enough and persists long enough for the processes that drive selfsegregation to operate. Even within the Skaergaard, the observation that layering becomes more dened with height is consistent with the interpretation that a thicker crystal mush enhances non-dynamic layer formation. Assuming characteristic time scales from 1000 to 10 000 years, values of the scaling constant, , would need to be in the range of 103 104. However, the value of will not remain constant over the course of crystallization. The scaling constant is initially small during the early nucleation growth period, when the volume of crystalline material is low and solubility dierences driven by surface energy are relatively large. At this liquid-dominant stage, the value of can be less than one (Boudreau, 1995). It increases rapidly, however, as grains become larger and size-driven liquid concentration dierences decrease. It then decreases as loading by overlying crystals increases and crystals begin to deform during compaction. Thus, it is during the early growth phase and then during compaction that non-dynamic layering is most likely to develop, as these are the times when is smallest. It should be noted that the phenomenon occurs whether the transport is by advection (as is modeled here) or by diusion [as modeled by Boudreau (1994)]. Including a diusion transport term in equation (2) would not change qualitatively the observed segregation, as the diusive gradients are such that they also will favor mineral segregation. Indeed, for slow inltration rates, the addition of a diusional mode of transport along with advection would lead to more rapid material exchange between developing layers and hence actually accelerate the time scale for layer development. For example, for the 1 cm length scale under consideration, the low liquid velocities at longer characteristic times are such that the product V L approaches values for diusion mass transport appropriate for silicate liquids. For layering that develops on a ner length scale, such as is illustrated in Fig. 2, the system can evolve on diusion length and time scales and hence could occur without liquid migration. However, for layers with longer characteristic lengths (i.e. thickness), such as the decimeter-scale macfelsic layers of the Skaergaard Layered series, diusion alone would be insucient. Compaction-aided advection or interstitial liquid convection is required in addition to diusion to eect the necessary mass transport between regions.

Numerical model of layer development

A one-dimensional numerical model of grain size and textural evolution with time using a nite-dierence analog of the nondimensional equations (9)(13) is shown in Fig. 11. [Because growth of one mineral phase is

1016

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

Fig. 10. Plot of characteristic times (in seconds) as a function of velocity of intercumulus liquid, for a range of values of the scaling constant, , all calculated for a characteristic length of 1 cm.

matched by dissolution of the other mineral phase, porosity changes little and hence velocity variations expressed through equation (14) are not considered in the following simulations.] In this calculation, the system starts as a uniform distribution of a and b mineral grains, all of the same average size but with a local bump in the grain size of mineral a. For the calculation, the scaling constant, , is taken to be 104. The calculation follows the evolution of this initial bump over ten nondimensional space steps and over nine nondimensional time units. The initial bump of larger grains of mineral a is located at a (nondimensional) distance of 33 units: grains of mineral a in the peak of this bump are 5% larger than the average elsewhere. Plotted in the four graphs of Fig. 11 are, from top to bottom, the radius of mineral a, the radius of mineral b, the volume of mineral a as a percent of total solids volume (i.e. the modal abundance of mineral a), and the scaled liquid concentration of component Aall plotted as dimensionless quantities. The interstitial liquid is taken as owing from left to right. The plot shows the evolution of the proles for these quantities at the dimensionless times of 0, 3, 6 and 9 time units. Because the number of grains is constant, the region of larger grains centered at a distance of 33 units causes a small increase in the modal abundance of a in this bump, which in turn aects the local equilibrium liquid concentration. Let us consider rst what occurs as the interstitial liquid, moving from left to right, begins to encounter the region where the modal abundance of a is beginning to increase. Because of the textural dependence of the eutectic position, the equilibrium concentration for component A is lower where mineral a is modally more abundant. Hence the liquid nds itself oversaturated in mineral a as it encounters the upstream side of the bump and begins to precipitate more mineral

Fig. 11. Numerical model of layer development. Plotted against the dimensionless distance are, from top to bottom, the nondimensional radius of mineral a (ra), the nondimensional radius of mineral b (rb), the volume percent of mineral a as a percentage of total solids volume (fa), and the scaled nondimensional concentration (s). Shown is the evolution of the prole at dimensionless time (t ) equal to 0, 3, 6 and 9 time units. (See text for additional discussion.)

a. For mineral b it is just the opposite; the liquid nds itself undersaturated in mineral b as it encounters the

1017

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

upstream side of the bump and hence b begins to dissolve. Once the liquid passes the peak of the bump, however, the situation is the reverse. On the downstream side of the bump, the liquid is moving into assemblages that have progressively more b than a. In this case, the liquid is always oversaturated in b but undersaturated in a as it moves to the right of the initial bump, and thus a dissolves whereas b precipitates. The net eect is that a becomes more abundant on the upstream side whereas b becomes more abundant on the downstream side. The original peak in grain size of a grows but it also migrates upstream. In addition, the initiation and growth of the b peak itself induces a new a peak to form downstream from the rst peak, which in turn induces yet other peaks to form. After nine nondimensional time steps, three a peaks and three b peaks have developed. We note that regions in which a or b are modally dominant tend to become sharply dened from their neighboring regions, as seen in the modal plot of volume percent of mineral a. Also, grains in the individual layers may be size-graded. That is, the larger grains are at the downstream side of each layer (this is better developed in the induced layers than in the layer formed from the initial bump). If the layering were developed horizontally in response to vertical movement of liquid (as in a compacting pile of cumulus crystals), then the size grading would be similar to the size distribution produced by Stokes law gravitational separation of larger from smaller grains during a crystal settling event. In this case, however, the grain sizes need not be hydraulically equivalent as would be expected for layering formed by crystal settling. The scaled concentration prole tends to mirror the modal abundance prole for mineral a. This is because the mass of solid material is large as compared with the maximum texture-induced concentration dierences and causes the scaled concentration prole to be strongly controlled at the equilibrium values dened by the local rock mode/texture. Finally, on observing the texture and modal variations evolve, one tends to be taken by the propagation of the pattern. What is perhaps more important, however, is the fact that minor textural irregularities tend to become more sharply dened over time. In a rock composed of initially weakly dened layers formed by a variety of nucleation or mechanical segregation mechanisms, the processes outlined above will continue to enhance the modal and textural contrast between layers. This modal enhancement of preexisting modal variations may be the principal cause of non-dynamic layering.

from variations of intensive parameters that alter rates of nucleation and crystal growth, the layers have diuse boundaries and the minerals have little if any lineation. A notable exception is the layering in the Marginal Border Series, which advanced more slowly and is relatively compressed. Most of the sharp layering in the interior of the Layered Series is thought to be related in some way to compaction and other processes involving porous ow of interstitial liquids. Although mechanical segregation may be eective during the initial stages of accumulation, dierential pressure-solution seems to have been the principal mechanism. Initial modal variations are strongly enhanced and sharpened as the ascending liquid transfers components from one level to another. The driving force of segregation is the free-energy dierence resulting from combined eects of grain size, pressure solution, and the relative anities of like and unlike minerals. Where compaction produces a regionally uniform upward percolation of liquid, this segregation leads to formation of planar layers. However, focused ow or non-uniform compaction may cause more irregular structures. The coincidence of the disappearance of extensive strataform layering with the beginning of the trough layers in the Upper Zone is consistent with a change from uniform to focused ow of interstitial liquid at this level.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work has been supported by grants from the National Science Foundation to A. E. Boudreau (NSF EAR 9217664 and 95-17144). McBirneys 25 years of work on the Skaergaard Intrusion would not have been possible without the nancial support provided by a series of grants from the National Science Foundation. Review by W. P. Meurer, Bruce Marsh and an anonymous reviewer is acknowledged and much appreciated.

REFERENCES
Boudreau, A. E., 1987. Pattern formation during crystallization and the formation of ne-scale layering. In: Parsons, I. (ed.) Origins of Igneous Layering. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, pp. 453471. Boudreau, A. E., 1994. Mineral segregation during crystal aging in two-crystal, two-component systems. South African Journal of Geology 97, 473485. Boudreau, A. E., 1995. Crystal aging and the formation of ne-scale igneous layering. Mineralogy and Petrology 54, 5569. Bowen, N. L., 1928. The Evolution of Igneous Rocks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 331 pp. Brothers, R. N., 1964. Petrofabric analyses of Rhum and Skaergaard layered rocks. Journal of Petrology 5, 255274. Coats, R. R., 1936. Primary banding in basic plutonic rocks. Journal of Geology 44, 407419.

CONCLUSIONS
Skaergaard layering produced by non-dynamic processes diers from that caused by magmatic ow. If it results

1018

BOUDREAU AND McBIRNEY

NON-DYNAMIC LAYERING OF THE SKAERGAARD INTRUSION

Conrad, M. E. & Naslund, H. R., 1989. Modally graded rhythmic layering in the Skaergaard Intrusion. Journal of Petrology 30, 251269. Dick, H. J. B. & Sinton, J. M., 1979. Compositional layering in alpine peridotites: evidence for pressure solution creep in the mantle. Journal of Geology 87, 403416. Font, R., 1990. Calculation of the compression zone height in continuous thickeners. AIChE Journal 36, 312. Fyfe, W. S., 1976. Chemical aspects of rock deformation. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A 283, 221228. Harker, A., 1909. Natural History of Igneous Rocks. New York: Macmillan Company, 384 pp. Helz, R. T., 1987. Dierentiation behavior of Kilauea Iki lava lake, Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii: an overview of past and current work. In: Mysen, B. (ed.) Magmatic Processes: Physicochemical Principles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 241258. Helz, R. T., Kirschenbaum, A. & Marinenko, J. W., 1989. Diapiric transfer of melt in Kilauea Iki lava lake, Hawaii: a quick, ecient process of igneous dierentiation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 101, 57,591. Higgins, M. D., 1991. The origin of laminated and massive anorthosite, Sept Iles Layered Intrusion, Quebec, Canada. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 106, 340354. Hort, M., Marsh, B. D. & Spohn, T., 1993. Igneous layering through oscillatory nucleation and crystal settling in well-mixed magmas. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 114, 425440. Hunter, R. H., 1987. Textural equilibrium in layered igneous rocks. In: Parsons, I. (ed.) Origins of Igneous Layering. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, pp. 473503. Irvine, T. N., 1987. Layering and related structures in the Duke Island and Skaergaard Intrusions: similarities, dierences, and origins. In: Parsons, I. (ed.) Origins of Igneous Layering. Dordrecht: D. Reidel, pp. 185246. Jackson, E. D., 1961. Primary textures and mineral associations in the Ultramac Zone of the Stillwater Complex, Montana. US Geological Survey Professional Paper 358, 106 pp. Maale, S., 1978. The origin of rhythmic layering. Mineralogical Magazine 42, 337345. McBirney, A. R., 1985. Further considerations of double-diusive stratication and layering in the Skaergaard Intrusion. Journal of Petrology 26, 9931001. McBirney, A. R., 1995. Mechanisms of dierentiation of layered intrusions: evidence from the Skaergaard Intrusion. Journal of the Geological Society of London 152, 421435. McBirney, A. R. & Hunter, R. H., 1995. The cumulate paradigm reconsidered. Journal of Geology 103, 114122. McBirney, A.R. & Nicolas, A., 1997. The Skaergaard layered series: Part II. Dynamic layering. Journal of Petrology 38, 000000. McBirney, A. R. & Noyes, R. M., 1979. Crystallization and layering of the Skaergaard Intrusion. Journal of Petrology 20, 487564. McBirney, A. R., White, C. M. & Boudreau, A. E., 1990. Spontaneous development of concentric layering in a solidied siliceous dike, East Greenland. Earth-Science Reviews 29, 321330. McLean, D., 1957. Grain Boundaries in Metals. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Meurer, W. P. & Boudreau, A. E., 1997. Assessing the role of compaction and uid uxing in the development of igneous foliations An example from the Stillwater complex, Montana. Journal of Geology, In review. Morse, S. A., 1986. Convection in aid of adcumulus growth. Journal of Petrology 27, 11831214. Naslund, H. R. & McBirney, A. R., 1996. Mechanisms of formation of igneous layering. In: Cawthorn, R. G. (ed.) Layered Igneous Intrusions. Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 144.

Ortoleva, P. J., 1994. Geochemical Self-Organization. New York: Oxford University Press, 411 pp. Ortoleva, P. J., Merino, E., Moore, C. & Chadam, J., 1987. Geochemical self-organization l: reactiontransport feedbacks and modeling approach. American Journal of Science 287, 9791007. Philpotts, A. R. & Carroll, M., 1996. Physical properties of partly melted tholeiitic basalt. Geology 24, 10291032. Philpotts, A. R., Carroll, M. & Hill, J. M., 1996. Crystal-mush compaction and the origin of pegmatitic segregation sheets in a thick ood-basalt ow in the Mesozoic Hartford Basin, Connecticut. Journal of Petrology 37, 811836. Shirley, D. N., 1987. Dierentiation and compaction in the Palisades Sill. Journal of Petrology 28, 835865. Sonnenthal, E. L. & McBirney, A. R., 1997. The Skaergaard Layered Series. Part IV: Reaction-transport simulations of foundered blocks. Journal of Petrology 38, in press. Sonnenthal, E. L., 1992. Geochemistry of dendritic anorthosites and associated pegmatites in the Skaergaard Intrusion, East Greenland: evidence for metasomatism by a chlorine-rich uid. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research 52, 209230. Sparks, R. S. J., Huppert, H. E., Kerr, R. C., McKenzie, D. P. & Tait, S. R., 1985. Postcumulus processes in layered intrusions. Geological Magazine 122, 555568. Spry, A., 1969. Metamorphic Textures. New York: Pergamon Press, 350 pp. Taylor, H. P., Jr & Forester, R. W., 1979. An oxygen and hydrogen isotope study of the Skaergaard Intrusion and its country rocks: a description of a 55-MY-old fossil hydrothermal system. Journal of Petrology 20, 355419. Wager, L. R., 1959. Diering powers of crystal nucleation as a factor producing diversity in layered igneous intrusions. Geological Magazine 96, 7580. Wager, L. R., 1961. A note on the origin of ophitic texture in the chilled olivine gabbro of the Skaergaard intrusion. Geological Magazine 98, 353366. Wager, L. R. & Brown, G. M., 1968. Layered Igneous Rocks. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 538 pp. Wager, L. R. & Deer, W., 1939. Geological investigations in East Greenland, Part III. The petrology of the Skaergaard Intrusion, Kangerdlugssuaq, East Greenland. Meddelelser om Grnland 105, 1 352. Waters, C. & Boudreau, A. E., 1996. A reevaluation of crystalsize distributions in chromite cumulates. American Mineralogist 81, 14521459.

APPENDIX
The characteristic and dimensionless forms of the various values are dened as follows: ra=rara rb=rbrb t=tt na=nana nb=nbnb z=zz

V=V V

f=f f

(A1)

For the radius, crystal number density, and liquid velocity, one can take the typical, or system-averaged, initial values as the characteristic quantities. One can also dene a dimensionless supersaturation: C=C 100(1+s). (A2)

The characteristic time and length are to be derived

1019

JOURNAL OF PETROLOGY

VOLUME 38

NUMBER 8

AUGUST 1997

below. Substitution of the equations (A1), (A2) and (6) into equation (4) and rearrangement gives ra t qa = {C100(1+s)[C100+(1fa) ]} t r a a or ra t qa = t r a a C100s (1fa) . (A4) (A3)

ra a qb . (A11) r b b qa For the transportreaction equation (2), substitution of equations (3), (A1) and (A2) gives qb= VC s C100 s =V 100 4 x t z z +4
b a

nb(rb)3 r nb(rb)2 b . t t s 4 z

na(ra)3 r na(ra)2 a t t (A12)

With further substitution of equation (A6), one has One can then dene a characteristic time as follows: t=
a a

s V =V x t z +4

na(ra)3 r na(ra)2 a t t (A13)

qa

(A5)

In addition, one can dene a scaled supersaturation in which the supersaturation is scaled to the maximum mode/texture-induced concentration dierence: sC s= 100 . (A6)

nb(rb)3 r nb(rb)2 b . b t t na(ra)3 r na(ra)2 a t

or, on rearranging, one has s V t s =V 4 t z z +4

a

The non-dimensional crystal growth rate for mineral a is then given by ra =[s(1fa)] . t (A7)

nb(rb)3 r nb(rb)2 b . b t = 4 n (r )3

(A14)

One can then dene the scaling constant, :

a a a

(A15)

A similar treatment for mineral bsubstitution of equations (A1), (A2) and (6) into equation (5)gives rb t q = b {C100(1+s)[C100+(1fa) ]} t rb b or tq rb = b t rb b C100s (1fa)

and furthermore let t V = . z (A16)

(A8)

Then, on substitution of (A15) and (A16) into equation (A14), one arrives at r r 1 s s =V na(ra)2 a +Hnb(rb)2 b t z t t where

(A9)

H=

b b

n (r b)3 3. ana(r a)

(A18)

On substitution of the expression for the characteristic time and the scaled supersaturation [equations (A5) and (A6)], one has rb =qb[s(1fa)] t where (A10)

Finally, for equation (8), substitution of equations (A1) gives V V = or V = Vf ff (A19)

1 f

(A20)

1020