Het Tretment by Sir Ishaq

MEDIUM
%iffi*u#t to *o$tro# surfa*e *arbo$ 4e3uired $o spe*ia# *o$te$t0 parti*u#ar#y +he$ *arbo$ fur$a*e e3uipme$t5 o$#y Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) Supervised by:must Sir Mbe ! he#d Abrobe#o+ ;<5 So#id *arbo$ *o$te$t restri*tio$ is that fur$a*e =a*' Carburi/i$g e g *har*oa# - *o'e usua##y re3uires i$dividua# must be *apab#e of mi.ture ha$d#i$g of parts re3uires spe*ia# operatio$ at re3uired fur$a*es a$d atmosphere temperature ge$erators 6arious prepared atmospheres0 e g (78C98C(:
BY: SIR MUHMMED ISHAQUE ABRO 4e#ative#y easy *o$tro# of

surfa*e *arbo$ *o$te$t5 4e3uires spe*ia# fur$a*es a$d suitab#e for high vo#ume atmosphere ge$erators produ*tio$ Classes: 1-2 Te$de$*y for stee# to absorb $itroge$ as +e## as *arbo$0 +hi*h is sometimes $ot desired 4e3uires spe*ia# sa#t bath fur$a*e ,ot as suitab#e for vo#ume produ*tio$ as gas *arburi/i$g %isposa# of spe$t sa#t may be a prob#em be*ause of poiso$ous $ature
1as Carburi/i$g
INTRODUCTION TO SUBJECT:
4e#ative#y easy *o$tro# of surfa*e *arbo$ *o$te$t5 suitab#e for high vo#ume Mechanisms: produ*tio$
Li3uid Mo#te$ sa#ts Carburi/i$g *o$tai$i$g ,aC, Strengthening
"So#id So#utio$ Stre$gthe$i$g "%ispersio$ Stre$gthe$i$g "&or' (arde$i$g)%is#o*atio$ Stre$gthe$i$g "(eat Treatme$t)Therma# Treatme$t
Strengthening Mechanisms (Solid Solution Strengthening):

"So#id so#utio$ stre$gthe$i$g is a phe$ome$o$ that o**urs +he$ the $umber of impurity atoms i$ the #atti*e of the basi* e#eme$t is so sma## that they are i$*apab#e of formi$g both stab#e a$d metastab#e pre*ipitatio$ phases u$der a$y therma# treatme$t *o$ditio$s ",everthe#ess the impurity atoms favor improveme$t of me*ha$i*a# properties This *a$ be a**ou$ted for the fo##o+i$g -The prese$*e of impurity atoms i$ the matri. #atti*e #eads to distortio$ of the #atti*e be*ause of the differe$*e i$ si/e bet+ee$ the atomi* radii of the impurity a$d the basi* *ompo$e$t This i$ tur$ #eads to the appeara$*e of e#asti* deformatio$ fie#ds0 +hi*h retard moveme$t of dis#o*atio$s i$ s#ip p#a$es u$der the a*tio$ of app#ied stresses -!$ additio$0 the impurity atoms *a$ i$hibit moveme$t of dis#o*atio$s by formi$g impurity atmospheres arou$d them -1rai$ si/e refi$eme$t a#so ta'es p#a*e due to additio$ of some meta##i* impurities #i'e AL a$d Cu "A## of the above fa*tors p#ay a #eadi$g ro#e i$ so#id so#utio$ stre$gthe$i$g
Strengthening Mechanisms (Dispersion Strengthening):

"!$ the ma2ority of meta# a##oys0 pre*ipitatio$ of supersaturated so#id so#utio$s formed duri$g 3ue$*hi$g is fo##o+ed by pre*ipitatio$ of disperse parti*#es e$ri*hed i$ atoms of the a##oyi$g *ompo$e$ts "!t +as fou$d that the stre$gth (hard$ess) of the a##oys i$*reases +ith the pre*ipitatio$ of these parti*#es
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)
Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro
"The i$*reme$t i$ the va#ue of these *hara*teristi*s i$*reases as the dispersio$ a$d vo#ume fra*tio$ of the parti*#es i$*rease "This phe$ome$o$ has bee$ referred to as dispersio$ stre$gthe$i$g
Strengthening Mechanism ( Work Hardening):

"A$ importa$t method used to stre$gthe$ stee#s is deformatio$ stre$gthe$i$g "Stre$gthe$i$g a*hieved +ith *rysta# deformatio$ *a$ be 2udged from the shape of stress-strai$ *urves
What is Heat Treatment?

(eati$g0 Soa'i$g a$d Coo#i$g
900 800 700 Temeperature 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 Time 20 30
Why Heat Treatment is?

"To obtai$ed best *ombi$atio$ of desired me*ha$i*a# properties ">or e.amp#e: -(igh hard$ess a$d stre$gth +ith #o+ tough$ess va#ue - (igh du*ti#ity a$d per*e$t e#o$gatio$ +ith #o+ hard$ess a$d stre$gth va#ue -(igh hard$ess a$d stre$gth +ith high tough$ess va#ue
How?
"?y a#teri$g: -(eati$g Temperature -Soa'i$g Time -Coo#i$g 4ate -(eati$g a$d Coo#i$g Cy*#es
Why?
"Meta##urgi*a# Chara*teristi*s: -1rai$ si/e -Mi*rostru*ture -=re*ipitatio$ of Se*o$dary =hase -%istortio$ of Crysta# Latti*es "are Cha$gi$g &ith (eati$g a$d Coo#i$g Cy*#e
Grain Si e:
"1ari$ (%emo@:) ",umber of grai$s per u$it area "Coarse grai$ -Sma## $umber of grai$s (:) per u$it area ">i$e grai$ -(igh $umber of grai$s (;8) per u$it area
Grain !oundary:
"The grai$ bou$dary is o$e of the basi* stru*tura# e#eme$ts i$ po#y*rysta##i$e materia#s "The grai$ bou$dary represe$ts a$ i$terfa*e bet+ee$ t+o differe$t#y orie$ted *rysta#s "This is the regio$ of *rysta# imperfe*tio$ "!t is *apab#e of movi$g a$d adsorbi$g impurities "The bou$dary has a high diffusive permeabi#ity "Moveme$t of grai$ bou$daries *o$tro#s the pro*ess of re*rysta##i/atio$ "1rai$ bou$daries adsorb impurities "Ambritt#eme$t of meta# materia# is *o$$e*ted +ith e$ri*hme$t of grai$ bou$daries i$ impurities "1rai$ bou$daries may *o$ve$tio$a##y be divided i$to t+o #arge groups: #o+Ba$g#e a$d "#argeBa$g#e bou$daries "Lo+Ba$g#e bou$daries (or subgrai$ bou$daries +ith a$ a$g#e of #ess "tha$ ;0o) represe$t $et+or's or +a##s of dis#o*atio$s "The stru*ture of #argeBa$g#e bou$daries is mu*h more *omp#i*ated
Grain !oundary:
Microstructure:
"So#id phases prese$t at mi*ro s*a#e +ithi$ the meta# a$d its a##oys ",ome$*#ature of these phases is based o$ =hysi*oB*hemi*a# attributes -So#id so#utio$0 me*ha$i*a# mi.ture0 *hemi*a# *ompou$d -Their orie$tatio$ (e3uia.ed0 preferred) -Morpho#ogy or te.ture (grai$u#ar0 spheri*a#0 p#ate0 $eed#e)
Microstructures o" Steels:

">errite -So#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ ?CC !ro$
Pearlite
Ferrite

"Auste$ite -So#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ >CC iro$

"Marte$site -Supersaturated so#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ ?CC iro$ (?CT)

Marte$site

"Ceme$tite -Chemi*a# *ompou$d of iro$ a$d *arbo$ (>e3C)
OR

"=ear#ite -Me*ha$i*a# mi.ture of ferrite a$d *eme$tite "Leduberite
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) -Me*h$i*a# mi.ture of auste$ite a$d *eme$tite

"?ai$ite -Me*ha$i*a# mi.ture of ferrite a$d *eme$tite -Cpper bai$ite resemb#es pear#ite a$d #o+er bai$ite marte$site
Class: 3-4
TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT
Types o" Heat Treatments:

">errous meta#s a$d A##oys -Co$ve$tio$a# a$d ,o$ *o$ve$tio$a# ",o$ >errous meta#s a$d A##oys -Age harde$i$g
Heat Treatment o" #errous $lloys(Steel and %ast &ron):
%on'entional Heat treatment (rocesses:

"&hat is ,orma#i/i$g -(eati$g above the upper *riti*a# Temperature a$d *oo#i$g s#o+#y "&hat is A$$ea#i$g -(eati$g above the upper *riti*a# temperature ((ypo) a$d #o+er *riti*a# ((yper) a$d *oo#i$g very s#o+ "&hat is (arde$i$g -(eati$g above *riti*a# temperature a$d *oo#i$g rapid#y -Marte$site rather tha$ =ear#ite "&hat is Temperi$g -(eati$g ?e#o+ Criti*a# temperature a$d *oo#i$g s#o+#y ",ote: -!sotherma# tra$sformatio$ i$ both $orma#i/i$g a$d a$$ea#i$g -Atherma# Tra$sformatio$ i$ harde$i$g
Heat treatment:
N r!ali"i#$: (eat to Cpper Criti*a# Temperature0 at +hi*h poi$t the stru*ture is a## Auste$ite Coo# s#o+#y i$ air Stru*ture +i## $o+ be fi$e e3uiBa.ed pear#ite Csed to restore the du*ti#ity of *o#d or hot +or'ed materia#s +hi#st retai$i$g other properties A##eali#$: ; (eat to above Cpper Criti*a# Temperature0 at +hi*h poi$t the stru*ture is a## Auste$ite 7 Coo# very s#o+#y i$ the fur$a*e
3 Stru*ture +i## $o+ be #argeBgrai$ed pear#ite : Csed to improve the properties of *ast a$d forged stee#s prior to ma*hi$i$g
%on'entional Heat treatment (rocess:

%&' N r!ali(i#$) -To improve me*ha$i*a# =roperties (i e to deve#op best *ombi$atio$ of me*h properties ) ->i$e grai$ mi*rostru*ture %&e# N r!ali(i#$) -After Casti$g "To e#imi$ate %e$driti* Stru*ture -After Meta# +or'i$g "To remove residua# stresses %&' A##eali#$) -To improve du*ti#ity at the *ost of hard$ess a$d stre$gth -Coarse grai$ mi*rostru*ture -T9 re#ieve residua# stresses %&e# A##eali#$) -?efore a$d after meta# +or'i$g -After *asti$g ((yper stee#s)
$nnealing Types:
Di**+"i # A##eali#$: A$$ea#i$g is to e#imi$ate i$homoge$eities of the *hemi*a# *ompositio$ +hi*h appear duri$g *rysta##i/atio$ of a##oys This a$$ea#i$g is usua##y *arried out i$ the ra$ge of the so#id so#utio$ at a temperature of ;;00-;3009C %iffusio$ a$$ea#i$g *a$ be used primari#y to smooth out a differe$*e i$ the *o$te$t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts %iffere$*es i$ mi*rohard$ess are e#imi$ated simu#ta$eous#y The overa## hard$ess of the a##oy de*reases be*ause #i3uatio$ regio$s possessi$g high hard$ess are removed Some average hard$ess is obtai$ed The su**ess of diffusio$ a$$ea#i$g #arge#y depe$ds o$ the stee# purity a$d #i3uatio$ This type of a$$ea#i$g is usua##y used to improve properties of mediumBpurity stee#s S *te#i#$ A##eali#$: !t is used to produ*e the stru*ture of g#obu#ar pear#ite This stru*ture is very soft a$d readi#y #e$ds itse#f to deformatio$ duri$g dra+i$g0 *o#d ro##i$g0 et* Stee#s +ith a #o+B*arbo$ *o$te$t be*ome too soft after this a$$ea#i$g treatme$t The g#obu#ar pear#ite stru*ture is favorab#e i$ stee#s +ith a *arbo$ *o$*e$tratio$ of more tha$ 0 D< A$other goa# of softe$i$g is to produ*e a u$iform fi$e stru*ture +ith fi$e#y dispersed *arbo$ after 3ue$*hi$g
The simp#est method of softe$i$g *o$sists i$ ho#di$g for ma$y hours at a temperature s#ight#y above A*; !$ this *ase0 marte$site that is #eft from the previous treatme$t is removed a$d the +or' harde$i$g *aused by deformatio$ (e g 0 forgi$g) is e#imi$ated Carbide p#ates of pear#ite fu##y *oagu#ate o$#y after a #o$g a$$ea#i$g time As fi$eBp#ate pear#ite tra$sforms more easi#y to g#obu#ar pear#ite
$nnealing Types (Stress )elie" $nnealing and )ecrystalli ation $nnealing):

%is#o*atio$ pi#eBups a$d *rysta# #atti*e distortio$s arisi$g i$ *o#dBdeformed meta#s may resu#t i$ the appeara$*e of ma*ros*opi* stresses (stresses of the first 'i$d) Csua##y these stresses are very high Cha$ges i$ properties that o**ur u$der *o#d deformatio$ are re*tified by emp#oyi$g stress re#ief a$$ea#i$g The greater the degree of deformatio$0 the #o+er the heati$g temperature %epe$di$g o$ the temperature a$d time of a$$ea#i$g0 various stru*tura# *ha$ges ta'e p#a*e i$ a *o#dB deformed materia# The *ha$ges are divided i$to re*overy a$d re*rysta##i/atio$ pro*esses !f re*overy pro*eeds +ithout the formatio$ a$d migratio$ of subgrai$ bou$daries i$side the re*rysta##i/ed grai$s0 it is *a##ed restori$g !f subgrai$ bou$daries are formed a$d migrate i$side the *rysta##ites0 re*overy is referred to as po#ygo$i/atio$)re*rysta#i/atio$
%on'entional Heat treatment (rocess:

%&' Har,e#i#$ To improve the stre$gth a$d hard$ess of the materia#)stee#
Tempering:

Te!-eri#$ : a pro*ess of heati$g a marte$siti* stee# at a temp be#o+ the eute*toid temp to ma'e it softer a$d more du*ti#e >e3C parti*#es pre*ipitates from the aE phase F tempered marte$site F spheroidite
G reheat + >e3C
Spheroidite
Tempering Temperatures:
M$)T*M(*)&+G:
Martemperi$g : a modified 3ue$*hi$g pro*edure used for stee#s to mi$imi/e distortio$ a$d *ra*'i$g upo$ 3ue$*hi$g
Auste$iti/i$g F 3ue$*hi$g i$ hot oi# or mo#te$ sa#t at a temp 2ust above the Ms F moderate *oo#i$g to Ms
$,ST*M(*)&+G:
"Austemperi$g
: a$ isotherma# treatme$t +hi*h produ*e a bai$ite stru*ture i$ some *arbo$ stee#s
Classes:5-6
HEAT TREATMENT STEPS

M$&+ ST*(S -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T: H*$T&+G T- $,ST*+&T&.&+G T*M(*)$T,)*:
H'- e+te.t i, "teel: Temperature desired is D0o> above the upper *riti*a# temperature 4easo$: To disso#ve proeute*toid ferrite0 other+ise after 3ue$*hi$g soft spots i$ mi*rostru*ture +ou#d resu#t a$d hard$ess +i## de*rease (eati$g to Auste$iti/i$g temperature Soa'i$g Coo#i$g
H*$T&+G T- $,ST*+&T&.&+G T*M(*)$T,)*:

H'-ere+te.t i, "teel: Temperature i$ bet+ee$ A*m a$d A; is desired 4easo$: To avoid u$desirab#e *oarse$i$g of auste$iti* grai$s that +ou#d *ause *ra*'i$g o$ *oo#i$g 4easo$: T disso#ve the proeute*toid *eme$tite o$e has to heat above A*m #i'e +ise ferrite ?ut si$*e the temperature rise i$ this area +ith i$*reasi$g sma## *o$te$t of *arbo$ is so high (steep) that +ou#d *ause e.*ess heati$g of *eme$tite grai$s a$d +ou#d te$d e.*ess *oarse$i$g of auste$iti* grai$s
S-$/&+G T&M* (H-M-G*+*&T0 -# $,ST*+&T*):

Compositio$a# homoge$eity of auste$ite is esse$tia# other+ise surfa*es *oo#ed fast +ou#d tra$sfer to $o$marte$iti* a$d *oo#ed s#o+#y +ou#d tra$sfer to marte$siti* stru*ture Let us thi$' about the *ompositio$ variatio$ of auste$ite tra$sformed from hypo eute*toid stee# +he$ heated i$ b)+ #o+er a$d upper *riti*a# temperatures Auste$ite formed from ferrite +ou#d *o$tai$ very #o+ *arbo$ +hereas that from pear#ite +ou#d *o$tai$ higher amou$t
S-$/&+G T&M*:
Let us app#y the #ever ru#e to *a*u#ate the *ompostio$a# differe$*e at parti*u#ar temperature To avoid this *ompositio$a# differe$*e +e have either: To heat s#o+ 9r Soa' at desired temperature The se*o$d is more pra*ti*a# Soa'i$g time is ob2e*tB dime$sio$a# depe$de$t 9$e hour per i$*h thi*'$ess is desirab#e to obtai$ed homoge$i/e auste$ite
#$%T-)S $##*%T&+G TH* %--1&+G )$T*:

Surface condition
9.idi/i$g s*a#e thi*'er tha$ 0 00Di$*h retards the *oo#i$g rate (>ig 8 3H page 78H Ave$er) S*a#e formatio$ give birth to $o$ u$iform *oo#i$g0 si$*e s*a#e either is $o$ u$iform or some times removes duri$g tra$sferri$g from fur$a*e to 3ue$*hi$g medium To prote*t the s*a#e formatio$ fo##o+i$g methods are i$ pra*ti*e: Copper p#ati$g =rote*tive atmosphere (i$ert gases #i'e hydroge$0 disso*iated ammo$ia) Li3uid sa#ts (sa#ts i$ert for stee#) Cast iro$ ships are the methods a$d te*h$i3ues to avoid formatio$ of s*a#e
Size and Mass
4atio of surfa*e area to mass is importa$t fa*tor i$ determi$i$g the a*tua# *oo#i$g rate This ratio is the fu$*tio$ of geometri*a# shape of the ob2e*t a$d #argest for spheri*a# shapes The *oo#i$g rate is dire*t#y proportio$a# to ratio Surfa*e area of *y#i$der I pie%L MassI pie): %7Lde$sity 4atioI:)% de$sity This sho+s that ratio is i$verse#y proportio$a# to dia (e$*e +ith i$*reasi$g the dia the ratio de*reases a$d the *oo#i$g rate too A.perime$ta##y +e *a$ demo$strate the effe*t of dia o$ the *oo#i$g rate via measuri$g the hard$ess Let us ta'e +ires of differe$t dia or p#ates of differe$t thi*'$ess a$d auste$ite at same temperature a$d 3ue$*h i$ same medium >i$a##y *he*' the hard$ess
S&.* $+D M$SS (*2$M(1* -# M*D&,M %$)!-+ ST**1 -# 3456%):

Size and Mass W at t is data s o!s"
Stee# bar of 0 D a$d ; i$*h has a*tua# *oo#i$g rate grater tha$ *riti*a# *oo#i$g rate thus marte$siti* stru*ture formed Surfa*e of 7 a$d 3 i$*h samp#e have i$termediate *oo#i$g rate thus mi.ture of marte$site a$d pear#ite +ou#d have formed &hereas surfa*e of : a$d D i$*h samp#e re*eived s#o+ *oo#i$g thus pear#ite a$d ferrite +ou#d be possib#e mi*rostru*ture %iameters: 0 D0 ;0 70 30 :0 D 4C: DH0 D80 :;0 3D0 300 70
M&%)-%-+ST&T,*+TS 7S4 %--1&+G )$T*:

S# eroidite: Spheri*a# Jg#obsK of >e3C i$ >errite $earlite: Layers of a ferrite a$d >e3C
Course =ear#ite >i$e =ear#ite %ainite: 700 - D00 LC Tra$sformatio$ Martensite: 4apid Coo#i$g
M*%H$+&%$1 ()-(*)T&*S 7S H*$T T)*$TM*+T:
*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ T*+S&1* ST)*+GTH:
*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ #$&1,)*:
*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ #$&1,)* M*%H$+&SM:
H*$T T)*$TM*+TS:

& - >ur$a*e A$$ea#ed - S#o+ *oo#ed ' B ,orma#i/ed B Air *oo#ed ( B 9i# Mue$*hed W) - &ater 3ue$*hed W*+370, B&ater 3ue$*hed0 tempered at 370LC for ; hour W*+705,- &ater 3ue$*hed0 tempered at 70DLC for ; hour
T&e "teel" "& /# i# 0l+e # t&e * ll /i#$ "li,e .a# 0e &eat treate, t &ar,e# t&e! 0' 1+e#.&i#$2
Classes: 7-12
FUNDAMENTA3S OF HEAT TREATMENT

#,+D$M*+T$1S -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T:
=hase %iagram 1raphi*a# represe$tatio$ of temperature a$d *ompositio$ There are about eight basi* phase diagrams that e$*ompasses the bi$ary a##oy system of ferrous a$d $o$ ferrous meta#s Most *ommo$ are: Comp#ete#y so#ub#e at #i3uid a$d so#id stateN Type ; Comp#ete#y so#ub#e at #i3uid a$d *omp#ete#y i$so#ub#e at so#id state N Type 7 Comp#ete#y so#ub#e at #i3uid a$d partia##y so#ub#e at so#id state N Type 3 A##otropi* tra$sformatio$ !ro$ Carbo$ %iagram TTT %iagram Time temperature tra$sformatio$ diagram
T0(* 8 (H$S* D&$G)$M:
T0(* 9 (H$S* D&$G)$M:
T0(* : (H$S* D&$G)$M:
1*7*) ),1*:
Co-#osition: &-ount:
SImTo)m$.;00 SI(O0BD0))(O0B30)P;00 SI33 33< LI$To)m$P;00 LI(D0B30))(O0B30)P;00 LIOO OO< SI30<?870<A LIO0<?830<A
$11-T)-(&% T)$+S#-)M$T&-+:
A##otropy is the phe$ome$o$ of a$ e#eme$t havi$g differe$t *rysta# #atti*es depe$di$g o$ the parti*u#ar temperature a$d pressure !ro$ i$ the so#id state is '$o+$ i$ t+o a##otropi* states Latti*e *o$sta$t of Q a$d R !ro$ is 0 78O $m +hereas that of S iro$ is 0 3O: $m At #o+ temperatures0 Q B>e e.hibits a stro$g#y ferromag$eti* *hara*ter &he$ it is heated to about 7708C0 ferromag$etism va$ishes !$ a**orda$*e +ith the #atest fi$di$gs0 this is be*ause the #atti*e #oses its ferromag$eti* spi$ orderi$g The state of iro$ above 7708C is *a##ed TB>e The #atti*e of paramag$eti* T *rysta#s is ide$ti*a# to the #atti*e of Q *rysta#s
The tra$sformatio$ stages are symbo#i/ed by the #etter A +ith subs*ripts i$di*ati$g the ordi$a# $umber of the tra$sformatio$ The subs*ripts 0 a$d ; are abse$t i$ pure iro$ but are observed i$ *arbo$ a##oys of iro$ The subs*ript 7 de$otes a mag$eti* tra$sformatio$ of the QBphase0 +hi#e the subs*ripts 3 a$d : sta$d for tra$sformatio$ of Q to S a$d S to R
&)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M:

The stru*ture of iro$-*arbo$ a##oys *a$ *o$tai$ either pure *arbo$ (graphite) ora *hemi*a# *ompou$d (*eme$tite) as the *arbo$Be$ri*hed *ompo$e$t Ceme$tite is prese$t eve$ i$ re#ative#y s#o+#y *oo#ed a##oys: a #o$g ho#di$g at e#evated temperatures is re3uired to de*ompose *eme$tite to iro$ a$d graphite >or this reaso$ the iro$-*arbo$ diagram is usua##y treated as the iro$-iro$ *arbide diagram The former is stab#e0 +hereas the #atter is metastab#e The iro$-*arbo$ diagram is sho+$ i$ >igure %ashed #i$es sta$d for the stab#e >e-C diagram0 a$d so#id #i$es de$ote the metastab#e >e->e3C diagram
>igure: de$oti$g !ro$ !ro$ Carbide %iagram
M*T$ ST$!1* &)-+ &)-+ %$)!&D* D&$G)$M:

N te: Co$sider above figure of !ro$ !ro$ Carbide %iagram A?C% #i3uidus #i$e A(AC>% So#idus #i$e AS0 a$d 1S so#vious #i$es AC> Aute*ti* #i$e =SU Aute*toid #i$e (? =erete*ti* #i$e Ao mag$eti* tra$sformatio$ #i$e So#id so#utio$s: Auste$ite0 ferrite Chemi*a# *ompou$d: Ceme$tite Me*ha$i*a# Mi.ture: =ear#ite0 a$d Leduberite
ST$!1* &)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M:

N te: Co$sider above figure of !ro$ !ro$ Carbide %iagram At very s#o+ *oo#i$g rates graphite (i e pure *arbo$ ) *a$ *rysta##i/e dire*t#y duri$g *oo#i$g A?CE%E #i3uidus #i$e A(AECE>E%E So#idus #i$e AESE0 a$d 1S so#vious #i$es AECE> Aute*ti* #i$e =ESEUE Aute*toid #i$e (? =erete*ti* #i$e Ao mag$eti* tra$sformatio$ #i$e So#id so#utio$s: Auste$ite0 ferrite =ure e#eme$t: 1raphite Me*ha$i*a# Mi.ture: =ear#ite (>81)0 a$d Leduberite (A81)
ST$!1* $+D M*T$ST$!1* &)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M:

N te: Co$sider above figure of !ro$ !ro$ Carbide %iagram %epe$di$g o$ the *oo#i$g rates it is possib#e to obtai$ed partia##y stab#e a$d partia##y metastab#e phase diagram for iro$ a$d *arbo$ a##oy system
M&%)-ST),%T,)*S &+ &)-+ %$)!-+ $11-0 S0ST*M:

>errite:
!t is du*ti#e !$ the a$$ea#ed state0 it has #arge e#o$gatio$ (about :0<)0 !ts ?ri$e## hard$ess is OD-;30 depe$di$g o$ the *rysta# dime$sio$ !t is stro$g#y ferromag$eti* up to 7708C (;:;88>) At 7738C (;338>)0 0 77< C disso#ves i$ ferrite0 but at room temperature o$#y thousa$dths of a per*e$t of *arbo$ is #eft i$ the so#utio$
Ceme$tite:
!t is britt#e a$d e.hibits great hard$ess (the?ri$e## hard$ess is about 800) !t is +ea'#y mag$eti* up to 7;08C (:;08>) !t is a poor *o$du*tor of e#e*tri*ity a$d heat0 a$d has a *omp#i*ated rhombi* #atti*e !t forms at three stages: =rimary *eme$tite0 +hi*h *rysta##i/es from the #i3uid at the #i$e C%5 se*o$dary *eme$tite0 +hi*h pre*ipitates from the gama so#utio$ at the #i$e AS5
Tertiary *eme$tite0 +hi*h pre*ipitates from the a so#utio$ at the #i$e =M
1raphite:
!t is soft !t is a poor *o$du*tor of *urre$t but tra$sfers heat +e## 1raphite does $ot me#t eve$ at temperatures of 3000-3D008C (D:30-O3308>) !t possesses a he.ago$a# #atti*e +ith the a.is re#atio$
Auste$ite:
!t is soft (but is harder tha$ ferrite) a$d du*ti#e A#o$gatio$ of auste$ite is :0-D0< !t has #o+er *o$du*tivity of heat a$d e#e*tri*ity tha$ ferrite0 a$d is paramag$eti* Auste$ite possesses a$ >CC #atti*e
*##*%T -# %$)!-+:
The stru*ture of the stee# *o$tai$i$g 0-0 07< C *omprises ferrite a$d tertiary *eme$tite (>igure 3 3) A further i$*rease i$ the *arbo$ *o$te$t #eads to the appeara$*e of a $e+ stru*tura# *ompo$e$tVa eute*toid of ferrite a$d *eme$tite (pear#ite) =ear#ite appears first as separate i$*#usio$s bet+ee$ ferrite grai$s a$d the$0 at 0 8< C0 o**upies the e$tire vo#ume =ear#ite represe$ts a t+oBphase mi.ture0 +hi*h usua##y has a #ame##ar stru*ture (>igure 3 :)
As the *arbo$ *o$te$t of stee# is raised to over 0 8<0 se*o$dary *eme$tite is formed a#o$g +ith pear#ite The se*o$dary *eme$tite is shaped as $eed#es (>igure 3 D) The amou$t of *eme$tite i$*reases as the *arbo$ *o$te$t is i$*reased
At 7< C it o**upies ;8< of the fie#d of visio$ of the mi*ros*ope A eute*ti* mi.ture appears +he$ the *arbo$ *o$te$t e.*eeds 7< !$ rapid#y *oo#ed stee#s0 $ot a## the surp#us phase (ferrite or *eme$tite) has time to pre*ipitate before a eute*toid is formed A##oys +ith 3 O< C *o$tai$ #edeburite (a eute*ti* mi.ture of *arbo$ so#id so#utio$ i$ gB>e a$d iro$ *arbide) A$ e#e*tro$ mi*ros*opi* image of the *arbides is sho+$ i$ >igure 3 O The a##oys +ou#d be more proper#y *#assified +ith hypoeute*ti* +hite *ast iro$s
1-W*) %)&T&%$1 T*M(*)$T,)*:

&he$ stee# heated0 mi*rostru*ture *ha$ges ($e+ grai$s forms) The temperature +here this gro+th starts is *a##ed 3 /er Criti.al Te!-erat+re0 fi. for a## < of C0 777oC
,((*) %)&T&%$1 T*M(*)$T,)*:

The temperature +here $e+ grai$s formatio$ *omp#etes0 (A## o#d grai$s rep#a*ed by $e+ grai$s) is *a##ed U--er .riti.al te!-erat+re This temperature depe$ds upo$ < of Carbo$ i$ stee# Ca$ be ta'e$ from !ro$BCarbo$ %iagram
&)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M (%)&T&%$1 T*M(*)$T,)* 1&+*S):
1&M&T$T&-+S -# &)-+;&)-+ %$)!&D* D&$G)$M:

!$formatio$ about tra$sformatio$ of auste$ite at varyi$g *oo#i$g rates is missi$g %esig$ of heat treatme$t for desired properties is $ot possib#e !t do $ot gives the a$s+er of 3uestio$ J(o+ #o$g time is re3uired to start the tra$sformatio$ $or ho+ #o$g tra$sformatio$ ta'e to *omp#eteWK
TTT D&$G)$M:
Time-temperature-tra$sformatio$ diagrams for isotherma# tra$sformatio$ (!T diagrams) a$d for *o$ti$uous *oo#i$g tra$sformatio$ (CCT diagrams) are used to predi*t the mi*rostru*ture a$d hard$ess after a heat treatme$t pro*ess or to spe*ify the heat treatme$t pro*ess that +i## yie#d the desired mi*rostru*ture a$d hard$ess The use of the either type of diagram re3uires that the user be a*3uai$ted +ith its spe*ifi* features0 possibi#ities0 a$d #imitatio$s
%-+ST),%T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M:

Ta'e a stee# of 0 8< *arbo$ =repare atB#east more tha$ ;0 spe*ime$s (eat the spe*ime$s i$to fur$a*e set at 800oC Ta'e out spe*ime$ from muff#e fur$a*e a$d put it i$to sa#t bath set at 700oC Leave the spe*ime$s i$ sa#t bath for differe$t time i$terva#s a$d the$ 3ue$*h it i$to +ater =o#ish a$d et*h the spe*ime$s fo##o+i$g the meta##ographi* steps a$d
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) determi$e the <age of mi*rostru*ture i$ ea*h samp#e =#ot the <age of ea*h mi*rostru*ture agai$st the *orrespo$di$g time 4epeat the above steps for a$other set of ;0 spe*ime$s at OD0oC0 D00oC0BBBBBBBB700oC
TTT D&$G)$M -# *,T*%T-&D ST**1:
TTT D&$G)$M -# H0(*)*,T*%T-&D ST**1(848: WT 6%)
$((1&%$T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M (&+T*)M*D&$T* %--1&+G):
$((1&%$T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M (S1-W %--1&+G):
$((1&%$T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M (#$ST %--1&+G):
$((1&%$T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M:

A Co$ti$uous *oo#i$g tra$sitio$ ? diagram for eute*toid stee#s
,orma#i/i$g : heat the stee# i$to g regio$ F *oo# it i$ air F fi$e pear#ite A$$ea#i$g : heat the stee# i$to g regio$ F *oo# it i$ fur$a*e (po+er off) F *oarse pear#ite
Classes:13-16
AUSTENITE PHASE TRANSFORMATIO

$,ST*+&T*;(*$)1&T* T)$+S#-)M$T&-+:
Tra$sformatio$ of the >CC #atti*e of auste$ite to the ?CC #atti*e of ferrite is hampered due to the prese$*e of disso#ved *arbo$ i$ auste$ite ?e*ause the auste$ite #atti*e has e$ough spa*e to a**ommodate *arbo$ atoms at the *e$ters of u$it *e##s The b** #atti*e of ferrite has $o su*h spa*e >or this reaso$ the so#ubi#ity of *arbo$ is #o+ered *o$siderab#y o$ tra$sitio$ from auste$ite to ferrite %uri$g the TXQ a tra$sformatio$0 a#most a## *arbo$ pre*ipitates from the auste$ite #atti*e !$ a**orda$*e +ith the metastab#e >e->e3C diagram0 it pre*ipitates as iro$ *arbide (*eme$tite) This tra$sformatio$ *a$ be des*ribed by three i$ter*o$$e*ted pro*esses: Tra$sformatio$ of the gB>e #atti*e to the aB>e #atti*e =re*ipitatio$ of *arbo$ as the *arbide >e3C (*eme$tite) Coagu#atio$ of the *arbides The brief#y tra$sformatio$ *a$ be e.p#ai$ed by ta'i$g fo##o+i$g a##oys i$dividua##y (ypoeute*toid stee# (Y 0 8<C) Aute*toid stee# (I0 8<C) (yper eute*toid stee# (Z 0 8< C)
(*$)1&T* #-)M$T&-+ &+ *,T*%T-&D ST**1:

The rate at +hi*h $u*#ei of pear#ite *rysta##i/atio$ are formed depe$ds o$: Supersaturatio$ of auste$ite +ith *arbide0 +hi*h
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) i$*reases as the temperature is #o+ered The diffusio$ rate0 +hi*h de*reases +ith temperature The gro+th of pear#ite is#ets depe$ds o$: The diffusio$ rate of *arbo$ a$d iro$ atoms %egree of supersaturatio$ The free e$ergy adva$tage duri$g the ferrite formatio$ =ear#ite is#ets gro+ $ot o$#y through the formatio$ of $e+ p#ates but a#so by +ay of further gro+th of o#d p#ates i$ a## dire*tio$s Carbide p#ates gro+ faster tha$ ferrite p#ates The pro*ess *a$ start0 ho+ever0 +ith the a#ter$atio$s a$d *eme$tite p#ates a$d phases #ead to the formatio$ of p#a$eBpara##e# a$d fa$Bshaped pear#ite p#ates
formatio$ of ferrite $u*#ei Mu#tip#e of $u*#eatio$ of ferrite bra$*hi$g of the p#ates of both
D&##,S&-+ -# %$)!-+ &+ (*$)1&T*:
M-)(H-1-G0 -# (*$)1&T*:
(*$)1&T* #-)M$T&-+ &+ *,T*%T-&D ST**1:

A very sig$ifi*a$t *hara*teristi* of pear#ite is the p#ateBtoBp#ate spa*i$g 4a5 . ar"e -earlite 405 *i#e -earlite 67778 Stre$gth properties of stee# improve +ith a de*rease i$ that spa*i$g the pear#ite tra$sformatio$ ta'es p#a*e o$ =ear#ite formed at O00-7008C has p#ateBtoBp#ate spa*i$g e3ua#s 0 D-; mm =ear#ite formed at OD0-O008C has the p#ateBtoBp#ate dista$*e of 0 :-0 7 mm !$ this *ase0 the eute*toid is fi$er pear#ite &he$ auste$ite pre*ipitates over the temperature i$terva# of O00-D008C a$ e.treme#y fi$e eute*toid mi.ture is formed0 +here the p#ateBtoBp#ate spa*i$g e3ua#s [0 ; mm A$ importa$t *hara*teristi* that i$f#ue$*es the properties of stee# is the dime$sio$ of the pear#ite *o#o$y A de*rease i$ the *o#o$y dime$sio$ is a**ompa$ied by a gro+th of the impa*t stre$gth a$d de*rease of britt#e$ess >or this re#ative#y high stre$gth pear#ite is formed by brea'i$g of ferrite a$d *eme$tite p#ates0 that #eads a high de$sity of dis#o*atio$s i$side the ferrite Spheroidi/atio$ of *eme$tite parti*#es a$d the formatio$ of a po#ygo$a# stru*ture by emp#oyi$g suitab#e heati$g *oo#i$g *y*#e is i$ pra*ti*e
(*$)1&T* #-)M$T&-+ &+ H0(- $+D H0(*) *,T*%T-&D ST**1:

!$ hypo eute*toid auste$ite tra$sformatio$ pro*eeds +ith birth of proBeute*toid ferrite0 +here as i$ hyper eute*toid proBeute*toid *eme$tite gets birth first
Auste$ite #eft for eute*toid rea*tio$ is very #o+ i$ both *ases %uri$g eute*toid rea*tio$ eute*toid ferrite at bou$dries of proBeute*toid ferrite #eavi$g the eute*toid *eme$tite free 6i*e versa *ase is true for hyper eute*toid This eute*toid tra$sformatio$ is referred as ab$orma# !$ $orma# eute*toid tra$sformatio$0 ferrite a$d *eme$tite gro+ *ooperative#y i$ the form of *o#o$ies +ith a regu#ar a#ter$atio$ of the t+o phases !$ the *ase of ab$orma# tra$sformatio$0 a *oarse mi.ture of ferrite a$d *eme$tite does $ot have a *hara*teristi* eute*toid stru*ture Ab$orma# tra$sformatio$ *a$ be *ha$ged to $orma# +ith i$*rease i$ *oo#i$g rates &ith a rapid *oo#i$g a$d a *orrespo$di$g#y great u$der*oo#i$g of auste$ite0 the ab$orma# tra$sformatio$ *a$ be suppressed a#together
(*$)1&T* #-)M$T&-+ &+ H0(- *,T*%T-&D ST**1 (#*))&T* ()- $+D *,T*%T-&D):
The ferrite is fou$d i$ t+o forms: (>igure 3 7) Compa*t e3uia.ia# grai$s (Aute*toid) 9rie$ted &idma$$statte$ p#ates (=ro Aute*toid) Compa*t pre*ipitates of hypoeute*toid ferrite appear predomi$a$t#y at auste$ite grai$ bou$daries0 +hereas &idma$$statte$ p#ates are formed i$side grai$s The &idma$$statte$ ferrite is observed o$#y i$ *oarse grai$s of auste$ite of stee#s +ith #ess tha$ 0 :< C As the dime$sio$s of auste$ite grai$s de*rease0 the share of ferrite i$ the form e3uia.ia# grai$s gro+s The &idma$$statte$ ferrite is formed over the D0o* temperature i$terva# from A3 (i e O00 to DD0oC) &ith a$ i$*rease i$ the *arbo$ *o$te$t of stee#0 the share of the &idma$$statte$ ferrite i$ the stru*ture #o+ers
T)$+S#-)M$T&-+S -# $,ST*+&T* : G < A = #*:%:

A %iffusio$a# tra$sformatio$s ;) At s#ight#y #o+er T be#o+ 777 : %T YY Coarse pear#ite : $u*#eatio$ rate is very #o+ : diffusio$ rate is very high 7) As the Tt (tra$s temp ) de*reases to D00 >i$e pear#ite : $u*#eatio$ rate i$*reases : diffusio$ rate de*reases Stre$gth : s (M=a) I ;3H 8 :O : SB; S : i$termeta##i* spa*i$g
M*%H$+&%$1 ()-(*)T&*S -# (*$)1&T*:

Me*ha$i*a# properties of pear#ite are depe$de$t o$ *eme$tite *o$te$t 0 si$*e it is mu*h harder a$d more britt#e tha$ ferrite Therefore i$*reasi$g the fra*tio$ of >e3C +i## ma'e the resu#ti$g materia# harder a$d stro$ger a$d #ess du*ti#e a$d tough
The #ayer thi*'$ess is a#so importa$t for the me*ha$i*a# behavior of the pear#ite >i$e pear#ite is harder a$d stro$ger tha$ *oarse pear#ite Coarse pear#ite is more du*ti#e tha$ fi$e pear#ite be*ause of greater restri*tio$ to p#asti* deformatio$ of the fi$e pear#ite
M$)T*+S&T*:
Supersaturated so#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ ?CC iro$ (?CT) 6ery hard \ very britt#e %iffusio$#ess tra$sformatio$ of >CC to ?CT (more vo#ume]) Therefore $o *ompositio$a# *ha$ge duri$g tra$sformatio$
The marte$site tra$sformatio$ is rea#i/ed o$ rapid *oo#i$g of stee# from a temperature above A; i$0 for e.amp#e0 +ater !$ this *ase0 diffusive pre*ipitatio$ of auste$ite to a mi.ture of t+o phases (ferrite a$d *arbide) is suppressed The *o$*e$tratio$ of *arbo$ i$ marte$site *orrespo$ds to that i$ auste$ite The mai$ differe$*e bet+ee$ the marte$site tra$sformatio$ a$d the pear#ite tra$sformatio$ is that the former is diffusio$#ess Tra$sformatio$ of auste$ite to marte$site starts from the marte$site start temperature (Ms)
^7003 ?roo's)Co#e0 a divisio$ of Thomso$ Lear$i$g0 !$* Thomso$ Lear$i$g_ is a trademar' used herei$ u$der #i*e$se
%H$)$%T*)&ST&%S -# M$)T*+S&T*:
The Ms temperature is depe$de$t o$ *arbo$ *o$te$t of the stee# but is i$depe$de$t o$ *oo#i$g rate ,orma##y rapid *oo#i$g rate de*rease)suppress the tra$sformatio$ of auste$ite to pear#ite0 but i$ *ase of marte$site *oo#i$g rate is i$effe*tive &ith the marte$site tra$sformatio$0 a *ertai$ amou$t of retai$ed auste$ite is #eft 9$ *oo#i$g be#o+ Ms0 the amou$t of marte$site i$*reases rapid#y o+i$g to the 3ui*' formatio$ of $e+ p#ates The i$itia##y formed p#ates do $ot gro+ +ith time This feature disti$guishes the marte$site tra$sformatio$ from its pear#ite *ou$terpart5 i$ the #atter *ase $e+ *o#o$ies $u*#eate a$d o#d *o#o$ies *o$ti$ue gro+i$g The marte$site #atti*e is regu#ar#y orie$ted re#ative to the auste$ite #atti*e A *ertai$ orie$tatio$ re#atio$ship e.ists bet+ee$ the #atti*es &ith the pear#ite tra$sformatio$0 #atti*es of the phases *omprisi$g the eute*toid mi.ture e.hibit a ra$dom orie$tatio$ +ith respe*t to the starti$g auste$ite grai$
M$)T*+S&T* M$)(H-1-G0:
?y morpho#ogy0 marte$site *a$ be divided i$to t+o basi* types: =#ate a$d massive marte$site They are differe$t i$ shape0 mutua# arra$geme$t of *rysta#s0 substru*ture0 a$d habit p#a$e Plate 4#ee,le5 !arte#"ite: !t is fou$d most fre3ue$t#y i$ highB*arbo$ stee#s a$d *arbo$Bfree iro$ a##oys !ts te.ture is shaped as thi$ #e$ti*u#ar p#ates (>igure) !ts $eighbori$g p#ates are $ot para##e# to o$e a$other Ma""i9e 4lat&5 !arte#"ite: !t *a$ be observed i$ #o+B a$d mediumB*arbo$ stee#s Crysta#s of this type of marte$site are shaped as i$ter*o$$e*ted p#ates havi$g appro.imate#y the same orie$tatio$ The habit p#a$e of #aths is *#ose to the `; ; ;aA p#a$e =#ates of massive marte$site are separated +ith #o+Ba$g#e bou$daries
M*%H$+&%$1 ()-(*)T&*S -# M$)T*+S&T*:
M$)T*+S&T* #-)M$T&-+:
Time temperature tra$sformatio$ bTTTc diagrams) for isotherma# marte$site formatio$ sho+ a typi*a# CB*urve behavior0 i$di*ati$g that both therma# a$d atherma# *hara*ters are prese$t Atherma# or burst marte$site formatio$ is observed i$ stee#s5 +hereas isotherma# marte$site formatio$ is observed o$#y i$ iro$ a##oys that do $ot *o$tai$ *arbo$
!$&+&T* T)$+S#-)M$T&-+:
The bai$ite tra$sformatio$ is i$termediate bet+ee$ pear#ite a$d marte$site tra$sformatio$s The 'i$eti*s of this tra$sformatio$ a$d the stru*tures formed e.hibit features of both diffusive pear#ite tra$sformatio$ a$d diffusio$#ess marte$site tra$sformatio$ The bai$ite tra$sformatio$ me*ha$ism i$vo#ves SXQ rearra$geme$t of the #atti*e0 redistributio$ of *arbo$0 a$d pre*ipitatio$ of *arbide Most resear*hers are of the opi$io$ that ferrite pre*ipitates from auste$ite by the marte$siti* me*ha$ism This is attested to by the prese$*e of retai$ed auste$ite i$ a##oyed stee#s0 a simi#arity i$ the stru*ture of #o+er bai$ite a$d marte$site0 a$d the resemb#a$*e of upper bai$ite to #o+B*arbo$ marte$site C#ose$ess of the bai$ite tra$sformatio$ to its pear#ite a$d marte$site *ou$terparts *a$ be e.p#ai$ed as fo##o+s The diffusive moveme$t of atoms of the basi* *ompo$e$t0 iro$0 is a#most *omp#ete#y suppressed over the bai$ite tra$sformatio$ ra$ge Therefore the SXQ formatio$ of ferrite is diffi*u#t be*ause pear#ite pre*ipitatio$ is suppressed (o+ever0 *arbo$ diffusio$ is rather a*tive a$d *auses pre*ipitatio$ of *arbides ?ased o$ morpho#ogy bai$ite is *#assed i$to: Cpper bai$ite Lo+er bai$ite Cpper bai$ite has a feathery stru*ture0 +hereas #o+er bai$ite e.hibits a$ a*i*u#ar morpho#ogy0 +hi*h is *#ose to that of marte$site The differe$*e i$ the stru*tures of upper a$d #o+er bai$ites is attributed to a differe$t mobi#ity of *arbo$ i$ the upper a$d #o+er parts of the bai$ite temperature ra$ge
!$&+&T* M-)(H-1-G0:

A$ e#e*tro$ mi*ros*opi* a$a#ysis sho+ed that the aBphase substru*ture of upper bai$ite resemb#es the substru*ture of massive marte$site i$ #o+B*arbo$ stee#s0 +hi#e the aBphase stru*ture of #o+er bai$ite appro.imates the stru*ture of marte$site i$ highB*arbo$ stee#s !$ upper bai$ite0 *arbide parti*#es *a$ pre*ipitate both at #ath bou$daries a$d i$side #aths This fa*t suggests that here *arbides pre*ipitate dire*t#y from auste$ite !$ #o+er bai$ite0 *arbide is fou$d i$side the aBphase This mea$s that *arbide is formed duri$g pre*ipitatio$ of a supersaturated so#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ the aBphase ?oth upper a$d #o+er bai$ites e.hibit a high de$sity of dis#o*atio$s i$side the aBphase Ceme$tite is the *arbide phase i$ upper bai$ite0 a$d eB*arbide i$ #o+er bai$ite As the ho#di$g time is i$*reased0 eB*arbide tur$s i$to *eme$tite Temperature ra$ge of bai$ite formatio$ 7D0 Y Tt Y D00 0 be#o+ the $ose i$ TTT diagram Cpper (DD0B3D0LC) Lo+er (3D0B7D0LC) %iffusio$ rate is very #o+ ,u*#eatio$ rate is very high
!$&+&T*:
M*%H$+&%$1 ()-(*)T&*S -# !$&+&T*:

?ai$iti* stee#s have a fi$er stru*ture0 therefore They are stro$ger a$d harder tha$ pear#iti* o$es They have a good *ombi$atio$ of stre$gth a$d du*ti#ity
Class: 17
AUSTENITE GRAIN SIZE CONTRO3

$,ST*+&T* G)$&+ S&.* $+D G)$&+ S&.* %-+T)-1:
The auste$ite grai$ si/e produ*ed o$ heati$g above the *riti*a# poi$ts is of sig$ifi*a$t importa$*e ?e*ause: A *oarse auste$ite grai$ determi$es a *oarse p#ate stru*ture of marte$site duri$g 3ue$*hi$g or a *oarse *e##u#ar $et+or' of ferrite (*eme$tite) pre*ipitates at the bou$dary of the
i$itia# auste$ite grai$s duri$g a$$ea#i$g or $orma#i/atio$ The pear#ite stru*ture is a#so the *oarser0 the #arger the pear#ite grai$ !$ resu#t of a *oarseBgrai$ stru*ture of stee# #o+er me*ha$i*a# properties are obtai$ed >or this reaso$ a fi$eBgrai$ stru*ture of stee# is preferab#e i$ pra*ti*e Si$*e auste$ite appears duri$g heati$g of a ferrite-*arbide mi.ture0 gro+th *e$ters of the auste$ite phase are very $umerous At i$itia# stages of heati$g auste$ite grai$s are e.treme#y sma##0 o$ the order of ;0-70 mm ?ut +ith a$ i$*rease i$ the heati$g temperature or ho#di$g time i$ the auste$ite ra$ge0 the grai$s begi$ to gro+ i$te$sive#y ?ased o$ gro+th rate of auste$ite grai$ duri$g heati$g0 stee#s are *#assed i$to: (ereditari#y *oarseBgrai$ed stee#s (ereditari#y fi$eBgrai$ed stee#s The differe$*e is the grai$ gro+th 'i$eti*s +ith a$ i$*rease i$ temperature (ereditari#y *oarseBgrai$ed stee#s The stee# i$ +hi*h grai$ gradua##y a$d rather u$iform#y be*omes #arger as the temperature is raised above A*3 !$ hereditari#y fi$eBgrai$ed stee#s0 fi$e grai$s are preserved up to about HD0oC 9$ tra$sitio$ through the *oarse$i$g temperature0 separate grai$s start gro+i$g i$te$sive#y a$d variatio$s i$ grai$ si/e arise ,ear ;;00-;700oC0 grai$s of hereditari#y fi$eBgrai$ed stee#s may be eve$ #arger tha$ those of hereditari#y *oarseBgrai$ed stee#s Su*h differe$*es i$ the gro+th of grai$s i$ stee#s are e.p#ai$ed by the differe$*es i$ $umber a$d state of disperse $o$meta# i$*#usio$s su*h as0 0 a#umi$um $itrides0 *ertai$ *arbides0 a$d o.ides These arti*#es retard moveme$t of grai$ bou$daries u$ti# temperatures are rea*hed at +hi*h the parti*#es disso#ve i$ auste$ite The barrier effe*t of the parti*#es dimi$ishes $o$u$iform#y0 +hi*h #eads to variatio$s i$ grai$ si/e A sta$dard test *a$ be used to disti$guish bet+ee$ the stee# *#asses !f a $oti*eab#e gro+th of auste$ite grai$s is $ot observed for 8 h after *arburi/atio$ at H7DoC0 the stee# is assumed to be a hereditari#y fi$eBgrai$ed o$e A.trapure stee#s0 those produ*ed +ith a mi$imum amou$t of foreig$ impurities0 $itroge$ a$d o.yge$0 are disti$guished by a rapid gro+th of grai$s above the *riti*a# poi$t A*3 !$ the *ase of the usua# *ommer*ia# stee#s0 a grai$ 70-7D mm i$ si/e *orrespo$ds to sta$dard heati$g for 3ue$*hi$g0 $orma#i/atio$0 or a$$ea#i$g As the temperature is e#evated to ;700-;7D0oC the grai$ si/e rea*hes 0 ; mm !$ #arge forgi$gs a$d +e#ds0 grai$s of severa# mi##imeters i$ si/e o**ur !$ i$gots a$d *asti$gs0 grai$s *a$ be as #arge as severa# *e$timeters 9$ *oo#i$g: Severa# pear#ite *o#o$ies are formed i$ every grai$0 So a$ auste$ite grai$ is bro'e$ i$to severa# grai$s This is a#so true of the ferrite-pear#ite stru*ture of a hypoeute*toid stee# ?ut i$ the #atter *ase a $et+or' of e.*ess ferrite is formed at grai$ bou$daries &he$ stee# u$dergoes 3ue$*hi$g: A #arge $umber of marte$site *rysta#s appear i$ every auste$ite grai$
Classes: 18-21
EFFECT OF A33OYING E3EMENTS

*##*%T -# $11-0&+G *1*M*+TS -+ H*$T T)*$TM*+T ()-%*SS&+G -# ST**1:
The positio$ of the *riti*a# poi$ts A3 a$d A: a$d the #o*atio$ of the eute*toid temperature A; are of great sig$ifi*a$*e i$ heat treatme$t be*ause they determi$e the #o+est temperature to +hi*h a stee# shou#d be heated for 3ue$*hi$g0 a$$ea#i$g0 or $orma#i/atio$ %iffere$t a##oyi$g e#eme$ts have differe$t effe*ts o$ the positio$ of the *riti*a# poi$ts A3 a$d A: Therefore a##oyi$g e#eme$ts are a**ordi$g#y divided i$to t+o #arge groups0 ea*h i$ tur$ bro'e$ do+$ i$to t+o subgroups
A#eme$ts of A group of ;st group (,i0 Co0 M$0 =t0 =d0 4h0 a$d !r) de*rease A3 a$d i$*rease A: poi$ts0 thus broade$i$g of S phase resu#ts ;st group e#eme$ts sho+ *o$siderab#y high so#ubi#ity i$ >e *rysta#s
A#eme$ts of ? subgroup of ;st group (,0 C0 Cu0 d$0 Au0 4e) have *o$siderab#y #imited so#ubi#ity0 therefore at *ertai$ *o$*e$tratio$ of these e#eme$ts i$ iro$ a##oys0 *hemi*a# *ompou$ds are formed a$d eute*ti* or eute*toid tra$sformatio$s are observed Thus heteroge$eous regio$ resu#ts +hi*h i$ tur$ #imit the S phase regio$ A#eme$ts of A group of 7$d group bCr0 Mo0&0 Si0 T0 A#0 a$d ?e (Cr group)c p#ay disti$*t ro#e from the e#eme$ts of the first group A#eme$ts e$teri$g the se*o$d group e#evate the poi$t A3 a$d #o+er the poi$t A: as their *o$te$t i$ the a##oy is raised This #eads i$itia##y to $arro+i$g a$d the$ to a *omp#ete *#osi$g of the regio$ of the SBso#id so#utio$ as sho+$ s*hemati*a##y i$ >igure
A#eme$ts of ? subgroup (dr0 Ta0 ,b0 Ce0 et* ) of 7$d group *auses the appeara$*e of other phases i$ the e3ui#ibrium diagrams before the gBphase ra$geis *#osed !$ this *ase the $arro+ ra$ge of the SBphase is #imited by ad2a*e$t heteroge$eous regio$s The aforeme$tio$ed divisio$ of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts i$to groups a##o+s o$e to predi*t to some e.te$t the effe*t of the e#eme$ts o$ the *riti*a# poi$ts of *arbo$ stee# >or e.amp#e0 *o$sideri$g the diagram #i$es that *orrespo$d to the tra$sitio$ of >e from o$e a##otropi* form to a$other0 it *a$ be e.pe*ted that: The e#eme$ts e.te$di$g the gBphase ra$ge (,i group) +i## #o+er the QXS iro$ tra$sitio$ poi$t A*3 &hi#e the e#eme$ts $arro+i$g the SBphase ra$ge (Cr group) +i## e#evate that poi$t A simi#ar effe*t of the e#eme$ts is observed0 to a *ertai$ e.te$t0 i$ the pear#ite tra$sformatio$ A*; >igure i##ustrates the i$f#ue$*e of the most importa$t a##oyi$g e#eme$ts o$ the positio$ of the *riti*a# poi$t A*; As is see$: The e#eme$ts $arro+i$g the SBphase ra$ge do raise the *riti*a# poi$t A*; &hi#e the e#eme$ts broade$i$g the gBphase ra$ge #o+er it
The effe*t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts ma$ifests itse#f i$ a shift of the *riti*a# poi$ts +ith respe*t $ot o$#y to temperature but a#so *o$*e$tratio$ >igure i##ustrates ho+ the *o$te$t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts i$ stee# affe*ts the *arbo$ *o$*e$tratio$ at the eute*toid poi$t As *a$ be see$ from the figure0 a## the a##oyi$g e#eme$ts shift the eute*toid poi$t to the #eft0 i e 0 to+ard #o+eri$g of the *arbo$ *o$*e$tratio$0 a$d *o$se3ue$t#y de*rease the *arbo$ *o$te$t of a##oy !$ a$a#ogy to the shift of the eute*toid poi$t to the #eft0 the additio$ of most a##oyi$g e#eme$ts i$ stee# is fo##o+ed by a #eft+ard disp#a*eme$t of the poi$t A i$ the >e-C e3ui#ibrium diagram0 +hi*h determi$es the so#ubi#ity #imit of *arbo$ i$ auste$ite The poi$t A is shifted most by Cr0 Si0 &0 Mo0 60 a$d Ti0 A## these e#eme$ts $arro+ the gBphase ra$ge i$ a##oys of the iro$Ba##oyi$g e#eme$t system
Therefore the i$trodu*tio$ of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts i$to a *arbo$ stee# is a**ompa$ied by: Shift of the e3ui#ibrium *riti*a# poi$ts +ith respe*t to both temperature a$d *arbo$ *o$*e$tratio$ The greater the shift0 the #arger the amou$t of the e#eme$ts i$trodu*ed !$ *ommer*ia# a##oy stee#s0 +hi*h are mu#ti*ompo$e$t systems0 a##oyi$g e#eme$ts *a$ be fou$d (;) i$ the free state5 (7) as i$termeta##i* *ompou$ds +ith iro$ or +ith ea*h other5 (3) as o.ides0 su#fides0 a$d other $o$meta# i$*#usio$s5 (:) i$ the *arbide phase as a so#utio$ i$ *eme$tite or i$ the form of i$depe$de$t *ompou$ds +ith *arbo$ (spe*ia# *arbides)5 or (D) as a so#utio$ i$ iro$ As to the *hara*ter of their distributio$ i$ stee#0 a##oyi$g e#eme$ts may be divided i$to t+o groups: A#eme$ts that do $ot form *arbides i$ stee#0 su*h as ,i0 Si0 Co0 A#0 Cu0 a$d , A#eme$ts that form stab#e *arbides i$ stee#0 su*h as Cr0 M$0 Mo0 &0 60 Ti0 dr0 a$d ,b
$SS&G+M*+T>()*S*+T$T&-+:
A.p#ai$ i$ detai# the effe*t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts o$ auste$ite tra$sformatio$ i$to pear#ite0 bai$ite0 a$d marte$site phases Support your a$s+er +ith suitab#e diagrams 4efere$*e J=age e ;7: to ;8O Stee# (eat Treatme$t (a$d ?oo'0 7$d Additio$ by 1eorge A Totte$0 =h %0 >ASM
Classes:23-26
H$)D*+$!&1&T0:

HARDENABI3ITY
The abi#ity of a stee# to i$*rease hard$ess duri$g 3ue$*hi$g is *a##ed its harde$abi#ity or harde$i$g *apa*ity The harde$i$g *apa*ity is *hara*teri/ed by the ma.imum hard$ess that *a$ be obtai$ed o$ the surfa*e of a give$ stee# produ*t by 3ue$*hi$g0 +hereas harde$abi#ity refers the depth to +hi*h ma.imum hard$ess is a*hieved To a*hieve ma.imum hard$ess it is $e*essary to observe basi* *o$ditio$s:
The rate of *oo#i$g shou#d be e3ua# to or higher tha$ the *riti*a# rate at +hi*h 3ue$*hi$g gives marte$site a#o$e (i$evitabi#ity +ith some retai$ed auste$ite0 of *ourse0 but +ithout bai$ite)5 A## *arbo$ at the 3ue$*hi$g temperature shou#d be i$ the so#id so#utio$ i$ auste$ite (the 3ue$*hi$g temperature shou#d be above the *riti*a# poi$ts A*; a$d A*3 by 30-D0oC for hypereute*toid a$d hypoeute*toid stee#s0 respe*tive#y) A#though harde$i$g *apa*ity a$d harde$abi#ity are used i$p#a*e of ea*h other but have differe$t mea$i$g a$d differe$t fa*tors are used to *o$tro# them The harde$i$g *apa*ity of a stee# is determi$ed by the fa*tors affe*ti$g the hard$ess of marte$site0 +hi#e harde$abi#ity is determi$ed by those affe*ti$g the 3ua$tity of the marte$site obtai$ed a$d the hard$ess pe$etratio$ depth Cpo$ 3ue$*hi$g0 stee# *a$ feature high harde$i$g *apa*ity a$d #o+ harde$abi#ity at the same time Su*h a stee# +ou#d *orrespo$d to the s*hemati* *urve ; i$ >igure !f for a +or' pie*e of the same diameter % *oo#ed u$der the same *o$ditio$s0 the distributio$ of hard$ess over the *ross se*tio$ is *hara*teri/ed by *urve 75 su*h a stee# possesses medium or poor harde$i$g *apa*ity but good harde$abi#ity >i$a##y0 stee# that *orrespo$ds to *urve 3 +ou#d possess high harde$i$g *apa*ity a$d high harde$abi#ity (arde$abi#ity is a$ i$here$t property of the materia# itse#f0 +hereas hard$ess *apa*ity is a state that depe$ds o$ other fa*tors as +e## 1e$era##y harde$abi#ity is determi$ed by the dista$*e be#o+ the surfa*e at +hi*h D0(4C is obtai$ed The harde$abi#ity depe$ds o$: Carbo$ *o$te$t The amou$t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts disso#ved i$ the auste$ite duri$g the auste$iti/i$g treatme$t The auste$ite grai$ si/e >igure sho+s the hard$ess distributio$s +ithi$ the *ross se*tio$s of bars of ;00 mm diameter after 3ue$*hi$g three differe$t 'i$ds of stee# b7c !$ spite of 3ue$*hi$g the &; stee# i$ +ater (i e 0 the more severe 3ue$*hi$g) a$d the other t+o grades i$ oi#0 the &; stee# has the #o+est harde$abi#ity be*ause it does $ot *o$tai$ a##oyi$g e#eme$ts The highest harde$abi#ity i$ this *ase is that of the %7 stee#0 +hi*h has the greatest amou$t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts !t is i$teresti$g to $ote that : +he$ a stee# has high harde$abi#ity it a*hieves a high hard$ess throughout the e$tire heavy se*tio$ (as %7) eve$ +he$ it is 3ue$*hed i$ a mi#der 3ue$*ha$t (oi#) &he$ a stee# has #o+ harde$abi#ity its hard$ess de*reases rapid#y be#o+ the surfa*e (as &;)0 eve$ +he$ it is 3ue$*hed i$ the more severe 3ue$*ha$t (+ater)
H$)D*+$!&1&T0 (G-7*)+&+G #$%T-)):

The auste$ite *o$ditio$ (*hemi*a# *ompositio$0 grai$ si/e0 homoge$eity of auste$ite) prior to 3ue$*hi$g has the de*isive effe*t o$ the harde$i$g *apa*ity a$d0 espe*ia##y0 harde$abi#ity of stee# 9ther fa*tors are se*o$dary or derive from the basi* three These fa*tors are: The *arbo$ *o$te$t Type0 a$d amou$t of a##oyi$g e#eme$ts at the time of 3ue$*hi$g The 3ue$*hi$g temperature (auste$iti/i$g temperature) The ho#di$g time at a give$ temperature Mai$#y grai$ si/e a$d *ompositio$ of stee# determi$es the depth to +hi*h marte$site /o$e *a$ pe$etrate To improve the harde$i$g *apa*ity a$d harde$abi#ity of stee#0 the auste$iti/i$g *o$ditio$s shou#d be su*h as to e$sure that a ma.imum amou$t of *arbo$ passes from the ferrite-*arbide mi.ture to the so#utio$ a$d0 at the same time0 $o mar'ed gro+th of grai$s o**urs as a resu#t of overheati$g0 as this +ou#d #ead to a high britt#e$ess a$d the formatio$ of 3ue$*hi$g *ra*'s The 3ue$*hi$g temperature shou#d be mai$tai$ed as *o$sta$t as possib#e0 a$d the ho#di$g time shou#d be 2ust e$ough to e$sure u$iform heati$g of the +or'pie*e a$d disso#utio$ of *arbides >or their *omp#ete disso#utio$ i$ auste$ite0 *oarseBp#ate a$d *oarseBgrai$ *arbides $eed more time tha$ thi$Bp#ate a$d fi$eBgrai$ o$es Stee#s a##oyed +ith *arbide formi$g e#eme$ts shou#d be heated to a temperature *o$siderab#y e.*eedi$g A*3 ?e*ause if sma## amou$t of *arbides avai#ab#e i$ the stru*ture impede e$#argeme$t of grai$s a$d the $u*#ei of the $e+ phase fa*i#itate tra$sformatio$ of auste$ite i$ the pear#ite ra$ge a$d i$*rease the *riti*a# rate of 3ue$*hi$g0 thus de*reasi$g the harde$abi#ity of the stee# Shape a$d si/e of the *ross se*tio$ (arde$abi#ity of the materia# Mue$*hi$g *o$ditio$s Mue$*hi$g *o$ditio$s i$*#ude: i The spe*ifi* 3ue$*ha$t ( +ith its i$here$t *hemi*a# a$d physi*a# properties)0 ?ath temperature a$d Agitatio$ rate
H$)D*+$!&1&T0 ($,ST*+&T&.&+G %-+D&T&-+):
#$%T-)S &+#1,*+%&+G H$)D*+$!&1&T0:

#$%T-)S &+#1,*+%&+G H$)D*+$!&1&T0 (SH$(* $+D S&.* -# TH* %)-SS S*%T&-+):

The *rossBse*tio$a# shape has a remar'ab#e i$f#ue$*e o$ heat e.tra*tio$ duri$g 3ue$*hi$g a$d *o$se3ue$t#y o$ the resu#ti$g harde$i$g depth ?ars of re*ta$gu#ar *ross se*tio$s a#+ays
a*hieve #ess depth of harde$i$g tha$ rou$d bars of the same *rossBse*tio$a# si/e Chart sho+$ i$ >igure is used to *o$vert s3uare a$d re*ta$gu#ar *ross se*tio$s to e3uiva#e$t *ir*u#ar *ross se*tio$s >or e.amp#e0 A 38Bmm s3uare a$d a 7D ;00Bmm re*ta$gu#ar *ross se*tio$ are ea*h e3uiva#e$t to a :0Bmm diameter *ir*u#ar *ross se*tio$5 A O0 ;00Bmm re*ta$gu#ar *ross se*tio$ is e3uiva#e$t to a$ 80Bmm diameter *ir*#e b7c The i$f#ue$*e of *rossBse*tio$a# si/e +he$ 3ue$*hi$g the same grade of stee# u$der the same 3ue$*hi$g *o$ditio$s is sho+$ i$ >igure D :A Steeper hard$ess de*reases from surfa*e to *ore a$d substa$tia##y #o+er *ore hard$ess va#ues resu#t from 3ue$*hi$g a #arger *ross se*tio$
The i$f#ue$*e of harde$abi#ity a$d 3ue$*hi$g *o$ditio$s are sho+$ i$ >igure >igure sho+s that a$ u$a##oyed (sha##o+Bharde$i$g) stee# a$d a$ a##oyed stee# of high harde$abi#ity is 3ue$*hed i$ (a) +ater a$d (b) oi# >igure *o$*eives that: The *riti*a# *oo#i$g rate (6*rit) of the u$a##oyed stee# is higher tha$ the *riti*a# *oo#i$g rate of the a##oyed stee# 9$#y the *ross se*tio$ that have bee$ *oo#ed at a higher *oo#i$g rate tha$ 6*rit *ou#d tra$sformed to marte$site a$d attai$ed high hard$ess !$ u$a##oyed stee# +ater 3ue$*h give birth to marte$site to #imited *rose*tio$ +hereas oi# 3ue$*h *ou#d $ot formed marte$site !$ *ase of a##oyed stee# oi# 3ue$*hi$g provided *oo#i$g rates higher tha$ *riti*a# +ithi$ a 3uite #arge depth0 +hereas +ater 3ue$*h produ*ed marte$site
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) upto *ore
D*T*)M&+$T&-+ -# H$)D*+$!&1&T0: D*T*)M&+$T&-+ -# H$)D*+$!&1&T0 (G)-SSM$++?S H$)D*+$!&1&T0 T*ST):

1rossma$$Es method of testi$g harde$abi#ity uses a $umber of *y#i$dri*a# stee# bars of differe$t diameters harde$ed i$ a give$ 3ue$*hi$g medium After se*tio$i$g ea*h bar at mid#e$gth a$d e.ami$i$g it meta##ographi*a##y0 the bar that has D0< marte$site at its *e$ter is se#e*ted0 a$d the diameter of this bar is desig$ated as the *riti*a# diameter (%*rit) The hard$ess va#ue *orrespo$di$g to D0< marte$site +i## be determi$ed e.a*t#y at the *e$ter of the bar of %*rit 9ther bars +ith diameters sma##er tha$ %*rit have more tha$ D0< marte$site i$ the *e$ter of the *ross se*tio$ a$d *orrespo$di$g#y higher hard$ess0 &hi#e bars havi$g diameters #arger tha$ %*rit attai$ D0< marte$site o$#y up to a *ertai$ depth as sho+$ i$ >igure The *riti*a# diameter %*rit is va#id for the 3ue$*hi$g medium i$ +hi*h the bars have bee$ 3ue$*hed !f o$e varies the 3ue$*hi$g medium0 a differe$t *riti*a# diameter +i## be obtai$ed for the same stee# 1rossma$$Es (arde$abi#ity Test fomi$y A$dB3ue$*h (arde$abi#ity Test (arde$abi#ity ?a$ds
D*T*)M&+$T&-+ -# H$)D*+$!&1&T0 (@-M&+0 H$)D*+$!&1&T0 T*ST):

The e$dB3ue$*h harde$abi#ity test deve#oped by fomi$y a$d ?oegeho#d is *ommo$#y referred to as the fomi$y test !t is used +or#d+ide0 des*ribed i$ ma$y $atio$a# sta$dards0 a$d avai#ab#e as a$ i$ter$atio$a# sta$dard This test has the fo##o+i$g sig$ifi*a$t adva$tages: !t *hara*teri/es the harde$abi#ity of a stee# from a si$g#e spe*ime$0 a##o+i$g a +ide ra$ge of *oo#i$g rates duri$g a si$g#e test !t is reaso$ab#y reprodu*ib#e
Pr .e,+re: ,orma##y the stee# test spe*ime$ (7D mm diameter ;00 mm) is heated to the appropriate auste$iti/i$g temperature a$d soa'ed for 30 mi$ !t is the$ 3ui*'#y tra$sferred to the supporti$g fi.ture (fomi$y apparatus) a$d 3ue$*hed from the #o+er e$d by sprayi$g +ith a 2et of +ater u$der spe*ified *o$ditio$s as i##ustrated i$ >igure A The *oo#i$g rate is the highest at the e$d +here the +ater 2et impi$ges o$ the spe*ime$ a$d de*reases from the 3ue$*hed e$d0 produ*i$g a variety of mi*rostru*tures a$d hard$esses as a fu$*tio$ of dista$*e from the 3ue$*hed e$d After 3ue$*hi$g0 t+o para##e# f#ats0 appro.imate#y 0 :D mm be#o+ surfa*e0 are grou$d o$ opposite sides of the spe*ime$ a$d hard$ess va#ues (usua##y (4C) are measured at ;);O i$ i$terva#s from the 3ue$*hed e$d a$d p#otted as the fomi$y harde$abi#ity *urve (see >igure ?) &he$ the dista$*e is measured i$ mi##imeters0 the hard$ess va#ues are ta'e$ at every 7 mm from the 3ue$*hed e$d for at #east a tota# dista$*e of 70 or :0 mm0 depe$di$g o$ the steep$ess of the harde$abi#ity *urve0 a$d the$ every ;0 mm 9$ the upper margi$ of the fomi$y harde$abi#ity diagram0 appro.imate *oo#i$g rates at 700oC may be p#otted at severa# dista$*es from the 3ue$*hed e$d
:3:0: 6ery harde$ab#e0 More e.pe$sive #;0:0: Less harde$ab#e0 Less e.pe$sive
The fomi$y e$dB3ue$*h test is used most#y for: Lo+Ba##oy stee#s for *arburi/i$g (*ore harde$abi#ity) Stru*tura# stee#s0 +hi*h are typi*a##y throughBharde$ed i$ oi#s a$d tempered The fomi$y e$dB3ue$*h test is suitab#e for a## stee#s e.*ept those of very #o+ or very high harde$abi#ity0 i e 0 %;Y ; 0 i$ or %;ZO 0 i$
The sta$dard fomi$y e$dB3ue$*h test *a$$ot be used for high#y a##oyed airBharde$ed stee#s These stee#s harde$ $ot o$#y by heat e.tra*tio$ through the 3ue$*hed e$d but a#so by heat e.tra*tio$ by the surrou$di$g air Thiseffe*t i$*reases +ith i$*reasi$g dista$*e from the 3ue$*hed e$d
$SS&G+M*+T:
fomi$y Test pro*edure used for harde$abi#ity determi$atio$ of sha##o+ stee# is #itt#e bit differe$t tha$ a##oyed stee# %es*ribe it a**ordi$g to ASTM A7DD sta$dard 4efere$*e =agee 73; to 733 Stee# (eat Treatme$t (a$d ?oo'0 7$d Additio$ by 1eorge A Totte$0 =h %0 >ASM &hat is harde$abi#ity bo$d (o+ it is used for determi$atio$ of harde$abi#ity 4efere$*e =agee 737 to 7:0 Stee# (eat Treatme$t (a$d ?oo'0 7$d Additio$ by 1eorge A Totte$0 =h %0 >ASM
Classes:27-32
%$S* H$)D*+&+G:

CASE HARDENING
Case harde$i$g is a simp#e method of harde$i$g stee# !t is #ess *omp#e. tha$ harde$i$g a$d temperi$g This te*h$i3ues is used for stee#s +ith a #o+ *arbo$ *o$te$t Carbo$ is added to the outer surfa*e of the stee#0 to a depth of appro.imate#y 0 03mm 9$e adva$tage of this method of harde$i$g stee# is that the i$$er *ore is #eft u$tou*hed a$d so sti## pro*esses properties su*h as f#e.ibi#ity a$d is sti## re#ative#y soft This is a very *ommo$ pro*ess that is used to harde$ the outer surfa*e of parts su*h as: 1ear teeth0 Cams0 Shafts0 ?eari$gs >aste$ers0 =i$s0 Too#s0 Mo#ds0 %ies et* 4easo$ Above types of *ompo$e$ts $orma##y +or's u$der the dy$ami* for*es *o$ditio$s +here i (igh fatigue ii (igh tough$ess iii A$d high fri*tio$ resista$*e !s re3uired This is o$#y a*hieved best by *ase harde$i$g Most of these pro*esses are used to *ase harde$ stee# a$d other iro$ a##oys0 i$*#udi$g #o+ *arbo$ stee#s0 a##oy stee#s0 too# stee#s et*
$((1&%$T&-+:

T0(*S:
There are severa# types of *ase harde$i$g:
Carburi/i$g ,itridi$g *arbo$itridi$g Chromi/i$g ?ro$i/i$g Cya$idi$g or *arbo$itridi$g !$du*tio$ harde$i$g >#ame harde$i$g !$ first five *ases *hemi*a# stru*ture of the meta# surfa*e is *ha$ged by diffusi$g atoms of a$ a#ter$ate e#eme$t (dopi$g age$t) +hi*h resu#ts i$ a#teratio$s to the mi*roBstru*ture o$ the *rysta#s o$ the surfa*e !$ #ast t+o methods dopi$g age$t is $ot re3uired therefore the stee# must *o$tai$ at #east 0 3< C The basi* method is fair#y simp#e: (eati$g %ippi$g i$ the atmosphere *o$tai$i$g Jdopi$gK substa$*e either i$ gasseous or #i3uid state (eati$g to diffuse dopa$t i$to the surfa*e The duratio$ a$d temperature *o$tro# the *o$*e$tratio$ a$d depth of the dopi$g STAGE ONE: The stee# is heated to red heat !t may o$#y be $e*essary to harde$ o$e part of the stee# a$d so heat *a$ be *o$*e$trated i$ this area STAGE T%O: The stee# is removed from the bra/i$g hearth +ith b#a*'smiths to$gs a$d p#u$ged i$to *ase harde$i$g *ompou$d a$d a##o+ed to *oo# a #itt#e The *ase harde$i$g *ompou$d is high i$ *arbo$ STAGE THREE: The stee# is heated agai$ to a red *o#our0 removed from the bra/i$g hearth a$d p#u$ged i$to *o#d0 *#ea$ +ater
()-%*SS:
%$S* H$)D*+&+G ST$G*S:

()-%*SS 7$)&$!1*S:
The pro*ess variab#es $orma##y fi.ed i$ spe*ifi*atio$s for a *arburi/ed part are: Case depth (ard$ess of *ore0 a$d *ase Case *arbo$ *o$te$t =ost (eat treatme$t Materia# >or desig$ purposes0 the variab#es of greatest *o$*er$ are: *ase depth *ase hard$ess Ca"e ,e-t& is des*ribed i$ t+o +ays: Tota# *ase depth Affe*tive *ase depth T tal .a"e ,e-t& refers to the tota# depth of *arbo$ pe$etratio$ a$d is ordi$ary determi$ed by meta##ographi* e.ami$atio$ or by *hemi*a# a$a#ysis of su**essive #ayer of the *ase E**e.ti9e .a"e ,e-t& is the depth be#o+ the surfa*e to +hi*h a spe*ified hard$ess is e.*eeded0 *ommo$#y the depth of D0 (4C is *o$sidered as effe*tive *ase depth Tota# *ase depths of greater tha$ 0 07D i$*h (; 8mm) are rare#y used i$ produ*tio$ be*ause of the e.*essive time re3uired to deve#op deep *ases Appro.imate#y H hr at ;700o> (H;7oC) are re3uired for produ*i$g a 0 07DBi$*h (; 8mm) *ase
%$S* D*(TH:

%$S* %$)!-+ %-+T*+T:

!t depe$ds o$: Me*ha$i*a# properties a$d re#ative mi*rostru*ture desired (igh *arbo$ *o$te$t +ou#d give birth to retai$ auste$ite (igh *arbo$ *o$te$t at surfa*e is re3uired +he$ high +ear properties are re3uired
(-ST H*$T T)*$TM*+TS:
%$)!,)&.&+G:
!t is o#dest a$d *heapest methods of *ase harde$i$g !t is app#i*ab#e of stee# *o$tai$i$g 0 ;< to 0 7<C stee# (eati$g to ;700o> i$ *arburi/i$g (C9) atmosphere >e 8 7C9 IIIIN >eC 8 C97 >eC represe$ts disso#ved *arbo$ i$ >e
%$)!,)&.&+G T0(*S:
Pa.: .ar0+ri(i#$ (eati$g of *har*oa#0 *o'e0 a$d barium *arbo$ate (e$ergi/i$g *ompou$d to e$ha$*e *arbo$ pi*' up *hara*ter of stee#) +ith samp#e i$ a *#osed pa*'ed *hamber !t is effi*ie$t a$d e*o$omi*a# for sma## #ots of parts or of #arge massive parts Mai$ disadva$tage is that it is $ot suitab#e for thi$ *ases Mi$imum *ase depth 0 03i$*h +ith 0 0; i$*h to#era$*e Ga" .ar0+ri(i#$ Cses propa$e (C3(8)0 metha$e (C(:)0 $atura# gas (87< metha$e)0 a$d *arbo$ mo$o.ide i$ a sea#ed fur$a*e 1as *arburi/i$g a##o+s 3ui*'er ha$d#i$g0 *#oser 3ua#ity0 a$d greater f#e.ibi#ity of operatio$ i$ *ompariso$ +ith pa*' *arburi/i$g 3i1+i, .ar0+ri(i#$
Csed sodium *ya$ide (,aC,) a$d other sa#ts (?aC#7) Thi*'$ess 0 00D i$ to 0 030 i$
()-%*SS ST*(S -# G$S %$)!,)&.&+G:

>ormatio$ of C9 Absorptio$ of C %iffusio$ of C C(: IIN C 8 7(7 C97 8 (7 IIN C9 8 (79 C(: 8 (79 IIN C9 8 3(7 >ormatio$ of (79 is *ausi$g de*arburi/atio$ Some times C97 may a#so ta'es p#a*e >e 8 7C9 IIN >e(C) 8 C97 >e 8 C(: IIN >e(C) 8 7(7 >e 8 C9 8 (7 IIN >e(C) 8 (79 >ormatio$ of C97 a$d &ater *a$ be mi$imi/ed by further additio$ of C(:0 other +ise *arburi/atio$ pro*ess +i## $ot pro*eed0 si$*e C97 a$d (79 are de*arburi/i$g age$ts C(: 8 C97 IIN7C9 8 7(7 C(: 8 (79 IIN C9 8 3(7 >i*'Es first #a+
$DS-)(T&-+ -# %$)!-+:
f I B % g*)g. &here: f is f#u.0 or amou$t of diffusi$g substa$*e that passes through u$it *ross se*tio$a# area per u$it time % is the diffusio$ *oeffi*ie$t g*)g. is the *o$*e$tratio$ gradie$t of the diffusi$g substa$*e The tra$sport of *arbo$ i$ auste$ite depe$ds o$: %iffusio$ *oeffi*ie$t va#ues The *arbo$ *o$*e$tratio$ gradie$t
%$S* D*(TH:
d I 2 ht &here d is *ase depth a$d 2 is *o$sta$t proportio$a#ity *oeffi*ie$t0 t is time
D*%$)!,)&.$T&-+:
!t is reversa# of *arburi/atio$ a$d is the prob#em i$ high *arbo$ stee#s a$d too# stee#s %ep#etio$ of *arbo$ #eft the soft s'i$ a$d *ase do $ot tra$sform to marte$site o$ subse3ue$t harde$i$g A$dothermi* e$viro$me$t is the 'ey to avoid de*arburi/atio$
#-)M$T&-+ -# H9- $+D %-9 D,)&+G %$)!,)&.&+G $T D&##*)*+T T*M(*)$T,)*S:
M&%)-ST),%T,)*S:
At surfa*e mi*rostru*ture +ou#d be pear#ite +ith *eme$tite $et+or' a$d at *ore pear#ite +ith ferrite $et+or' (figure 8 7 ave$er) The amou$t of ferrite +i## i$*rease to+ards *ore The *arbo$ gradie$t from *ase to *ore is sho+$ i$ figure 8 7; The re#atio$ bet+ee$ time a$d temperature to *ase depth is sho+$ i$ figure 8 77
%0$+&D&+G $+D %$)!,)&.&+G:

Cya$idi$g: Surfa*e harde$i$g usi$g #i3uid sa#t baths Carbo$itridi$g: Surfa*e harde$i$g usi$g C a$d , gas atmosphere (*arbo$itridi$g) The temperature used is #o+er tha$ *arburi/i$g (b)+ ;:00 to ;O00o>) This te*h$i3ue is used for produ*i$g thi$$er *ases Cp to 0 0;i$ for *ya$idi$g Cp to 0 03 i$ for *arbo$itridi$g The pro*ess i$ +hi*h the *arbo$ a$d $itroge$ gases are used dire*t#y the sour*e of harde$i$g age$t !t is the modified *arburi/i$g The most des*riptive term +ou#d be $itro*arburi/i$g The pro*ess is a#so '$o+ as dry *ya$idi$g0 gas *ya$idi$g a$d $i*arbi$g The gases used i$ the pro*ess is the mi.ture of: Carrier $a" (mi.ture of ,0 (0 C9) !t is used at 8ve pressure to preve$t air i$fi#tratio$ a$d a*t as di#ue$t for a*tive gases (hydro*arbo$ a$d ammo$ia) thus ma'i$g the pro*ess easy to *o$tro# A$ri*hi$g gas (usua##y propa$e a$d $atura# gas) the mai$ *arburi/i$g age$t sour*e Ammo$ia ,(3 At operati$g temperature the ,(3 disso*iates to provide , to surfa*e of stee# The e$dothermi* ge$erator is used for produ*tio$ of C9 ,itroge$ is diffused i$ the surfa*e of spe*ia# a##oy stee#s at temperatures arou$d [D;0 to O00LC Suitab#e for #o+ *arbo$ a##oy stee#s *o$tai$i$g A#0 Cr0 Mo0 60 ,i that *a$ form $itride *ompou$d Me*ha$ism: ,(3N , 83( S+r*a.e &ar,#e"" a*hieved: up to ;000 6(, Ca"e De-t&: 0 ; to 0 O mm A--li.ati #": 1ears0 va#ves0 *utters0 spro*'ets0 pump
%$)!-+&T)&D&+G:
+&T)&D&+G:

bori$g too#s0 fue#Bi$2e*tio$ pump parts %epe$di$g o$ *ase depth0 $itridi$g time $orma##y ra$ge upto ;70h 0 038< is the ma.imum so#ubi#ity of $itroge$ at sta$dard pressure a$d auste$iti/i$g temperature (8;0oC)
Assig$me$t %efi$e a$d differe$tiate the types of $itridi$g pro*ess sho+$ i$ tab#e
S,)#$%* H*$T T)*$TM*+TS:

Carburi/i$g BZ (4C O00 Thi*'$ess: 0 07D - : mm ,itridi$g BZ (4C 700 Thi*'$ess: 0 07D - 0 0D mm Carbo$itridi$g BZ (4C 700 Thi*'$ess: 0 07B0 D mm Chromi/i$g a$d ?oro$i/i$g BZ (4C 70
H*$T T)*$TM*+T W&TH G$S*-,S $TM-S(H*)*:

The absorptio$ of materia# from a gaseous atmosphere o**urs i$ severa# steps =ro*esses i$ the gaseous atmosphere: i >ormatio$ of tra$sportab#e gas mo#e*u#es a$d tra$sfer of these mo#e*u#es through the gas phase o$to the surfa*e of the meta# +ith subse3ue$t physi*a# adsorptio$ of the gas mo#e*u#es =ro*esses i$ the i$terfa*e:
i %isso*iatio$ of the gas mo#e*u#es a$d *hemisorptio$ of the gas atoms0 pe$etratio$ of the atoms through the surfa*e of the meta# +ith tra$sitio$ of the atoms from the state of *hemisorptio$ to the i$terstitia##y so#ute state i$ the so#id so#utio$ %iffusio$ of the atoms from the surfa*e i$to the *ore of the materia# !$depe$de$t of the *ompositio$ of the i$itia# gases0 the gaseous atmospheres used i$ heattreati$g at pro*essi$g temperatures *o$sist of the e#eme$tary mo#e*u#es: *arbo$ mo$o.ide C90 *arbo$ dio.ide C970 hydroge$ (70 +ater vapor (790 o.yge$ 970 ammo$ia ,(30 a$d sometimes a#so metha$e C(:0 A## of +hi*h are ab#e to rea*t +ith o$e a$other a$d +ith the *ata#y/i$g surfa*e of the *ompo$e$t (a$d the fur$a*e +a##)0 thus re#easi$g or absorbi$g *arbo$0 o.yge$0 $itroge$0 a$d hydroge$ 4ea*tio$s amo$g the *o$stitue$ts of the gas are des*ribed as & ! $e#e +" rea.ti #"5 rea*tio$s bet+ee$ e#eme$ts of the gas a$d e#eme$ts of the *ompo$e$t surfa*e are des*ribed as &eter $e#e +" rea.ti #"2 The heteroge$eous rea*tio$s that ta'e p#a*e i$ the i$terfa*e bet+ee$ gaseous atmosphere a$d *ompo$e$t surfa*e are .&e! -&'"i.al pro*esses a$d respo$sib#e for the mass tra$sfer
#1$M* H$)D*+&+G:
.e-o-3
&+D,%T&-+ H$)D*+&+G:
.e-o/4
%H)-M&.&+G: !)-M&.&+G:
=erformed o$ too# stee#s0 $i*'e# a$d *oba#t based a##oy stee#s &he$ used o$ #o+ *arbo$ stee#s0 *orrosio$ resista$*e is improved %iffuse *hromium i$to the surfa*e 0 00; - 0 007 i$ =a*' the parts i$ Cr ri*h po+ders or dip i$ a mo#te$ sa#t bath *o$tai$i$g Cr sa#ts
Classes:34-39
D&##,S&-+:
DIFFUSION
%iffusio$ is pro*ess of substa$*e (so#id0 #i3uid or gas ) tra$sport to a$ other substa$*e
&M(-)T$+%* -# D&##,S&-+:
!t is temperature a$d time depe$de$t The rate of diffusio$ is depe$de$t o$: Type of substa$*e to diffuse Temperature Time Co$*e$tratio$ gradie$t A.amp#es of gas diffusio$: diffusio$ of perfume i$ air0 diffusio$ of smo'e i$ air0 et* A.amp#es of #i3uid diffusio$: diffusio$ of syrup i$ +ater A.amp#e of So#id diffusio$: So#id so#utio$ of *arbo$ i$ ?CC or >CC iro$0 porosity moveme$t0 i$*#usio$ moveme$t =ath of diffusi$g substa$*e is *o$*e$tratio$ depe$de$t At #o+ *o$*e$tratio$ diffusi$g path is ra$dom0 /ig/ag a$d u$predi*tab#e At high *o$*e$tratio$ there *ou#d be systemi* f#o+ %iffusio$ p#ays a *ru*ia# ro#e i$i A##oyi$g meta#s IZ bro$/e0 si#ver0 go#d Stre$gthe$i$g a$d heat treatme$t pro*esses i (arde$i$g the surfa*es of stee# (igh temperature me*ha$i*a# behavior =hase tra$sformatio$s i Mass tra$sport duri$g >CC to ?CC A$viro$me$ta# degradatio$ i Corrosio$0 et*
D&##,S&-+ D*M-:

to
1#ass tube fi##ed +ith +ater t1 At time t I 00 add some drops of i$' to o$e e$d of the tube t2 Measure the diffusio$ dista$*e0 .0 over some time Compare the resu#ts +ith theory t3
1 H-W D- $T-MS M-7* &+ S-1&DS ?o WH0 D- $T-MS M-7* &+ S-1&DS ?
x2 x3
%iffusio$0 simp#y0 is atoms movi$g from o$e #atti*e site to a$other i$ a step+ise ma$$er Tra$sport of materia# by movi$g atoms T+o *o$ditio$s are to be met: A$ empty ad2a*e$t site A$ough e$ergy to brea' bo$ds a$d *ause #atti*e distortio$s duri$g disp#a*eme$t &hat is the e$ergy sour*e W (AAT ] &hat e#se W Co$*e$tratio$ gradie$t ]
T0(*S -# D&##,S&-+:
Se#f %iffusio$ !$ pure a$d perfe*t meta#s the atoms do $ot e.ist at a$y defi$ed positio$ Their #o*atio$ is *o$sta$t#y *ha$ged by i$tersi$*' property)*hara*ter of meta#s !$ter diffusio$ Se#f diffusio$ i$ a$ a##oy !$terdiffusio$ mea$s the diffusio$ of o$e *ompo$e$t through #atti*e of other >errite %iffusio$ of *arbo$ i$ ?CC #atti*e of >e 6o#ume diffusio$ %iffusio$ i$ bu#' 3ua$tity 1rai$ bou$dary diffusio$ Atomi* migratio$ a#o$g grai$ bou$daries Surfa*e diffusio$ %iffusio$ of vapor)gas i$ so#id Sel*-,i**+"i #: !$ a$ e#eme$ta# so#id0 atoms a#so migrate
D&##,S&-+:
I#ter,i**+"i #: !$ a$ a##oy0 atoms te$d to migrate from regio$s of high *o$* to regio$s of #o+ *o$*
I#ter,i**+"i #: !$ a$ a##oy0 atoms te$d to migrate from regio$s of #arge *o$*e$tratio$
D&##,S&-+ M*%H$+&SMS: D&##,S&-+ M*%H$+&SMS &+ S-1&DS (&):

1ases \ Li3uids - ra$dom (?ro+$ia$) motio$ So#ids - va*a$*y diffusio$ or i$terstitia# diffusio$
$%T&7$T&-+ *+*)G0:
A$ergy re3uired to diffuse5 e$ergy re3uired to pu## the atom a+ay from its prese$t $eighbors A*tivatio$ e$ergy is depe$de$t o$: Si/e of atom Type of atom ( eg tu$gste$ atom is more *#ose#y bou$ded tha$ >e atom)
D&##,S&-+ M*%H$+&SMS &+ S-1&DS (&&):

I#ter"titial Di**+"i #
Much faster than vacancy diffusion, why ? Smaller atoms like B, C, H, O. Weaker interaction with the larger atoms. More vacant sites, no need to create a vacancy !
D&##,S&-+ M*%H$+&SMS &+ S-1&DS (&&&):

S+0"tit+ti #al Di**+"i #: app#ies to substitutio$a# impurities atoms e.*ha$ge +ith va*a$*ies rate depe$ds o$: $umber of va*a$*ies a*tivatio$ e$ergy to e.*ha$ge
increasing elapsed time
()-%*SS&+G ,S&+G D&##,S&-+ (8):

Ca"e Har,e#i#$: %iffuse *arbo$ atoms i$to the host iro$ atoms at the surfa*e A.amp#e of i$terstitia# diffusio$ is a *ase harde$ed gear
Re"+lt: T&e ;Ca"e; i" &ar, t ,e* r!: C atoms j#o*'j p#a$es from sheari$g &ar, t .ra.:: C atoms put the surfa*e i$ *ompressio$
()-%*SS&+G ,S&+G D&##,S&-+

D -i#$ "ili. # +ith phosphorus for $Btype semi*o$du*tors: o =ro*ess: ; %eposit = ri*h #ayers o$ surfa*e
015 --
-a0nified i-a0e of a co-#uter c i# li0 t re0ions: Si ato-s li0 t re0ions: &l ato-s
7 (eat it 3 4esu#t: %oped semi*o$du*tor regio$s
D&##,S&-+ 1$W:
(o+ do +e 3ua$tify the amou$t or rate of diffusio$W o >i*'s La+ (Steady state a$d ,o$ steady State) Mea"+re, e!-iri.all' o Ma'e thi$ fi#m (membra$e) of '$o+$ surfa*e area o !mpose *o$*e$tratio$ gradie$t o Measure ho+ fast atoms or mo#e*u#es diffuse through the membra$e
M-D*1&+G D&##,S&-+: #1,2
%-+%*+T)$T&-+ ()-#&1*S A #1,2
%-+%*+T)$T&-+ G)$D&*+T:
ST*$D0 ST$T* D&##,S&-+:
D&##,S&-+ $+D T*M(*)$T,)*:
S&.* &M($%T -+ D&##,S&-+:
Smaller atoms diffuse faster
#&%/?S S*%-+D 1$W B +-+;ST*$D0 ST$T* D&##,S&-+:

!$ most pra*ti*a# *ases0 f (f#u.) a$d dC)d. (*o$*e$tratio$ gradie$t) *ha$ge +ith time (t)
o ,et a**umu#atio$ or dep#etio$ of spe*ies diffusi$g (o+ do +e e.press a time depe$de$t *o$*e$tratio$W
+-+;ST*$D0 ST$T* D&##,S&-+:
S,MM$)0:
STRUCTURE < DIFFUSION:
Classes:40-43
$G* H$)D*+&+G:

AGE HARDENING
=ri$*ipa##y there are t+o methods of i$*reasi$g the stre$gth a$d hard$ess of the a##oy o &or' harde$i$g o (eat treatme$t The most importa$t heat treatme$t pro*ess for $o$ ferrous a##oys are age harde$i$g) =re*ipitatio$ harde$i$g The a##oys that *ou#d be age harde$ed shou#d have partia# so#ubi#ity at so#id state The a##oy *ompositio$ that *ou#d be harde$ed shou#d *ross the so#vus #i$e There are t+o stages i$ age harde$i$g o So#utio$ treatme$t o Agi$g =ro*ess
S-1,T&-+ $+D $G&+G ST*(S:
^7003 ?roo's)Co#e0 a divisio$ of Thomso$ Lear$i$g0 !$* Thomso$ Lear$i$g_ is a trademar' used herei$ u$der #i*e$se
$G* H$)D*+&+G ST*(S:
S l+ti # treat!e#t o Bheati$g to a si$g#e phase regio$ o Mue$*h to T4 k pre*ipitatio$ is s#o+0 i$sig$ifi*a$t pre*ipitates A$i#$ (eat the supersaturated so#id so#utio$ to a$ i$termediate T %iffusio$ of Cu i$ A# k fi$e dispersio$ The a##oy is *oo#ed to room temperature Agi$g at e#evated temperature to fa*i#itate)speed up the pre*ipitatio$ of trapped e#eme$t =re*ipitatio$ speed is temperature depe$de$t
$G&+G ()-%*SS:
>igure i$di*ates the optima# temperature ,atura# Agi$g a##oys o =re*ipitatio$ at room temperature b)+ : to D days Artifi*ia# agi$g a##oys o &hi*h re3uire reheati$g to e#evated temperature 4efrigeratio$ retards the rate of agi$g o At 37o> begi$$i$g of the agi$g *a$ be de#ayed for severa# hours i$ *ase of A# A##oys o %ry i*e (BD0 to B;00o>) retards agi$g for e.te$ded period A# a##oy rivets +hi*h age at room temperature are 'ept i$ deepBrefrigerator to retard their agi$g pro*ess u$ti# they are drive$ =re*ipitatio$ of e.*ess e#eme$t as fi$e submi*ros*opi* parti*#es at s#ip p#a$e %istortio$ of #atti*e stru*ture that i$terfere +ith moveme$t of dis#o*atio$ %istortio$ of #atti*e is the 'ey fa*tor behi$d the harde$i$g tha$ pre*ipitatio$ of submi*ros*opi* parti*#es Mag *a$ disso#ve :O< Lead at eute*ti* temperature a$d 7< at room temperature A#though pre*ipitatio$ is high but +ith #ess distortio$ so $o sig$ifi*a$t harde$i$g ta'es p#a*e 9$ the other ha$d *opper bery##ium a##oy sho+s 7 7< so#ubi#ity at eute*ti* temperature a$d 0 7< at room temperature Si$*e e.*ess distortio$ i$ #atti*e is i$vo#ved so sig$ifi*a$t i$*rease i$ hard$ess a$d stre$gth is reported The most 3uoted age harde$i$g *urve is that for A#BCu a##oys performed i$ the #ate :0s Ueep i$ mi$d that age harde$i$g +as '$o+$ empiri*a##y (A#fred &i#m) as a te*h$o#ogi*a##y usefu# treatme$t from the ear#y days of a#umi$um a##oys (igher Cu *o$te$ts resu#t i$ higher ma.imum hard$esses be*ause #arger vo#ume fra*tio$s of pre*ipitate are possib#e
M*%H$+&SM -# $G* H$)D*+&+G:

$G* H$)D*+&+G %,)7*S:
$1;%, ()*%&(&T$T&-+ S*C,*+%*:

The se3ue$*e is: a0 l a; 8 1=B/o$es l a7 8 3Jl a3 8 3El a: 8 3 The phase are: a$ B f** a#umi$um5 $th subs*ript de$otes ea*h e3ui#ibrium
1= /o$es B mo$oBatomi* #ayers of Cu o$ (00;)A# 3J B thi$ dis*s0 fu##y *ohere$t +ith matri. 3E B dis*Bshaped0 semiB*ohere$t o$ (00;)3E b*t 3 B i$*ohere$t i$terfa*e0 [spheri*a#0 *omp#e. bodyB*e$tered tetrago$a# (b*t)
$1;%, ((T ST),%T,)*S:
$1;%, M&%)-ST),%T,)*S:
This tab#eau sho+s +hi*h of the differe$t ppt types are asso*iated +ith +hi*h part of the harde$i$g *urve
$1;%, D)&7&+G #-)%*S:

Aa*h pre*ipitate has a differe$t free e$ergy *urve + r t *ompositio$ A.*eptio$ is the 1= /o$e0 +hi*h may be regarded as *o$ti$uous +ith the a##oy (#eadi$g to the possibi#ity of spi$oda# de*ompositio$0 dis*ussed #ater)
=\A fig D 77 i##ustrates the se3ue$*e of su**essive#y greater free e$ergy de*reases a$d a#so su**essive#y greater m1P =\A fig D 78 i##ustrates the poi$t that the $u*#eatio$ barriers are mu*h sma##er for ea*h i$dividua# $u*#eatio$ step +he$ the $e.t pre*ipitate $u*#eates heteroge$eous#y o$ the previous stru*ture
$1;%, (H$S* )*1$T&-+SH&(S:

The e.p#a$atio$ of age harde$i$g depe$ds o$ u$dersta$di$g the metastab#e phases that *a$ appear
+,%1*$T&-+ S&T*SD )*7*)S&-+:

The $u*#eatio$ sites vary depe$di$g o$ *ir*umsta$*es 3J most #i'e#y $u*#eates o$ 1= /o$es by addi$g additio$a# #ayers of Cu atoms Simi#ar#y0 3E $u*#eates o$ 3J by i$Bsitu tra$sformatio$ (o+ever0 3E *a$ a#so $u*#eate o$ dis#o*atio$s0 see =\A fig D 3;a The fu## se3ue$*e is o$#y observab#e for a$$ea#i$g temperatures be#o+ the 1= so#vus A$y of the i$termediate pre*ipitates *a$ be disso#ved0 reverted0 by i$*reasi$g the temperature above the re#eva$t so#vus0 fig D 37 The age harde$i$g *urve has the same doub#e pea' as for the A#BCu series0 but the separatio$ is more pro$ou$*ed
$1;$G: *2$M(1* 9:
T0(&%$1 (;H $11-0S:

Al o 70;: o 707: >orged Air*raft >itti$gs0 A# Stru*tures (igh stre$gth forgi$gs0 4ivets
Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38) o O0O; o 707D C+ o ?ery##ium ?ro$/e M$ o AM ;00A o Ad80A Ni o 4e$eG :; o !$*o$e# 700 o Cdimet D00 Fe o AB78O o ;7B;0= (igh Temperature up to ;800> Sa$d Casti$gs A.truded produ*ts
>ur$iture0 6a*uum C#ea$ers0 Ca$oes Air*raft Stru*tures0 9#ympi* ?i'es Surgi*a# !$strume$ts 0 ,o$ spar'i$g too#s0 Spri$gs0 ,uts0 1ears
(igh Stre$gth Stai$#ess
$G* H$)D*+&+G &+ ST**1:

>errite has a very #o+ so#ubi#ity for *arbo$ a$d therefore age harde$i$g (a#so *a##ed 3ue$*h harde$i$g) o**urs here too To avoid it0 the so#ub#e *arbo$ #eve#s must be redu*ed0 +hi*h is a *ommo$ ob2e*tive of the !> or i$terstitia#Bfree stee# grades These have additio$s of *arbide formers su*h as Ti or ,b to se3uester the C
Classes:44
D&ST-)T&-+E H*$T T)*$TM*+T D*#*%T:

%istortio$ is a term that is very fami#iar to a## that are i$vo#ved +ith therma# pro*essi$g te*h$i3ues espe*ia##y i$ the fie#d of heat treatme$t ,o matter ho+ *arefu# o$e is0 distortio$ *a$$ot be avoided !t is importa$t to at #east u$dersta$d the basi* *auses of the distortio$ prob#em %istortio$ des*ribes the moveme$t of a meta# duri$g its heat treatme$t pro*ess The distortio$ +i## ma$ifest itse#f i$ o$e of t+o forms0 or a *ombi$atio$ of both: o Shape distortio$ o Si/e distortio$ Shape distortio$ *a$ o**ur as a dire*t resu#t of o$e or a$y *ombi$atio$s of the fo##o+i$g: o >orgi$g o 4o##i$g
HEAT TREATMENT DEFECT
o Casti$g o Ma*hi$i$g stresses i$du*ed due to ma$ufa*turi$g operatio$s o 1rai$ si/e o 6ariatio$s i$ homoge$eity of the materia# o !$*omp#ete phase *ha$ges Si/e distortio$ o**urs as a dire*t resu#t of *ha$gi$g the surfa*e *hemistry of stee#0 +hereas *ha$ge i$ surfa*e *hemistry o$#y ta'es p#a*e i$ surfa*e heat treatme$t The outsta$di$g importa$*e of stee#s i$ e$gi$eeri$g is based o$ their abi#ity to *ha$ge me*ha$i*a# properties over a +ide ra$ge +he$ sub2e*ted to *o$tro##ed heat treatme$t >or u$a##oyed *arbo$ stee#s0 for e.amp#e0 the hard$ess *a$ be i$*reased by up to D00< 2ust by *ha$gi$g the *oo#i$g rate from the auste$iti/i$g temperature from e.treme#y s#o+ to e.treme#y fast (o+ever 3ue$*hi$g at a rate faster tha$ i$ sti## air does $ot o$#y determi$e the desired me*ha$i*a# properties but a#so i$du*e formatio$ of therma# a$d tra$sformatio$a# stresses that #ead to *ha$ges i$ si/e a$d shape a$d thus may resu#t i$ 3ue$*hi$g *ra*'s that damage the +or'pie*e Tra$sformatio$a# stresses are *aused due to *ha$ge i$ mi*rophases0 +hereas *ha$ge i$ mi*rophases *ause the *ha$ge i$ vo#ume >or e.amp#e: o Auste$ite phase has the sma##est vo#ume0 C$tempered marte$site phase has the #argest phase !f there are mi.ed phases0 a$y residua# auste$ite +i## tra$sform to marte$site over time or +ith the app#i*atio$ of heat This +i## *ause a dime$sio$a# *ha$ge i$ the stee#
%-,(1&+G *##*%TS $M-+G TH* TH)** D&##*)*+T %H$)$%T*)&ST&%S:

>igure s*hemati*a##y represe$ts the *oup#i$g effe*ts amo$g the three differe$t *hara*teristi*s of 3ue$*hi$g: o *oo#i$g rate0 meta##i* stru*ture0 a$d i$ter$a# stresses The *oo#i$g rate i$f#ue$*es the phase tra$sformatio$ of the meta##i* stru*ture0 +hereas the #ate$t heat due to stru*tura# *ha$ges affe*ts the *oo#i$g rate A## phase tra$sformatio$s of auste$ite duri$g 3ue$*hi$g are a**ompa$ied by vo#ume e.pa$sio$ As a *o$se3ue$*e0 #o*a##y a$d tempora##y differe$t *ha$ges of stru*ture a$d temperature *ause $o$u$iform vo#umetri* *ha$ges i$ the 3ue$*hed part that *a$ resu#t i$ tra$sformatio$a# a$d therma# stresses These stresses a**e#erate or hi$der the phase tra$sformatio$ a$d i$f#ue$*e the vo#ume e.pa$sio$ &hi#e the phase tra$sformatio$ bri$gs out a defi$ed meta##i* stru*ture0 the vo#umetri* di#atatio$ a$d therma# a$d tra$sformatio$a# stresses resu#t i$ deformatio$ a$d residua# stresses At room temperature0 both *hara*teristi*s i$f#ue$*e the materia# properties
Classes:45-46
%-MM-+ C,*+%H$+TS:
QUENCHING AND QUENCHING MEDIA
The most *ommo$ 3ue$*ha$ts i$ arde$i$g pra*ti*e are #i3uids i$*#udi$g: o +ater o +ater that *o$tai$s sa#t0 a3ueous po#ymer so#utio$s o harde$i$g oi#s !$ert gases0 mo#te$ sa#t0 mo#te$ meta#0 a$d f#uidi/ed beds are a#so used Mue$*hi$g te*h$i3ues used for #i3uid media are: o !mmersio$ 3ue$*hi$g o Spray 3ue$*hi$g !mmersio$ 3ue$*hi$g o The part is submerged i$to a$ u$agitated or agitated 3ue$*ha$t0 o !t is the most +ide#y used te*h$i3ue Spray 3ue$*hi$g o !t refers to sprayi$g the #i3uid through $o//#es o$to those areas of the hot +or'pie*e +here higher *oo#i$g rates are desired
C,*+%H&+G M*D&$:
F +r . !! #l' +"e, 1+e#.&i#$ !e,ia: ?ri$e - the fastest *oo#i$g rate &ater - moderate *oo#i$g rate 9i# - s#o+est *oo#i$g rate 1as - used i$ automati* fur$a*es0 usua##y #i3uid $itroge$0 *a$ be very fast *oo#i$g Too rapid *oo#i$g *a$ *ause *ra*'i$g i$ *omp#e. a$d heavy se*tio$s
H*$T )*M-7$1 ST$G*S:

%uri$g 3ue$*hi$g i$ #i3uid media +ith boi#i$g temperatures far be#o+ the i$itia# temperature of the body0 three stages of heat remova# o**ur These are referred as The fi#m boi#i$g or vapor b#a$'et stage The $u*#eate boi#i$g stage The *o$ve*tio$ stage !$ the fi#mBboi#i$g stage the surfa*e temperature of the +or'pie*e is suffi*ie$t#y high to vapori/e the 3ue$*hi$g #i3uid a$d form a stab#e fi#m arou$d the part
The vapor fi#m has a$ i$su#ati$g effe*t5 therefore the *oo#i$g rate duri$g fi#m boi#i$g is re#ative#y s#o+ The temperature above vapor b#a$'et o**urs is *a##ed the Leide$frost temperature after foha$$ 1ott#ieb Leide$frost &he$ surfa*e temperature is #ess tha$ the Leide$frost temperature0 the vapor fi#m *o##apses a$d the $u*#eate boi#i$g begi$s b;;c !$ this stage0 the #i3uid i$ *o$ta*t +ith the hot surfa*e evaporates0 a$d immediate#y the vapor bubb#es #eave the surfa*e This *auses stro$g *o$ve*tio$0 +hi*h resu#ts i$ a high rate of heat tra$sfer from the meta# to the f#uid Cpo$ further *oo#i$g0 the surfa*e temperature be*omes #ess tha$ the boi#i$g poi$t of the #i3uid0 a$d the surfa*e is perma$e$t#y +etted by the f#uid The *oo#i$g rate is #o+ a$d determi$ed mai$#y by the rate of *o$ve*tio$ a$d the vis*osity of the #i3uid 3ue$*ha$t
$SS&G+M*+T:

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MEDIUM

BY: SIR MUHMMED ISHAQUE ABRO 4e#ative#y easy *o$tro# of

Li3uid Mo#te$ sa#ts Carburi/i$g *o$tai$i$g ,aC, Strengthening

Strengthening Mechanisms (Solid Solution Strengthening):

Strengthening Mechanisms (Dispersion Strengthening):

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Strengthening Mechanism ( Work Hardening):

What is Heat Treatment?

Why Heat Treatment is?

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Microstructures o" Steels:

Microstructures o" Steels:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Microstructures o" Steels:

Microstructures o" Steels:

Microstructures o" Steels:

Microstructures o" Steels:

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Microstructures o" Steels:

TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Types o" Heat Treatments:

Heat Treatment o" #errous $lloys(Steel and %ast &ron):

%on'entional Heat treatment (rocesses:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

%on'entional Heat treatment (rocess:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

$nnealing Types (Stress )elie" $nnealing and )ecrystalli ation $nnealing):

%on'entional Heat treatment (rocess:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

: a$ isotherma# treatme$t +hi*h produ*e a bai$ite stru*ture i$ some *arbo$ stee#s

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

HEAT TREATMENT STEPS

H*$T&+G T- $,ST*+&T&.&+G T*M(*)$T,)*:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

S-$/&+G T&M* (H-M-G*+*&T0 -# $,ST*+&T*):

#$%T-)S $##*%T&+G TH* %--1&+G )$T*:

Size and Mass

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

S&.* $+D M$SS (*2$M(1* -# M*D&,M %$)!-+ ST**1 -# 3456%):

M&%)-%-+ST&T,*+TS 7S4 %--1&+G )$T*:

M*%H$+&%$1 ()-(*)T&*S 7S H*$T T)*$TM*+T:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ T*+S&1* ST)*+GTH:

*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ #$&1,)*:

*##*%T -# H*$T T)*$TM*+T -+ #$&1,)* M*%H$+&SM:

Composed by: Aftab Ahmed Laghari (07MT38)

Supervised by: Sir M ! Abro

: a$ isotherma# treatme$t +hih produe a bai$ite struture i$ some arbo$ stee#s

H$T&+G T- $,ST+&T&.&+G TM()$T,)*:

S-$/&+G T&M* (H-M-G+&T0 -# $,ST+&T):

#$%T-)S $##%T&+G TH %--1&+G )$T*:

S&.* $+D M$SS (2$M(1 -# M*D&,M %$)!-+ ST**1 -# 3456%):

M&%)-%-+ST&T,+TS 7S4 %--1&+G )$T:

M%H$+&%$1 ()-()T&S 7S H$T T)$TM+T:

##%T -# H$T T)$TM+T -+ T+S&1* ST)*+GTH:

##%T -# H$T T)$TM+T -+ #$&1,):

##%T -# H$T T)$TM+T -+ #$&1,) M*%H$+&SM:

MT$ ST$!1 &)-+ &)-+ %$)!&D* D&$G)$M:

ST$!1* $+D MT$ST$!1 &)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M:

M&%)-ST),%T,)S &+ &)-+ %$)!-+ $11-0 S0STM:

Tertiary eme$tite0 +hih pre*ipitates from the a so#utio$ at the #i$e =M

1-W) %)&T&%$1 TM()$T,):

,(() %)&T&%$1 TM()$T,):

&)-+ %$)!-+ D&$G)$M (%)&T&%$1 TM()$T,)* 1&+*S):

TTT D&$G)$M -# ,T%T-&D ST**1:

TTT D&$G)$M -# H0(),T*%T-&D ST**1(848: WT 6%)

$((1&%$T&-+ -# TTT D&$G)$M (&+T)MD&$T* %--1&+G):

($)1&T #-)M$T&-+ &+ ,T%T-&D ST**1:

D&##,S&-+ -# %$)!-+ &+ ($)1&T:

($)1&T #-)M$T&-+ &+ ,T%T-&D ST**1:

($)1&T #-)M$T&-+ &+ H0(- $+D H0() ,T*%T-&D ST**1:

T)$+S#-)M$T&-+S -# $,ST+&T : G < A = #*:%:

M%H$+&%$1 ()-()T&S -# ($)1&T*:

M%H$+&%$1 ()-()T&S -# M$)T+S&T*:

M%H$+&%$1 ()-()T&S -# !$&+&T: