Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

Theorem 1.5.3 The following properties hold true: (i) For any even n N n xy = n x n y for all x, y [0, );
(ii) For any odd n N
n

xy = n x
n n

y for all x, y ;

(iii) For any even n N (iv) For any even n N (v)

( x)
n

= x for all x [0, );

x n = x for all x ;
n

For any odd n N

( x)
n

= x = n x n for all x ;
m 1

(vi) For any m,n N , x n

( )
1

= x n = ( x m ) n for all x [0, ).

1.6 Elementary Functions (Transcendental Functions)

Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses Let be an angle measured in radians, satisfying the inequality 0 < 2 . Let P be the point on the circle of radius r. Angles measured counterclockwise (or anticlockwise) form the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures(see Figure 1.6.1). Angles measured clockwise are assigned negative measures. When angles are used to describe counterclockwise or clockwise rotations, our measurements can go arbitrarily far beyond 2 . In view of Figure 1.6.1, we note that the point P on the circle will come back to the same coordinate when = + 2k for all k .

An angle measured in radius in standard position. Figure 1.6.1

We define the six trigonometric functions of the angle coordinates of the point P ( x, y ) as follows : y Sine function : f ( ) = sin = ; r x Cosine function : f ( ) = cos = ; r

in terms of the

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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

Tangent function : Cotangent function : Secant function : Cosecant function :

y ; x x f ( ) = cot = ; y r f ( ) = sec = ; x r f ( ) = csc = . y f ( ) = tan =

These functions are defined for all real numbers , which use radians as the unit of measurement, except for those values of at which the denominators of the fractions vanish. As we can see, sin and cos (in latin: complementi sinus) are well defined for all . But, tan and sec are not defined for value of when x = 0, this means = Similarly, cot and csc are not defined for values of for 2 + k , k . which y = 0, namely, = k , k . Therefore, we have f ( ) = sin f ( ) = cos for all ; for all ; for all with

sin cos 1 f ( ) = cot = tan 1 f ( ) = sec = cos 1 f ( ) = csc = sin f ( ) = tan =

+ k , k ;

for all with k , k ; for all with

+ k , k ;

for all with k , k .

The domain and the range of trigonometric functions are listed as follows: Domain sin cos tan cot sec csc
R R

Range [ 1, 1] [ 1, 1]
R R

\ { 2 + k : k } \ {k : k } \ { 2 + k : k } \ {k : k }

( , 1] [1, ) ( , 1] [1, )

When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually denote the independent variable (radians) by x instead of . In what follows, we will use the variable x to denote the angle measured in radius.

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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions, Figure 1.6.2

It is also useful to know the values of the trigonometric functions for particular angles and their signs in the four quadrants.

x sin x

0 0 1 0

6
12
3 2
1 3

4
1
1

3
3 2 12
3

2
1 0 0

0 -1 0

2
2

3 2 -1
0 0

2 0 1 0

cos x
tan x

1 1

cot x
quadrant

3
argument

3
sin x + +

I II III IV

0< x < 2 2< x < < x < 3 2 3 2 < x < 2

cos x +

tan x +

cot x +

Theorem 1.6.1 (Periodicity) For any k Z , we have (i) sin( x + 2k ) = sin x for all x and k ; (ii) cos( x + 2k ) = cos x for all x and k ; (iii) tan( x + k ) = tan x for all x and k ; (iv) cot( x + k ) = cot x for all x and k ; (v) sec( x + 2k ) = sec x for all x and k ;
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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

(vi) csc( x + 2k ) = csc x for all x and k .

We summarize:
period sin x 2 cos x 2 tan x cot x

sec x 2

csc x 2

Theorem 1.6.2 (Odd and Even Properties) (i) The sine function is odd, i.e., sin( x) = sin x for all x . (ii) The cosine function is even, i.e., cos( x ) = cos x for all x .
(iii) The tangent function is odd, i.e., tan( x) = tan x for all \ { 2 + k : k } .

Theorem 1.6.3 (Complementary) (i) sin( for all x ; 2 x ) = cos x (ii) cos( for all x ; 2 x ) = sin x (iii) tan( 2 x) = cot x for all x ;
By Figure 1.6.1 and applying the Theorem of Pythagoras, for any r > 0, we have

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 . By dividing both sides by r 2 , we have

2

x2 r2
2

y2 r2

= 1 , and by using the

Hence, we list all

definitions of sin x and cos x, we obtain sin x + cos x = 1. important trigonometry identities.

Theorem 1.6.4 (Trigonometric Identities) (i) sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 for all x . (ii) tan 2 x + 1 = sec2 x for all x \ { 2 + k : k } .
(iii) cot 2 x + 1 = csc2 x for all x \ {k : k } .

Theorem 1.6.5 (Trigonometric Addition Formulas) (i) sin( x + y ) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y for all x, y . (ii) sin( x y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y for all x, y . (iii) cos( x + y ) = cos x cos y sin x sin y for all x, y . (iv) cos( x y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y for all x, y . tan x + tan y (v) tan( x + y ) = for all x, y with x + y 2 + k , k . 1 tan x tan y tan x tan y (vi) tan( x y ) = for all x, y with x y 2 + k , k . 1 + tan x tan y (vii) sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x for all x . (viii) cos 2 x = cos 2 x sin 2 x = 2 cos 2 x 1 = 1 2sin 2 x for all x . 2 tan x (ix) tan 2 x = for all x \ { ( 4 + k ) : k } . 2 1 tan x Theorem 1.6.6 (Trigonometric Product to Sum Formulas) (i) sin x cos y = 1 for all x, y . 2 ( sin( x y ) + sin( x y ) )

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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

(ii) (iii)

sin x sin y = cos x cos y =

1 2

1 2

( cos( x y) cos( x y) ) ( cos( x y ) + cos( x y ) )

x+ y 2

for all x, y . for all x, y .

Theorem 1.6.7 (Trigonometric Sum to Product Formulas)

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

( ( sin x sin y = 2 ( cos ( cos + cos y = 2 ( cos ( cos x cos y = 2 ( sin (

sin x + sin y = 2 sin

x+ y 2

x+ y 2

x+ y 2

) cos ( ) sin ( ) cos ( ) sin (

x y 2 x y 2

)) ))

for all x, y . for all x, y .

x y 2

x y 2

)) for all x, y . ) ) for all x, y .

Trigonometric Functions are periodic, and hence, in general, they are not one-toone functions. However, we still make the trigonometric functions to be one-to-one by making a proper selection and restriction on their domain sets respectively, and so, we could obtian the inverses of trigonometric functions under the restricted domain set. Firstly, we should consider the natural restriction on the domain set of the trigonometric function to an proper interval for which the function values cover the entire range. The following table shows the restricted domain such that will make the trigonometric functions to be one-to-one.

Function sin x
cos x tan x cot x sec x

Restricted Domain [- 2 , 2] [0, ]

(- 2 , 2 ) (0, ) [0, 2 ) ( 2 ,]
[ 2 , 0) (0, 2 ]

Range [ 1, 1]

[ 1, 1]
R R ( , 1] [1, )
( , 1] [1, )

csc x

Definition 1.6.8 (Inverse Trigonometric Function) 1 (i) For any 1 x 1, and x, 2 y 2 , the arc-sine function, denoted as sin is defined by y = sin 1 x sin y = x.
(ii) For any 1 x 1, and 0 y , the arc-cosine function, denoted as cos 1 x, is defined by

y = cos 1 x cos y = x.
1 (iii) For any x and x, 2 < y < 2 , the arc-tangent function, denoted as tan is defined by y = tan 1 x tan y = x.

(iv) For any x , and 0 < y < , the arc-cotangent function, denoted as cot 1 x, is defined by y = cot 1 x cot y = x.
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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

(v)

the arc-secant function, denoted For any (, 1] [1, ), and 0 y , y 2, as sec 1 x, is defined by y = sec 1 x sec y = x.
2

(vi) For any (, 1] [1, ), and

y 2 , y 0, the arc-cosecant function,

denoted as csc 1 x, is define by y = csc 1 x csc y = x The following is a list of the principle value of the inverse trigonometric functions.

Inverse Function y = sin 1 x

y = cos 1 x y = tan 1 x y = cot 1 x y = sec 1 x y = csc x
1

Principle value 2 y 2 0 y
2 < y < 2 0< y <

0 y , y

2 y 2, y 0

Thereom 1.6.9 (i) sin(sin 1 x) = x for all x [ 1, 1]. (ii) sin 1 (sin x) = x for all x [ 2 , 2 ].
(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) cos(cos 1 x) = x for all x [ 1, 1]. cos 1 (cos x) = x for all x [0, ]. tan(tan 1 x ) = x for all x . tan 1 (tan x) = x for all x ( 2 , 2 ).

Exponential and Logarithm Functions Let a be a positive real number other than 1. Let x be a real number. If x is rational, p q say x = , where p,q are integers,and q>0, then a x = a p .Suppose x is not a q rational number , then how do we define a x ? By a theorem which will not be proved here, there is a unque number , denoted by a x , such that if < x < , where and are rational numbers, then
a < a x < a . Thus we can define the function f ( x) = a x

for all x , ****

This function is called the exponential function with base-a. When a = e, then we called f ( x) = e x for all x , the natural exponential function. We first have the following elementary properties of exponential functions.

Theorem 1.6.10 Let a and b be positive real numbers with a, b 1. Then:

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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)

a 0 = 1 and a x > 0 for all x ; a x = a y if and only if x = y; a x a y = a x + y for every x, y ; a x a y = a x y for every x, y ; ( a x ) y = a x y for every x, y ; ( ab) x = a x b x for every x ; ( a b) x = a x b x for every x ; a x = 1 a x for every x ; if 0 < a < 1, then a x a y whenever x y in ; if a > 1, then a x a y whenever x y in .

The exponential function g ( x ) = a x , where a > 0 with a 1, has the inverse. We called this inverse function the logarithm of x to the base a, or simply, base-a logarithm or logarithm if the base is understood, and it is denoted by f ( x) = log a ( x) for all x (0, ). *****

Evidently, the natural domain and the range of logarithm are (0, ) and respectively because the range and the domain of exponential are respectively (0, ) and .

Theorem 1.6.11 Let a be a positive real number such that a 1. Then we have the following results. (i) The base-a logarithm function is an injective function on x (0, ) ; (ii) for any x, y (0, ), x = y log a x = log a y ;
(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) y = log a x a y = x for all x (0, ) ; a loga x = x for all x (0, ) ; log a a x = x for all x ; log a 1 = 0.

There are two frequently used bases for logarithms. If the base a = 10 is used, then the logarithm log10 ( x), is called a common logarithm, and denoted by log( x). If the base a = e is used, then the logarithm log e ( x), is called a natural logarithm, and is denoted by ln( x). Suppose that a is a positive real number such that a 1. For any x, y (0, ), then there exist positive real numbers t1 = log a x, t2 = log a y and t3 = log a xy. In view of Theorem 1.6.11 (iii), we get x = a t1 , y = a t2 and xy = a t3 . So, a t3 = a t1 a t2 . By Theorem 1.6.10 (ii) and (iii), we have a t1 a t2 = a t1 +t2 , and hence, t1 + t2 = t3 . Consequently, we conclude that for any x, y (0, ), log a ( xy ) = log a x + log a y . So, logarithm functions have he following arithmetic properties.

Theorem 1.6.12 Let a be positive real numbers such that a 1. Then the following assertions hold true.
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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

(i) (ii) (iii)

log a ( xy ) = log a x + log a y for all x, y (0, ). log a ( x y ) = log a x log a y for all x, y (0, ). log a x y = y log a x for all x (0, ) and y .

Theorem 1.6.13 Let a be positive real numbers such that a 1. Then every exponential function is a power of the natural exponential function
a x = e x ln a for all x .

Theorem 1.6.14 Let a be positive real numbers such that a 1. Then every base-a logarithm is a constant multiple of the natural logarithm
log a x = ln x ln a
for all x (0, ) .

Example 1.6.15 Solve the following equation 4 x 3 523 x = 20. Solution 4 x 3 523 x = 20 ( x 3) log 4 4 + (2 3x ) log 4 5 = log 4 4 + log 4 5 x 3 + 2 log 4 5 (3log 4 5) x = 1 + log 4 5 (1 3log 4 5) x = 4 log 4 5 x = (4 log 4 5) (1 3log 4 5). Hyperbolic Functions and their Inverses In this section we shall study certain combinations of e x and e x , called hyperbolic functions. These functions arise naturally in many mathematical problems, and have numerous engineering applications. As we proceed, we will notice that the hyperbolic functions have many properties in common with the trigonometric functions. Firslty, we give the formal definition of the six hyperbolic functions. Definition 1.6.16 The six basic hyperbolic functions are defined as follows: The hyperbolic sine function, denoted by sinh x , is defined by e x e x sinh x = for all x . 2 The hyperbolic cosine function, denoted by cosh x, is defined by
e x + e x for all x . 2 The remaining hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of sinh x and cosh x as follows: The hyperbolic tangent function, denoted by tanh x, is defined by

cosh x =

sinh x e x e x tanh x = = cosh x e x + e x

for all x .

The hyperbolic cotangent function, denoted by coth x , is defined by cosh x e x + e x coth x = = for all x \ {0} . sinh x e x e x The hyperbolic secant function, denoted by sec h x , is defined by
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Chapter One: Calculus of One Variable

sec h x =

1 2 = x cosh x e + e x

for all x .

The hyperbolic cosecant function, denoted by csch x , is defined by 1 2 = x for all x R \ {0} . csc h x = sinh x e e x Consider the hyperbolic sine function h( x) = sinh x.

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