Ceol 342: Advanced SLrucLural Ceology lall 2011

!"#$%&' )&* +,- !"&../"& 012 )*"&..

1. Conslder a reglon of Lhe LarLh's crusL where Lhe rock denslLy ls a depLh-lndependenL 2400 kg m
-3
.

a) WhaL ls Lhe verLlcal sLress (!"#$%&#'#"( &#*+&& or %,+*-.*/+0) aL a depLh of 3 km? (3)

1he vertlcul stress ls the llthostutlc stress:

!
v
= "
r
gh = zcc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x ccc m = .,6 x c
8
kg m

s
z
= !!"#$ &'( ()


b) ln Lhe absence of any LecLonlc sLresses, whaL are Lhe magnlLudes of prlnclpal sLresses ln Lhe
horlzonLal plane? (2)

Llthostutlc stress ls lsotrolc, so !
vert
= !
horlz
= !!"#$ &'( (z)


c) lf Lhe rocks are waLer saLuraLed, and Lhe waLer Lable ls aL a depLh of 300m, whaL ls Lhe magnlLude of
Lhe hydrosLaLlc pressure aL Lhls 3 km depLh? Assume Lhe denslLy of waLer ls 1000 kg/m
3
. (4)


lf the wuter tuble ls ut cc m deth, then ut km deth, there
ls u cc m wuter column resent. 1herefore:

f
= "
w
gd = ccc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x cc m = ))#! &'( () ()




d) WhaL ls Lhe magnlLude of Lhe effecLlve sLress aL 3 km depLh glven Lhls waLer pressure? (2)

1he effectlve stress: !
eff
= !
v
-
f
= ,.6 MPu - . MPu = "*#+ &'( (z)



2. now conslder a reglon of Lhe LarLh's crusL where a borehole ls belng drllled lnLo a hydrocarbon reservolr. 1he
sLraLlgraphy conslsLs of Lhe followlng rock Lypes: a 1 km Lhlck shale layer (denslLy 2100 kg/m
3
), a 1.3 km Lhlck
sandsLone layer (denslLy 2400 kg/m
3
) and a llmesLone unlL (denslLy 2600 kg/m
3
) of unknown Lhlckness buL
whlch exLends deeper Lhan Lhe maxlmum depLh of Lhe borehole.

a) CalculaLe Lhe !"#$%&#'#"( &#*+&& LhaL exlsLs along Lhe walls of Lhe borehole aL depLhs of
(l) 1 km, (ll) 2 km and (lll) 3 km (Lhe boLLom of Lhe borehole). (13)



1he vertlcul stress ls the llthostutlc stress:

(l) At km deth:
!
v
= "
r
gh
= zcc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x ccc m
= ,-#+. &'( ()
Ceol 342: Advanced SLrucLural Ceology lall 2011

(ll) At z km deth:
!
v
= "
r
gh = !
v
(to km) !
v
(next km)
= zc.8 MPu (zcc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x ccc m)
= zc.8 MPu z.z MPu
= ))#! &'( (6)

(lll) At km deth:
!
v
= "
r
gh = !
v
(to km) !
v
(next . km) !
v
(bottom c. km)
= zc.8 MPu (zcc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x cc m) (z6cc kgjm

x .8 mjs
z
x cc m)
= zc.8 MPu .z8 MPu z., MPu
= $.#$ &'( (6)


b) now calculaLe Lhe +11+(#",+ &#*+&& aL each of Lhese depLhs, assumlng Lhe rocks are saLuraLed up Lo Lhe
LarLh's surface. (9)

(l) At km deth:

f
= "
w
gh = .8 MPu, so !
eff
= zc.8 MPu - .8 MPu = !-#". &'( ()

(ll) At z km deth:

f
= "
w
gh = .6 MPu, so !
eff
= . MPu - .6 MPu = ,)#+ &'( ()

(lll) At km deth:

f
= "
w
gh = z. MPu, so !
eff
= 68.6 MPu - z. MPu = */#, &'( ()


c) Assumlng Lhe borehole ls cased down Lo Lhe depLh of hydrocarbon recovery 3 km down, whaL denslLy
of drllllng mud would Lhe borehole operaLors need Lo use Lo ensure LhaL Lhe borehole nelLher
collapses nor explodes? (3)

Lrllllng mud needs to ush out ugulnst the .z MPu of conflnlng stress resent ut u deth of km
(l.e., # = ). So:

"
mud
gh = .z MPu
"
mud
= .z MPu j gh = .z x c
6
kg m

s
z
j .8 m s
z
x ccc m
"
mud
= ,. kgjm

()

lf you mlstukenly forgot to udd the effect of hydrostutlc ressure (l.e., dry rocks), the drllllng mud denslty
ends u belng z,. kgjm

.


3. lorce ls a vecLor. 1racLlon ls a vecLor. SLress ls a Lensor. ?eL LracLlons are deflned as Lhe llmlL as area $A -> 0 of
Lhe raLlo of force dlvlded by area:

!
t (n ) = lim
"A#0
"F
"A


lorce dlvlded by area ls Lhe deflnlLlon of sLress, buL LracLlon vecLors are noL sLress, Lhey are slmply one
componenL of Lhe concepL we call sLress. ln facL, an lnflnlLe number of LracLlons descrlbe Lhe sLaLe of sLress aL a
polnL, .

Ceol 342: Advanced SLrucLural Ceology lall 2011
(a) Lxplaln Lhe fundamenLal dlfferences beLween 1%*(+, #*'(#"%0, and &#*+&& ln Lerms of whaL aspecL of a body
we assume Lhey are acLlng upon. See llg. 6.1 ln Lhe LexLbook Lo asslsL you wlLh your answer. (6)

!"#$%& ure vectors thut reresent muss tlmes uccelerutlon. 1hey uct on urtlcles und lndlcute the dlrectlon
of uccelerutlon of the urtlcle ln resonse to thut force.

(#)$*+",& ure vectors thut reresent the llmlt (us ureu tends to zero uround u olnt of lnterest) of the rutlo
of force over ureu, und thus uct on u surfuce element huvlng u certuln ureu. 1hls tructlon vector reresents
the cumulutlve result of ull forces uctlng on the body contulnlng the olnt of lnterest (whether these
forces ure externul or lnternul), resolved onto u surfuce. lor the cuse of equlllbrlum, un equul but ooslte
vector on the other slde of the surfuce counterbulunces thls tructlon vector (Newton's rd luw). 1he
comblnutlon of these two tructlon vectors ls sometlmes culled the &-#.)$% &*#%&&. 1he orlentutlon of these
tructlons ls deendent on the orlentutlon of the surfuce (whether the surfuce ls reul or hyothetlcul)
contulnlng the surfuce element. So tructlon ls exressed us 0(1), where 1 ls the normul vector reresentlng
the orlentutlon of the lune.

/*#%&& conslders the tructlon vectors thut would be uctlng uon ull osslble conflgurutlon of surfuces ln L
und thus cun be consldered to be uctlng uon u volume element. A knowledge of stress ullows us to fully
churucterlze how u body wlll deform ln three dlmenslons ln resonse to the forces uctlng uon lt.



(b) Why are Lhere Lechnlcally an lnflnlLe number of LracLlons LhaL LogeLher deflne Lhe sLaLe of sLress aL a polnL?
[noLe: as we wlll learn ln comlng lecLures, lL Lurns ouL we can selecL a mere slx LracLlons ouL of Lhe
populaLlon of lnflnlLy Lo fully deflne Lhe sLaLe of sLress ln Lhree dlmenslons. Whew!] (4)

lf you were to conslder ull osslble lune orlentutlons usslng through u olnt ln L (l.e., un lnflnlte number
of lunes), there would be u corresondlng lnflnlte number of tructlon vectors for uny conflgurutlon or
comblnutlon of forces uctlng on the body contulnlng the olnt. Eence, the stute of &*#%&& uround u olnt ls
reresented by u fumlly of tructlons (un lnflnlte number) thut form the shue of un elllsold uround thut
olnt when the tructlon vectors ure sculed to thelr mugnltudes. 1hls ls the stress elllsold und, belng u
slmle muthemutlcul construct, cun be fully deflned by lts rlnclul uxes. 1hese uxes ure deflned by 6
tructlon vectors (or ulrs of equul but ooslte tructlons). 1hese 6 tructlons wlll ulwuys be uctlng on
hyothetlcul lunes usslng through the olnt ln such u wuy thut the tructlons ure erendlculur to those
lunes. lor thut reuson, they ure lunes of zero sheur stress (rlnclul lunes) und the ulrs of tructlons
uctlng uon them ure normul stresses ("normul" here meunlng "erendlculur to"). 1hey ure, ln fuct, the
three 0#+,$+0)1 &*#%&&%& thut we tylcully use to reresent stress. 1hls ls why euch stress comonent must
be reresented by z urrows, equul und ooslte. 1hey ure the two tructlon vectors uctlng orthogonul to
the rlnclul lunes. ()

2!""*,"*%3 Stress cun ulso be reresented us u tensor of comonents, whlch wlll be uddressed luter ln
the semester. ln essence, the stress tensor ullows us to reresent the stute of stress uctlng on un
lnflnlteslmully smull cube (l.e., u volume element) ln some redeflnlned coordlnute system (tylcully
Curteslun). Luch fuce of the cube wlll huve one normul tructlon und two sheur tructlons uctlng uon lt (ln
the coordlnute uxls dlrectlons). 1hls meuns the cube wlll huve 8 tructlon comonents, however, uguln
lnvoklng Newton's rd luw, ooslng fuces of the cube wlll huve equul but ooslte tructlon vectors (for
the cuse of equlllbrlum), glvlng us comonents of stress. 1here ure thus normul comonents und 6
sheur comonents of stress ln the stress tensor. 1hls method of reresentlng stress ullows us to deflne the
stute of stress ln terms of our redeflnlned coordlnute system, wlthout concern ubout whlch dlrectlons
the rlnclul stresses ure uctlng relutlve to thls coordlnute system.


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