Professional Documents
Culture Documents
ALLEN
AND GREENOUGH'S
'.
LATIN GRAMMAR
FOR SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES
feelr anli
lEnlargelr
BY
GEORGE
L.
KITTREDGE
1888,
BY
GREENOUGH
AND
J.
H.
ALLEN
Publishers have again taken advantage of the opportunity this book to offered by the necessary recasting of the plates of to be made in it as the advance of gramcause such
THE
improvements
matical knowledge and the experience of the schoolroom have shown The revising editors have endeavored to simplify to be advisable. and make plain the statement of principles, so far as could be done but no concession has been scientific correctness without
made made
language.
in
; sacrificing to the prevalent mechanical method of treating the science of Many additional explanations and suggestions have been
the text
and
foot-notes,
for
advanced scholars.
is
will find
no grammatical usage
down.
;
The treatment of the formation of words has been much extended and new light, it is hoped, has been shed upon this difficult and everIn cases where comparative philoladvancing branch of the science. the sure is concerned, the editors have endeavored to set down ogy results of the so-called "New Grammar," but have been conservative doctrines which, though likely to be true, cannot about
accepting
are certainly not universally regarded as fully proved, and In conformity with the modern practice all naturally long natural quantity vowels, known to be such, including those whose have been marked throughout; but many is concealed
yet be
accepted.
by position,
left unmarked, where the evidence suspected to be long have been did not seem sufficiently convincing. Some new doctrines will be found in regard to the order of words,
are persuaded, which, though not generally accepted, will, the editors meet with more general approval, the better they are applied and This subject has only just begun to receive the conunderstood.
sideration
it
deserves.
No
In
sections.
still more conclusion, the editors hope that they have made some of the devious ways of Latin grammar, and feel that if their new efforts meet with anything like the same favor that has been shown to the book heretofore, they shall be amply rewarded.
plain
1877.
make some improvements in the present edition, which have grown upon their hands, until in fact a thorough revision of the
book has been made.
I The matter of each principal changes are the following with sub-divisions cast in has been chapters, by numbered part 2. A considerable expansion has been given to several paragraphs.
The
portions, especially to those on Phonetic Changes and the Formation of Words ; inflectional forms have been more carefully exhibited,
Parti-
in the form of marginal notes. 4. The several topics of the Syntax are introduced by brief prefatory notes, suggesting what we consider to be the true theory of the constructions ; these are
been put
sections.
not designed for class use, and are not included in the numbered 5. Some important additions and illustrations have been
given in the Prosody. The substance of the book remains as beThe form of expression, however, has been carefully revised fore. and a few sections have been transferred to a different connection.
;
ers,
The proof-sheets have been submitted to several experienced teachwho have generously aided us by their criticism, and have conThe editors have tributed many valuable practical suggestions.
pleasure in acknowledging, also, their special indebtedness to Professor Caskie Harrison, of the University of the South, Sewanee,
Tenn., whose correspondence has made a very full running commentary extending over the greater portion of the book, including
all
the
topics.
Syntax, with copious discussion of numerous incidental His notes have been of the greatest service to them ; have
;
sometimes modified their views and constantly supplemented them have urged important points upon their attention, and have not seldom suggested valuable improvements through the very antagonism of opposing doctrine. Material less easy to specify in detail,
but not less valuable or welcome, has been received from Professor M. W. Humphreys, of Nashville, from the principals of the acade-
mies at Andover, Exeter, and Quincy, and from others, to whom cordial thanks are due for the interest they have testified in the work.
CAMBRIDGE, September
25, 1877.
NOTE.
FOR the convenience of those who may wish to follow up more in this book, a list of minutely the study of the subjects treated below. is given important works
ALLEN,
Remnants of Early Latin. F. D. AMERICAN Journal of Philology, Vols. I. to VIII. and continued. [Indo-European BOIT: Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, etc.
:
lan-
guages.]
vols.
Later researches have The original London: 1862. corrected some erroneous details. English translation (poor). Introductions and with Notes by Michel The best form is a French translation, 1866. Paris: Breal.
BRAMBACH:
Lateinitche Orthographie.
1868.
Strassburg:
1889-92.
Greek Grammar.
The
its
own
be used
3d ed.
Leipzig:
2d ed.
English translation ( Elucidations*'). London: 1870. in connection with the Greek Grammar the simplest view of the
doctrine of forms.
Das
Griechische Verbum.
iind Optativ,
Moods
treated scientifically.
Should be read
:
a notice
"North American Review," October. 1871, and "Analysis of the Latin 1870). Subjunctive,** by J. B. Greenough (Cambridge 1867. Ablativt Localis, Instrumental!! im Indischen, etc. Berlin
.
vi
Note.
G5t-
tingen: 1870. A Dictionary of Roots and Words supposed to have existed in the Indo-European tongue, with the corresponding words and derivatives in the various languages. It can be used without a knowledge of German. No such book, however, is safe to use without careful study of the laws of consonant and vowel changes.
HADLEY:
1873.
Essays, Philological
ana
Critical.
New York
(Holt
&
Williams):
HALE, W. G.
Cunt Constructions.
[Cornell Studies.]
Vienna: 1860.
MARX:
Hilfsbuchlein
fur
Berlin: 1883.
MEYER, G.:
:
Griechische
Grammatik.
2d
ed.
Leipzig: 1885.
MOLLER Handbuch derKlassischen Alterthums-wissenschaft. Vol. II. Griechische und Lateinische Sprachwissenschaft (by Brugmann, Stolz and Schmalz,
and others).
Stuttgart: 1875-92. Storehouse of all Latin forms, 1200 pages, containing the result of late textual criticism. The standard work.
PAPILLON A Manual of Comparative Philology, as applied to the tion of Greek and Latin Inflections. Oxford: 1876. Behind the times, but a convenient synopsis of the doctrine of forms.
:
Illustra>
ROBY, H.
J.
Vol. I., 1871; Vol. II., 1873. Someerrorshavebeen pointed out in the " North American Review," January, 1872.
A Grammar of the
to
Suetonius.
SCHLEICHER:
manischen Sprachen.
SEELMANN, E.
Die Aussprache
des Latein.
Heilbronn
1885.
3d ed.
Leipzig: 1885.
VANICEK, A.
Leipzig :
Metrik der Griechen. 2d ed. 1867. 2 vols. on the metrical systems of the ancients, with full literary and musical illustration. A convenient summary, with some modifications, will be found in SCHMIDT'S Rhythmik und Metrik, now translated by Prof. I. W. WHITE and
:
WESTPHAL
The great
authority
this
book.
WHEELER, B. I.: Analogy and its Scope in Language. [Cornell Studies.] WHITNEY: Sanskrit Grammar. Leipzig: 1879. The best grammar of the Sanskrit, without some knowledge of which language
<
it is
difficult to
ZEITSCHRIFT fur vergleichende Sprachforschung. Edited by Dr. A. KUHN, Vol. I., etc. Berlin: 1851 and subsequent years.
Indispensable to correct theories of individual investigators.
CONTENTS.
PART
CHAPTER
I.
I.
ETYMOLOGY.
rAGB
Letters
;
and Sounds
.........
Alphabet
.....
1-9
Pronunciation
CHAPTER IL
........ ........... * The Speech ............. ...... Gender, Number, and Case ..... ........ of Nouns CHAPTER .......... Declension General Rules Declension .............. ............. Second Mute Stems ......... 25-27 Third ........ 27-29 Liquid Stems Vowel Stems ......... 33 Nouns ....... 34 Greek Forms ......... ....... Rules of Gender of Nouns ........ 3^-3 4Q .............. Fourth .............. Nouns .......... 42-46 and .... 4 ............ Names Proper ............ CHAPTER_IV. 47~49 Third Declension .............. Comparison ................ .............. Numerals
Inflection
;
'3- 18
Parts of
III.
Declension of
9 2C
First
Declension
Declension:
2 9~3 2
Irregular
32
>
33>
34> 35
Lists
Declension
39*
Fifth Declension
4<>,
4'
Defective
Variable
Adjective^
55~:>
viii
Contents.
PAGE
CHAPTER V.
Pronouns
63-72
....
63-68
68-71
72
CHAPTER
VI.
Verbs
73-121
73,
Inflection
74
Signification
74-78
78,
Personal Endings Forms: Verb-Endings The Verb Sum The Three Stems Regular Verb The Four Conjugations Formation of the Three Stems Synopsis of the Verb Special Forms
:
79
79~8i
81-83
84
....
84, 85
86-90
90
91
92,
First Conjugation
93
93
Periphrastic Conjugations
96-98
114-117 117,118
.
.
Impersonal Verbs
119-121
CHAPTER
~~
VII.
,
Particles
122-139
Adverbs
122-127
127-133
.
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections
133-139
139
CHAPTER
VIII.
Formation of Words
140-162
140, 141
Primary
Significant
Endings
141-143
Derivation of
143-156
Derivation of Verbs
Compound Words
156-160 160-162
Contents.
ix
PART
Introductory Note
II.
SYNTAX.
PACB
163, 164
CHAPTER
The Sentence
;
165-204
Modification.
.
165-170
170
170-172
172
i74-i?7
178-181
181-184
Possessive
Relative
Indefinite
184-186
186-191
191, 192
193, 194
VERBS:
194-196
.
199-201
201-204
CHAPTER
II.
Construction of Cases
205-273
205 206-2 1
1
Possessive
Material, Quality
Partitive
Objective
207 208
209,210
211
211-213
213-217
.
213,214
214
214 Feeling Interest and Refert; other Verbs, 216, 217 . Peculiar Genitives : Exclamatory, etc. 218 .
.
DATIVE:
219-221
221-225
With Compounds Of Possession of Agency Of Purpose or End Dative with Adjectives Of Reference Ethical
; ;
;
225-227
.
x
ACCUSATIVE
:
Contents.
PAGE
Two
Accusatives
....
245-247
247-250 251-253
3.
Locative
Special Uses
Ablative Absolute
263-279 270-273
274-305
CHAPTER
III.
274
t
Subjunctive
General Use
275,276 276
, .
Hortatory
tative
;:~
277,278
liberative
279 280
280-283
283
291
Imperative
Infinitive
291
291-294
294-296 296
296
296-298
298 298
Pluperfect
Future Perfect
Epistolary Tenses Tenses of the Subjunctive
Participles
'.
".
".
".
".
Distinctions of Tense
Adjective Predicate
Use Use
Contents.
Future Participle Gerundive
xi
PACK
........... 312 .............. 3^3 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE ............ 314 SUPINES ................... ......... 2O~339 CHAPTER Note ............... and Apodosis .............. ............. 322 Forms Simple Conditions ............... 324 ............... Future ........... 327 Fact Contrary General Conditions ............... 329 Condition Disguised ............... 330 Condition Omitted ............... 332 .............. 332 Modesty ............. 332 ............... 333 Verbs ............... 333 Conditions Complex Comparison ............. 334 ............... 335 Concessive ................... 336 Si and Use Compounds ........... 337
3J8
IV.
Conditional Sentences
Introductory
Protasis
32
321
Classification of
Conditions
325
Conditions
to
Potential Subjunctive
Subjunctive of of Necessity
Particles of
Clauses
Proviso
of
its
CHAPTER V.
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Conditional Relative
Clauses of Characteristic
Causal Clauses
Relations of
............. ............. Fostquam, Cum Temporal ............ Cum Causal ............. Antequam, Priuaquam .........
Time
etc
....... 339-368 ....... 339 Clauses ......... 339 ............ 340 ............ 343 ........... 346 ........... 348
.
349
350
352
353
Dum, Donee,
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES:
/ Infinitive
Clauses
354 354
355
Quoad
Clauses of Purpose
.............
356 359
xii
Contents.
PAGB
Causes of Result
f
362
Clauses with
Quod)
366
367
Indirect Questions
369 370
372
373
374
379 380
381
CHAPTER
VI.
Arrangement
386-393
General Rule
Special Rules Structure of the Period
386
392
392
PART
CHAPTER
I.
III.
PROSODY.
394-401
Quantity
CHAPTER
II.
Rhythm
:
Feet
402-405
406
407-424
407
CHAPTER
III.
Versification
The Verse
Dactylic Verse
:
408
.
410, 41
Iambic Verse
411
Mixed Measures
Logaoedic Verse Metres of Horace Index to Metres of Horace
Contents.
xiii
PAGE
421
422
423, 424
425
427
428
Glossary of Terms
429-432
APPENDIX
433-438
438, 439
Roman
Writers
440-448
449
ff.
WORDS AND
SUBJECTS
LATIN GRAMMAR.
LATIN GRAMMAR is usually discussed under three heads i. Etymology; 2. Syntax; 3. Prosody. Etymology treats of the form of separate words, as either written or spoken Syntax of their function when joined together as parts of the sentence Prosody of their arrangement in
:
;
metrical composition.
PART
FIRST.
ETYMOLOGY.
and Sounds.
CHAPTER
The
is
I.
Letters
Alphabet.
Latin Alphabet, as the language is usually written, the same as the English (which, in fact, was borrowed
it),
from
ah),
i
except that
it
it
has no w.
:
Properly,
a (called
(be {bay}},
c (ke\
(de), e (e
(ee),
(kd) [see
6], 1 (el},
(oo),
(#?).
were added in Cicero's time to express the corresponding sounds (v, ) in borrowed Greek words (cf. Cic. N. D. ii. 93). i and u (v) have a twofold value, which is often in modern writing
these,
y and z
i, j
u, v.
See
4.
The
into
Vowels
and Consonants
(litterac con-
Two
Diphthong.
2
.
l, 2.
sonants.
The Diphthongs
The rest of the letters are Coni, o, u, y. are ae (ae), au, ei, eu, oe (03), ui, and in
Early Latin ai, oi, and ou. NOTE. All the divisions of the
letters
letters apply really to the sounds which the represent ; but as the sounds in Latin very nearly correspond to the letters, no real confusion need arise if both are spoken of without distinction.
b. Vowels are Open (a, o), Medial (e, u), or Close the position of the organs in pronouncing them.
(i),
according to
NOTE. The vowel a, as in father; is the most open (i.e. the organs are least constrained in pronouncing it). Starting from this sound, and narrowing the mouth sidewise, at the same time raising the middle of the tongue, we come through
ja,
/
X
e
x
\^ A
.^In (not)
fi(hat) C((.aw)
(e7i) .._<.
several gradations not always recognized, but no doubt always more or less existent in speech, to the sound of e (as in eAf) and i (ee, as i in machine}. This sound, if enunciated rapidly with a following vowel, passes
t ^ie soun d f English y (consonant). If, on the other hand, the mouth is narrowed up and down, and at the same time the back of the tongue is raised, we ****. ~~~V ^^-"-"" come in the same manner to o and U (oo in fool). If, starting with O, we contract in the first manner, we come through a common German sound (5) to e. If, starting from u, we do the same, we come to French U, German U, Greek v, and Latin y. And this sound, in turn, approaches i.
mto
(00)
in
2.
th,
CONSONANTS. a. p, b, c (k), q, g, t, a, as also ch and are called Mutes (Explosives, Momentary sounds).
entire stoppage
They
s,
p,
c (k),
q,
t,
b,
g,
d,
z,
In these a breath follows the explosion. They are found chiefly in words borrowed from the Greek, ph, which also was borrowed from
the Greek, probably was never
b.
sounded as an aspirate
in Latin.
These are pronounced with the same position of the organs as b and A third d, except that the nasal passage is opened instead of closed. nasal, n adulterlnum (like n in ink), corresponding in the same way to g, existed in the language, but had no separate sign.
3-5.
1
Classification of
t Jic
Letters.
:*.
From
ance of
(pronounced
the mutes and nasals they are divided into Labials with the lips), Palatals (with the palate), and
Lingtials (with the tongue). Their relations are seen in the following table:
SURD.
SONANT.
ASPIRATE.
NASAL.
Labial.
Palatal.
p
c (k), q
t
b
g
wanting
m
n n
(as in ink) (as in rent)
:
ch
th
Lingual,
a.
d
n,
r.
f,
1,
ph, th (not
aspirate, as in thin), h, 8, z.
is
merely a breathing.
i
and v (u) before a vowel in the same syllable are consonants and have the sound of English consonant y and w respectively. (Cf. i and u in pinion, They are sometimes called issuing, rapidly pronounced.)
4.
SEMI-VOWELS.
Latin alphabet had no separate signs for the semi-vowels; but both vowel and consonant i, and v or u (without distinction) for both vowel and consonant V (u). The character j was unknown in classical times, and u was but a graphic variation of V. In mediaeval Latin j and V came to be used to indicate the consonant sounds of i and V (u), and this usage is often followed by small letters. In writing capitals, however, the forms modern editors in
used
for
J and
i
;
writing but IVVENIS. are avoided. Thus iuuenis, iuvenis, or juvenis, In this book vowel and consonant i are both represented by the same character, but V is used lor the consonant, u for the vowel sound of V (u). Thus iustua,
vir,
iuvenis.
2.-
NOTE
times,
The
though consonant
in classical English sounds of j and V did not exist in Latin v (u) began no doubt to approach English v in many
persons' speech.
NOTE 3. In the combinations qu, gu, and sometimes 8U, u forms a comneither as a vowel pound sound with the preceding consonant, and is reckoned nor a consonant. Thus aqua, anguis, consuetus. (Cf. English quill, anguish,
suave.)
5.
The Romans
distinguished
in sound,
ference.
but had no regular characters to express the difAt various times attempts were made to mark
this distinction,
5-8.
a, S ; and long, thus : either long or short, thus : I, I. In this book all simple vowels not marked are supposed to be short. But final o and i are marked according to their prevailing length or
a,
those that
may be pronounced
NOTE.
Vowels and consonants are not separated by any sharp line from each a continuous scale from the most open vowel (a) to the mutes, for
which the mouth is entirely closed. The general tendency of phonetic changes in language has been from the two extremes towards the middle.
for the
sonant
This force it b, c, but Alpha, Beta, Gamma.) always retained in the abbreviations C. (for Gaius), and Cn. (Gnaeus). In prehistoric times these two sounds were confounded, and C was NOTE. used for both. The character k (surd palatal) was thus supplanted, except in a few words and abbreviations: as, Kal. (Kalendae), Karthago. About 300 B.C. G was invented to distinguish the sonant again, but was put in the place in the alphabet once occupied by z, which at that time had dropped out of use. When Z was afterwards restored (in Greek words), it was put at the end of
(Hence,
a,
the alphabet.
7. Till after the age of Augustus the use of u (vowel) after u (v) was avoided. This was done either by preserving o, when but for this tendency it would have become u, as in voltus (but cultus), servSs (but dominus), suSs (but meus), quom (but turn), reliquSs (but relictus) or in case of quu, by writing cu, as in cur (for quor), ecus (for equos, later equus), cum (for quom, very late quum), relicua (for reliquos, later reliquus). Compare c for qu in cotidie,
;
Phonetic Variations.
8.
1.
NOTE. These variations of form in derivation occur in other languages akin to Latin with great regularity and marked significance. They lost their importance in Latin, but have left traces throughout the language, so that its structure cannot be explained without taking them into
account.
2.
same root
in
the language
NOTE.
articulation
Such alterations arise in every language after long use from careless and an unconscious tendency to secure an easier utterance and they
;
accent.
This process
is
9,
10.]
Phonetic
Variations.
J).
and
less
Inherited differences appear in variations of vowels, commonly in liquids connected with vowels.
:
a. Vowels vary between long and short of the same kind as, emo. 1 buy, gmi, / bought ; lego, I read, Iggi, I read; tego, leaver, tggula, a tile; sono, I sound, persSna, a mask (as sounded through); rego, 1 rule, rgx, a king; dux, a leader, duco, I lead.
b.
Vowels vary
in quality:
tego,
/ ewer, toga, a
as, pendo, I weigh, pondua, weight ; robe] fldus, faithful, foedus, a treaty. (Cf.
stravi,
flagro,
/ spurn, sprgvi, I spurned; sterno, strewed; gigno, / beget, (g)natus, a son; fulgeo,
I strew, I shine,
I burn.
1C.
in
sonants,
a. Vowels and diphthongs are weakened, usually in the directions marked on the vowel-scale (see page 2) as, factus, made, confectus, made up; lubet (old) it pleases, libet (later); agmen, a march, agminis, ofa march; capio, I take, incipio, I begin; lego, Ipick, colligo, Igather; caedo, I cut, cecidi, I have cut; salio, I leap, exsulto, 1 leap up and down (for joy) pello, I drive, pulsus, driven ; servos, a slave (early),
:
;
12.
vorto
(early),
I turn.
NOTE. When vowels seem to be changed contrary to the direction of the vowel-scale, either both are changed in different degrees from some common vowel higher up the scale, or the change is due to some special cause : as, lens, euntis
(for
simul
b.
felons, 1 feiontis 1 ); volentem, but voluntas auceps, aucupis. (for simolis, etc.)
;
(for
volont-); similis,
Two vowels coming together are very often contracted as, cog5 co-ago obit for obiit; nil for nihil (see 347. c}; dg-beo for dehibe5 (de-habeo, see a, above) rursus, re-versus (re-vorsua, see
:
for
c below);
(for
amarat
(for
amaverat)
cuuctus
(for
coiunctus)
surgo
sub-rego).
1
Form
not found
6
c.
[10,11
Vowels are often entirely lost between two consonants (syncope)-. audacter for audaciter iurgium for iurigium disciplma for diacipullna; caldus (popular), calidus (literary); or at the end of a word : as, die for dice ; satin for satisne ; hSrunc for hOrunce. d. Vowels are rarely inserted between two consonants in the effort to pronounce a difficult combination of sounds (cf. ettum for as, HerculSs for HerclSs, drachuma for drachma, ager for elni)
as,
; ; ;
agr(o) (see
NOTE.
tell
38).
In
many
cases in which
a vowel
:
is
sometimes found
it
is
impossible to
whether
e.
it is
original or developed
as,
earlier
amat
(later
amat:
375.
fy
for another
:
11.
a.
in accordance with regular tendencies of the language. or n : as, 1. r for s between two vowels or before
Thus
eram
(root ES),
generis (for f genesis, from genus), maereo (cf. maestus), dirimS (dis-emo), diribeo (dis-habeo), veternus (vetus-nus), carmen
(fcasmen,
2.
cf.
Casmena).
a for
cad-tus),
d or t, making an easier combination as, casus (for cessum (ced-tum), mansus (man-tus), passus (pad-tus
and pat-tus), equester (equet-ter). b. Consonants are omitted : as, examen (exagmen), caementum (caed-mentum), semestris (ses-mestris), luna (luc-na), denl (f decni), hoc (abl. for hod-ce), autumnus (auctumnus, root AUG), fulmen (fulg-men), pgrgo (per-rego), Us (stlis), cor (fcord), lac
(lact-),
1.
Especially
(for
vehe-
mgns).
2.
And
and v
as,
vorsus). 3. Also B
NOTE.
end of a word
This
and
colloquial usage:
plenu(s)
fldel,
to another
Consonants are unconsciously inserted in passing from one sound as, sumo, / take, sumpsi, / took, sumptus, taken (for sum si, sum-tus); hiemps, winter, hiemis, of winter. Cf. Thompson (Tom's son).
c.
:
NOTE.
d.
These are
miaceo, mlztus
(for
misc-tusV
11, 12.]
c.
Phonetic Variations.
Consonant* and vowels are unconsciously changed (dissimilation) same sound in two successive syllables from Pal6s) f merldiSs (for medl-difis), pietaa parnia (for palilia,
to avoid a repetition of the
(for fpiitas, as in caritas).
:
NOTE. In some cases this principle prevents changes which would take place according to other tendencies of speech.
/.
1.
same sound as
as,
c58sI(cSd-sI),summus (sup-mus), sella (sed-la), puella (puer(u)la), pressl (prem-sl), occid5 (ob-cado), mitissimus (for mitiustimus).
2. Into a sound of the same organ or the same quality (or both) as the neighbor {partial assimilation) (see table of mutes, 3) : as, contero (com-tero, labial to lingual), scriptus (scrib-tus, sonant to
surd),
segmentum (fsecmentum,
Sometimes the
first
surd to sonant),
impero
(in-per5,
lingual to labial).
NOTE.
These changes
accedo (ad-cedo), afficio (ad-facio), occurrd (ob-curr6), corruS (com-ruo), effero (ec-fero), suppono
tion in
Compounds:
may be
lated before C, g, p, t
ab f, n, Q, the form ad is to be preferred, the form a, au, or abs. In (con, CO), assimilated before 1, n, P; is changed to n before C, d, f, g, J, q, s, V; sometimes becomes n before p; is sometimes assimilated (otherwise n) before 1 and r;
com
given as follows: ad is assimiand rarely before m; while is not assimilated, but may take is retained before b, p, is ;
m cOnectO, conlveO, conltor, cSntlbium. In usually changes n to m before b, m, p before the better orthography retains n. ob and 8ub are assimilated before C, f p, and sometimes before m sub also before r and, early Latin, b of these prepositions sometimes becomes p before 8 or The inseparable amb loses b before a consonant, and m sometimes assimilated. Clrcum often loses m before t 8 of dis before a vowel becomes and before
loses the final
in
;
com
gf,
in
t.
is
r,
a consonant b lost or assimilated. The d of red and Bed is generally lost before a consonant. In most of these cases the later editions prefer the unaltered forms throughout; but the changes given above have good authority. Others, which are corruptions of the middle ages (as assum for adsum), had better be avoided
Lexicons vary in the spelling of these combinations.
in
and especially
in
modern
editions.
first;
[12,131
NOTE. These variations are generally mere mistakes in spelling. Many ot them are due to the practice of writing from dictation, by which most MS. copies of the classics were made. A single reader dictated to several copyists, whose spelling was often corrupt. The tendency of the best editions is to restore, as normal, the forms oi the late Republic or early Empire (the time of Cicero or but to so far as these may be determined from inscriptions, etc., Augustus),
preserve, in each author, any peculiarities that mark the spelling of his time. choice among forms appears often to be arbitrary, for inscriptions oi the
The
same
The
letters
a vowel:
uuiitio
and sounds of ci and ti are interchanged before (nuncio), contio (concio), dicio (ditio),
(suspitio),
tribunicius (tribu-
NOTE. This substitution began very early (in a few words) while the c still had the sound of k. But generally it belongs to a later period of the language, and is due to the disturbing influence of consonant i; nJLtio (natyo) became nacho t or nazio, or nasho* It is this disturbance that has produced the modern sibilant sound of C, as well as that of ti : as, nation (through the French) from natio ;
speciest
from species.
b.
an
initial h: as, harena or (arena), erus or (herus), umerus or (humerus), urn or or (humor). c. In later Latin, e, ae, and oe became alike in sound (like ainfate), and hence they are often confounded in writing: as, faenus (fenus,
foenus). d. Other words variously spelled are : adulescens, adolescens aheneus, aeiieus ; Snulus, annulus ; artus, (arctus) ; autumnus,
;
(auctumnus) caelum (coelum); cum, quom, (quum) epistula, epistola ; exsul, exul fecundus (f oecundus) f emina, (foemina)
; ;
;
lltera, littera
lubet, libet
lubido, libido
;
milia, millia
;
nequi-
quani, nequicquam,
quidquam
nequidquam paulus, paullus quicquam, umquam, unquam verto, vorto volnus, vulnus
;
Also proelium, (praelium) servos, servus. voltus, vultus the gerundive-form -endua or -undus, and the superlative -imus or
;
umus. e. At the end of a few words d was anciently written aput for apud. /. Some variations in spelling mark the changes in
Combinations.
10 and. II.
13.
Two
times in sound.
13-15.]
Knnhn/
l<t>nns.
a. Conjunctions or other particles and pronouns are sometimes connected as in etenim, unuaquiaque, iamdudum, iamdiu, aiquia,
:
alquidem also a few short phrases, as, quire", quamobrem, rgapublica, iusiurandum, paterfamiliaa. b. The verb eat, is, is sometimes joined with the preceding word, would be united by elision especially in the old poets, when the two
;
:
as,
(like thoifrt,
F-ue).
Similar contractions are found in vin' (viane), acirf (aciane), aodea (al audea), aultia (ai vultia). So in English,
syllables as
it
has
vowels or diphthongs.
a. In the division of
two vowels
NOTE.
is
to
words into syllables a single consonant between be written and pronounced with the latter.
and consonant
i.
b. This rule is sometimes extended to double consonants, or any combination of consonants which can be used to begin a word as,
:
ho-apea, ma-gnua,
c.
di-xit.
latua.
d.
syllable
;
as pi-ua
atat.
e.
a syllable
preceded by a vowel in the same word is called pure, preceded by a consonant, impure, as cou-
Any
syllable
all
ending with a vowel or diphthong is called open ; Thus in pa-ter the first syllable is open, the
second close.
Kindred Forma.
In English words derived from the Latin, the original letters But in native English are retained (as ambition from ambitio). 1
15.
words
which are cognate with the Latin (see Appendix), the sounds are rarely represented by the same letters in the two languages, but usually by closely related letters which regularly
original
correspond.
1
Many
as,
fashion,
words, however, coming through the French follow French changes fafon (factio) chivalry, cheval (caballus) chimney, cheminee
: ;
(caminus).
10
LATIN
c, k,
15, 16.
qu
H,
WH:
CH TH
:
quT,
who] cos, hone; carpS, harvest; calo (kalendae), hail; cord-, heart.
g
t
K,
T or D (rarely)
stare,
d p
f (for
T: duo, two; dens, tooth; seeled, sit. F: pater, father; pul\us,foal; paucl, /he/.
oh)
B: fero
(<e/oeo),
bear; frater
((f>pa.Tr)p)
brother.
f(fordh)
D:
Y,
h
i
cons.,
Sometimes a consonant
word.
lost in the Latin appears in the English Thus, (s)niv-, snow; (h)anser, goose; (s)nervo-, snare.
Sounds
NOTE.
of the Letters.
pronunciation of Latin is different in different countries. Among us, it usually follows one of two ways, which may be called the Roman (or Phonetic) and the English method.
The
16.
NOTE.
also
By
A
the
Roman
(or Phonetic)
method, every
letter
in boot
and
foot,
machine and
holiest.
See
bs
below.
:
VOWELS
as in idea.
% as eh? (clipped).
I as in holiest.
u y between u and
DIPHTHONGS
:
as in holy ; as oo in boot;
8 as
ii
z
in obey.
as oo in foot.
in
ae
like
ay ; oe
like oy
now.
s
i
is
lips.
cons,
y \nyoung; v
w in wing;
CONSONANTS,
as in English, except that
:
qu
bs
is
as in English.
like/j; ch like k;
ph
like/i
before s or f was combined with the preceding vowel somewhat as French nasal making the vowel long.
,
z as dz in adze.
th as
16-18.]
NOTE
i.
NOTE
2.
In the ancient pronunciation, ph was distinguished from f by being lips only, instead of lip and t-Tth. In many words (as abietis, tenuis), i and u sometimes had the
consonant sound, though usually in such words reckoned as vowels. NOTE 3. The diphthong ae was anciently sounded as above, but early in the time of the Empire acquired from popular or provincial use tin- lon^ sound of e. .\>IK 4. When two consonants come together (as in condo, postea), or a consonant is doubled (as in aunus, ullus, mltto), care should be taken to pronounce both letters distinctly. It was doubtless this distinct pronunciation of consonants that made a syllable with a short vowel long by Position ($ 18. d).
letters
5,
a. Final a is pronounced as in America ; but in the monosyllables da, qua, sta, sometimes as \\\pay] e in open syllables as in me, in
open
oh)
men; i in open syllables as in Hi! in close as in phi] o in syllables as in tone, in close as in not] u as in pull or as in hull, without any definite rules, as ullus (like gull us), but fullo (like/w//
close as in
;
like
/.
In this method of pronunciation, syllables are often treated as open or close according to the position of the accent: as, i'-ter (open), it-i'neris (close).
NOTE.
b.
The diphthongs
ei
like
pronounced
like e;
au
like
aw, eu
ew,
c.
y, ae, oe,
The consonants c and g are made soft (like s and/) eu ch is always hard, as in chasm, chemist.
;
NOTE. The English method should be retained in Roman names in English, as Julius Cfssar; and in familiar quotations, as e pluribus unum ; viva voce ; vice versa; a fortiori ; veni, vidi, vici, etc.
18. Vowels are long or short (as affecting their pronunciation} only by nature. Syllables (as affecting- accent and metrical value} are long or short, according to their
vowel, but are also made long by Position through the obstruction of consonants. The length or shortness in
both cases
NOTE.
is
called Quantity
(cf.
347).
of the rules of Quantity affect length by nature only, length by position only, and some both.
Some
some
a.
b.
diphthong is long as in aide's, f oedus. So, derived from a diphthong: as, exclude (ex-claudo).
:
A A
is
a vowel
c.
is
long:
12
d.
18,19.
syllable in which a vowel is followed by two consonants (exwith 1 or r), or a double consonant (x, z), is long by a mute cept Position ; as in pingo, saxum, Mezentius. Before nf and ns, gn and gm, and i consonant the vowel itself becomes long by nature : as in
infero, praesens,
e.
A syllable in which
;
is
common
f.
i.e. it
may be long
or r
is
regularly short
by nature
as,
amant.
is
(vowel)
but two.
a.
Words
first syllable
Ro'ma, ve'ho, i'pse. b. Words of more than two syllables are accented on
is
the Penult,
if that
long
as,
ami'cus, praesen'tis
if it
is
short or
common, on
the
Antepenult: as, do'minus, alacris, la'tebrae, conti'niio, praete'rltum, dissocia'bilis. NOTE. In words of more than four syllables a secondary accent usually arises at a convenient distance from the main accent as, naviga"tio'nibus, pecu"lia'ria.
:
joined to a word, the accent falls on the syllable next before the enclitic, whether long or short : as, dSS'que, amarg've, tlbi'ne, ita'que (and. . . s0), as distinguished from i't&que
c.
When
an Enclitic
is
So (according to some) ex'inde, ec'quando, etc. (therefore). d. EXCEPTIONS: I. Certain apparent compounds of facio retain the
accent of the simple verb: as, benefa'cit, calefa'cit (see (These were not true compounds, but phrases.)
2.
169. a)
-ius,
In the second declension the genitive and vocative of nouns in in -ium retain the accent of the nomi'
native
3.
CornS'li, Vergi'li, inge'ni (see 40. c). Certain words which have lost a final vowel retain the accent of
as,
:
produ'c
for
produce, sati'n
ancients recognized three accents, acute ('), grave (*), and cir* Accent no doubt originally consisted in a change of pitch, eleva^ and not merely in a more forcible utterance tion, depression, or both combined, (ictus). But in Latin this pitch accent had been supplanted by a stress accent it
NOTE.
The
cwnflcx (*).
historical times.
20, 21.J
13
CHAPTER
II.
Words and
Inflection.
their
Forms.
20. INFLECTION
word, to show
a. Inflectional
its
in
the form of a
changes sometimes take place in the body of a word, its termination: as, vox, a voice ;
call;
vocat, he
calls;
vocavit, he has
tetigit, he touched.
b. Terminations of inflection had originally independent meanings which are now obscured. They correspond nearly to the use of prepositions, auxiliaries, and personal pronouns in English thus, in vocat, the termination is equivalent to he or she; in vocis, to the preposition
;
of or the mood.
c.
like;
and
in
vocet
Inflectional
of tense or
lish
:
changes in the body of a verb usually denote mood, and correspond to the use of auxiliary verbs
he breaks or
bites
;
Eng-
as, frangit,
;
broken
mordet, he
The body
is
of a word, to
attached,
called the
STEM. 2
The Stem
except in the first part of a compound, it cannot be used without some termination to express them. Thus the stem voc- denotes voice; with -B added it becomes vox, a voice or the voice, as the subject or
agent of an action
with
The stem
is in
many
-is it becomes vocis, and signifies of a voice. forms so united with the termination that a
is
necessary to determine
it.
1 The only proper inflections of verbs are those of the personal endings and the changes here referred to are strictly changes of Stem, but have become a part of the system of inflections.
;
Serv-
The name Stem is sometimes incorrectly given to that part of a word in servus which is unrh:mgf<l in inflection. This may be called the
as
base.
14
22-24.
A ROOT is the simplest form attainable by analysis word into its component parts. Such a form contains the main idea of the word in a very general sense, and is common also to other words either in the same or kindred
of a
is voc, which does not mean to call, or calling, but merely expresses vaguely the idea of calling, and cannot be used as a part of speech without terminations. With a-
or
I call)
with avi- it is the it becomes voca-, the stem of vocare (to call} stem of vocavit (he catted}; with ato- it becomes the stem of vocStus with Stion- it becomes the stem of vocationis (of a calling}. (called} With its vowel lengthened it becomes the stem of vox (a voice: that by which we call). This stem, again, with -alls added, means belonging to a voice , with -tila, a little voice.
; ;
In inflected languages, words are built up from Roots, which at a very were used alone to express ideas, as is now done in Chinese. Roots are modified into Stems, which, by inflection, become Words. The process by which roots are modified, in the various forms of derivatives and compounds, is called Stem-building. The whole of this process is originally one of composition, by which significant endings are added one after another to forms capable of pronunciation and conveying a meaning. Roots had long ceased to be recognized as such before the Latin existed as a separate language. Consequently the forms which we assume as Latin roots never really existed in Latin, but are the representatives of forms used earlier.
NOTE.
early time
23. The Stem is sometimes the same as the root: as in due-is, of a leader\ fer-t, he bears ; but it is more frequently formed from the
root
as in scob-s, sawdust (SCAB, a voc-is, king of a voice (voc, call). (REG, direct} of 2. By the addition of a simple suffix (originally another root) : as in fug-a, flight (FUG+a); fugi-s, you fly (FUG + ya); paiigo, I fasten
1.
shave)
reg-is,
as in due-it, he leads
(DUC+ a),
by combination vowel or consonant of the Stem, leading to the various forms of Declension and Conjugation (see 32).
Inflectional terminations are variously modified
final
24.
with the
1 For example, the root STA is found in the Sanskrit tisth&mi, Greek forwii, Latin sistere and stare, German flet)cn, and English stand. (See Chap. VIII.)
24, 25.]
15
NOTE. A termination beginning with a vowel is called an open affix one When a close affix is joined to a conbeginning with a consonant, a close affix. sonant-stem, there is usually either a euphonic change, as in rexl for regr-sl, or a vowel appears, as in rSg-i-bus. But, in most cases, what is called a connecting vowel really belongs to the stem, as in voca-mus, regi-mus (see \ 123).
The Parts
25.
of Speech.
Words
PARTS OF SPEECH
Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs, Participles, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections.
a.
A Noun
is
the
name
as,
Names Caesar; Roma, Rome] domus, a house] virtus, virtue. of persons and places are PROPER NOUNS; other nouns are called
COMMON.
b.
An
Adjective
is
as,
bonus, good]
fort.is,
brave, strong.
NOTE. Etymologically, there is no difference between a noun and an adjective, both being formed alike. So, too, all names originally attribute quality, and any name can still be used to attribute a quality. Thus, King William distinguishes this William from other Williams, by the attribute of royalty expressed in the name
King.
c.
A A
Pronoun
is
Verb
is
a word used to distinguish a person, place, thing, or naming or describing it as, is, he\ qui, who] nos, we. a word which asserts something: as, sum, I am]
:
am at,
he loves.
In all modern speech the verb is usually the only word that asserts NOTE. anything, and a verb is therefore supposed to be necessary to complete an assertion. Strictly, however, any adjective or noun may, by attributing a quality or giving a
name, make a complete assertion. In the infancy of language there could have been no other means of asserting, as the verb is of comparatively late development.
e.
Participle is a
word
an adjective,
but being derived from a verb, retains in some degree the power of the verb to assert: as, Caesar consul creatus, Ccesar having been elected consul] Caesar Pompeium metuens, Ccesar fearing
Pompey.
f.
An Adverb
is
of an assertion or attribute
as,
25-28.
g. A Preposition is a word which shows the relation between a noun and some other word or words in the same sentence per agros it, he
:
unum,
NOTE. Prepositions are specialized adverbs (cf. pressed by prepositions were earlier expressed by cases.
h.
The
relations ex-
A Conjunction is a
Some
word which connects words, phrases, or as, et, and; sed, but.
:
sen-
NOTE.
until.
etc., like
conjunctions.
as,
These are
Adverbs:
i. Interjections are mere exclamations. They are not strictly to be classed as Parts of Speech heus, halloo I 6, oh!
:
NOTE.
affects
words
as,
vae
26. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, and Participles have inflections of declension, to denote gender, number, and case. Verbs have inflections of conjugation, to denote voice, mood, tense, number, and
person.
NOTE.
degree.
tion
(cf.
These
89).
Adjectives are often said to have inflections of comparison to indicate inflections are, however, properly stem-formations made by deriva-
27. Those
CLES:
these
jections.
parts of speech which are not inflected are called PARTIare Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter-
NOTE.
The term
Particle
is
sometimes limited
;
to
(interrogative), non, ne (negative) si (conditional), etc., to indicate the form or construction of a sentence.
an
Gender.
28. The genders distinguished in Latin are three Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. a. The gender of Latin nouns is either natural or grammatical.
Natural gender
is
as,
donum, gift.
,
NOTE. Many nouns have both a masculine and feminine form to distinguish qervus, cerva, stag, aoe cliens, clienta, client; victor, victrix,
conqueror.
Many designations of persons (as nauta, sailor), usually though not necessarily male, are always treated as masculine.
28, 29.]
17
b.
Grammatical gender *
It is shown by the form of the adjective actual sex exists in the object. joined with the noun: as, lapis magiius (M.), a great stone ; manua
mea
class
:
(p.), ;///
hand.
designate persons as belonging tc a
of
NOTE.
as,
Names
(M.),
may be
any gender
(F. pi.),
acies
pet
and
agmen
(as
(N.),
army; operae
Many
names of girls
Paegnium, Glycerium)
are neuter.
29.
I.
Names
of
NOTE.
tions,
The gender of most of the above may be recognized by their terminaaccording to the rules given under the several declensions.
a. A few names of Rivers ending in -a (as Allia), with the Greek names Lethe and Styx, are feminine others are variable or uncertain. Some names of Mountains take the gender of their termination: as, Alpes (p.), the Alps ; Soracte (N.). Names of Months are properly adjectives, the masculine noun
;
mensis, month, being understood as, lanuarius, January. b. Some names of Towns and Countries are masculine as, Sulmo,
: :
Gabil
(plur.)
or neuter, as
Tarentum, Illyricum.
tion: as,
(M.), opal.
What we call grammatical gender is in most cases the product of the imagination in a rude age, when language was in the course of growth. Thus a River was seen, or a Wind was felt, as a living creature, violent and strong, and so is
1
masculine
to
and the fable of Atlas shows how similar living attributes were ascribed Mountains, which, in the northern fables, are the bones of giants. Again, the Earth, or a country or city, seems the mother of its progeny; the Tree shelters and ripens its fruit, as a brooding bird her nest of eggs and, to this day, a Ship is always referred to by a feminine pronoun. Again, in the East and South, the Sun, from its fierce heat and splendor, is masculine, and its paler attendant, the Moon, feminine while, among Northern
;
nations, the
(the only repeat
Sun (perhaps for its comforting warmth) is feminine, and the Moon appointer of works and days), masculine. The rules of grammatical gender
and extend these
earlv
8
c.
[29-31.
Indeclinable nouns, infinitives, terms or phrases used as nouns, for their form, are neuter: as, fas, right ; nihil, nothings gummi, gum ; scire tuum, your knowledge (to know) ;
this -very
"long"
to
as,
30. Many nouns may be either masculine or feminine, according the sex of the object. These are said to be of Common Gender :
a. If a
life
may be
either masculine
or feminine,
day;
finis, end,
it is
sometimes said to be of
Doubtful Gender.
names of animals have a grammatical gender, independent These are called Epicene. Thus lepus, hare, is always mascuTo denote a male fox we line, and vulps, fox, is always feminine. mascula femina. a female hare, lepus vulpes ; may say,
b.
Several
of sex.
Number and
Case.
31. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, and Participles are declined in two Numbers, singular &&& plural; and in six Cases,
nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative.
a.
b.
the case of the Subject of a sentence. generally be translated by the English Posof.
sessive, or
c.
It may the case of the Indirect Object ( 177). usually be translated by the Objective with the preposition to or for; but sometimes by the Objective without a preposition.
d.
It is
e.
The Accusative
used also with
is
many
177).
usually be translated by the Objective with with, in, or at. It is also often used with prepositions. g. All the cases, except the nominative and vocative, may be used as object-cases and are sometimes called Oblique Cases (casus obllqui).
f.
from,
NOTE.
DIRECT CASES: Nominative, Vocative, Accusative. INDIRECT CASES: Genitive, Dative, Ablative. h. In names of towns and a few other words appear traces of another
case (the Locative), denoting t\\z place where. i. Still another case, the Instrumental, appears in a few adverbs (
148).
inflectional terminations early became fused with the stem in many cases, Latin words are inflected practically by adding case-endings to a ai. note 2). But the base part of the noun called the base, which is invariable (see
NOTE.
As the proper
and termination.
32, 33.]
Declension of Nouns.
19
CHAPTER
32.
III.
Declension of Nouns.
are inflected in five Declensions, distinthe case-ending of the Genitive Singular, and guished by 1 the final letter (characteristic) of the Stem. by
DECL.
"
3.
i.
NOUNS
Gen. Sing, ae
2.
"i
"
Characteristic
"
4.
Is
"
"
"
"6
if
a (anciently a)
a Consonant
I or
ti
" "
us(uiB)
el
"
5.
a.
The Stem of
a noun
may be
found,
by substituting
The Nominative
of
most masculine and feminine nouns (except formed from the stem by adding s. 2
the original 8 But many, however, end in O, or in the liquids, 1, n, r, NOTE. (sometimes with one or more letters of the stem) having been lost by phonetic decay n). In some (as in servus, st. servo-) the stem-vowel is modified before ( the final s ; or, as in ager, imber, st. agro-, imbri-, a vowel has intruded itself
into the stem.
33.
a.
The
The Vocative
the singular
1
following are general Rules of Declension is always the same as the Nominative, except of nouns in us of the second declension. 8
:
in
Declension
is
ent forms of stems, vowel or consonant. The various phonetic corruptions in the language have given rise to the several declensions ; but it is probable that originally
there vras only one, with perhaps a few variations.
The
original terminations
(answering to prepositions) can no longer be determined with certainty, excep* in a few cases. Most of the case-endings, as given in Latin, contain also the final
letter of the
stem. Adjectives are, in general, declined like nouns, and are etymologically to be classed with them. But they have several peculiarities of inflection, and will be more conveniently treated in a group by themselves (see Chap. IV.). 2 The 8 of the nominative is the remnant of an old demonstrative sa, which is found (with modifications) in the Sanskrit personal pronoun, in the Greek article, and in the English she. 8 In the first and second declensions the vocative ends in the weakened stemvowel. Most of the words likely to be used in address are of these declensions ; and,
in practice, comparatively few other words have a vocative. It is given in the paradigms for the sake of symmetry, but may well be omitted in declining.
2O
i.
33-35.
The Accusative singular of all masculines and feminines ends in the Accusative plural in B. d. In the last three declensions (and in a few cases in the others) the Dative singular ends in 1
f.
e.
f.
The Dative and Ablative plural are always alike. The Genitive plural always ends in um. Final i, o, u of inflection are always longs final a
of the
first
is
declension
final
is
and
fifth
and
third.
Greek forms
in italics :
V.
el(S)
61(1)
em
es
6
es
G.
eon
uum
erum
D.A. is
A.
(obus)
Ibus
es
(is), a, ia,
as
os
as us,
FIRST DECLENSION.
in a,
35. The Stem of nouns of the First Declension ends and except in Greek nouns the nominative is like the
Latin nouns of the First Declension are thus declined
SINGULAR.
:
stem.
PLURAL.
stellae, stars.
NOM.
GEN. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.
NOTE.
a (or the) star. stellae, of a star. stellae, to (or for) a star. stellam, a star.
Stella,
stella,
,
stellarum, of stars.
stellis, to (or for) stars.
Stellas, stars.
thou star
stellae,^ stars!
a star,
stellis,
with, from,
etc., start.
35-37. J
}'*irsf
21
GENDER.
:
Nouns
EXCEPTIONS Nouns masculine from their signification as, nauta, So a few family or personal names: as, Murena, Scaevola. Also, Hadria, the Adriatic.
sailor.
'5<>.
which
a. The Genitive singular anciently ended in -ai, The same ending occurs in occasionally found as, aulai. the dative, but only as a diphthong.
CASE-FORMS.
is
b. An old genitive in -as is preserved in the word familias, used in the combinations pater (mater, fllius, filia) familias, father, etc., of a family (plur. patrgs familias or f amiliarum)
.
c.
The
The
Locative form
:
ends in -ae
for the
plural in is
as,
Romae,
at
Rome] Athenls,
at Athens.
d.
Genitive plural is sometimes found in -um instead of -arum, compounds with c61a and gSna, signifying dwelling and
caelicolum,
celestials;
Aeneadum, sons of sEneas ; so amphora and drachma. e. The Dative and Ablative plural of dea, goddess, filia,
end
in
So
Jreed-woman;
mula, she-mule; equa, mare. But, except when the two sexes (as formulas, documents, etc.) are mentioned together, the form in -Is preferred in all but dea and filia.
f.
as,
The
original
is
praedad,
booty.
Greek Nouns.
37.
Many nouns
borrowed from
the Greek are entirely Latinized, but many retain traces of their Greek forms in various degrees.
a court
(F.)
22
37, 38.
Andromache (F.). AZneas (M.). Leonidas (M.). a Persian (M.). Leonidas Ferses (a) NOM. Andromache (a) Aeneas Leonidae Persae GEN. Andromaches (ae) Aeneae Aeneae Leonidae Persae DAT. Andromachae Persen (am) Acc. Andromachen (am) Aenean (am) Leonidam Leonida (S) Persa Aenea (&) Voc. Andromache (a) Leonida Perse (a) Aenea ABL. Andromache (a)
Anchises (M.).
son of ^Eneas (M.)
comet (M.).
NOM.
GEN.
38-40.]
S n>ud
t
Declension.
24
40-42.
the accent c. Proper names in -ius lose e in the vocative, retaining of the nominative: as, Vergl'li; also, filius, son; genius, divine
guardian: as, audi, mi fill, hear, my son. d. Greek names in -ius have the vocative le. Adjectives in -ius form the vocative in -ie, and some of these are occasionally used as
as, Lacedaemonie, oh Spartan. The genitive plural often has um or (after v) 6m (cf. 7) for orum, especially in the poets: as, deum, superum, divom, of the Gods, viriim, of men. Also in compounds of vir, and in many words
nouns
e.
as,
sevirum, of the
:
Seviri,
nummum,
or di (for dii)
deorum, deum
divum
is
or
divom
(from divus,
:
g. The Gnaivdd
original
(later,
as,
Gnaeo), Cneius.
:
41. The
puer, boy; gener, son-in-law, socer father-in-law ; vesper, evening. as, lucifer, Also, compounds in fer and ger (stem fero-, gero-) morning star ; armiger, squire. a. Some of these have an old nominative in -erus as, socerus. So vocative puere, a boy, as from puerus (regularly puer).
adulter, adulterer;
,
b.
sattiri
Vir, man, has the genitive viri the adjective satur, sated, has vesper, evening, has abl. vespere (loc. vesperi, in the evening).
;
;
.
c. Liber (a name of Bacchus) has genitive Liberi; so, too, the adjective liber, free, of which liberi, children, is the plural ( 82. b}
d.
to
in the genitive.
it
42. The
native
in the
nomi-
coluber, snake;
magister, master;
minister, servant;
oleaster, wild-olive;
aper, boar;
arbiter, judge ; auster, south wind;
conger,
sea-eel;
culter, knife;
faber, smith;
fiber, beaver;
onager
cancer, crab;
caper, goat;
[N.B.
liber, book; For the corresponding forms of Adjectives, see Chap. IV.]
43, 44.J
Third Declension.
2$
are including many names in -eus Plural as follows in the Singular, the being
fable (M.)- mock-sun (N.). Delos (P.). Athos (M.). Orpheus (M.).
NOM. mythos
mythS mython Voc. mythe ABL. mythd
Ace.
a.
parSlion
parelii
Delos
Deli
Athos
(6)
Orpheus
Orphei(eos) Orphel Orphea
GEN. DAT.
mythl
parelid
parelion parelion
pare"H5
Atho (I) Atho Del5 Dclon (um) Athon (um) AthSs Dele Atho Delfi
Orpheu Orpheo
Many names
Thucydides, Thucydidi (compare 37. a and 63). b. Several names in -er have also a nominative in -us as, Teucer Teucrus. The name Fanthus has the vocative Panthu ( 63. /).
:
c.
The The
mination -on:
d.
genitive plural of certain titles of books takes the Greek teras, Georgicon, of the Georgics.
nominative plural
termination -oe (for Greek -ot) is sometimes found in the : as, Adelphoe, the Adelphi (a play of Terence).
THIRD DECLENSION.
Nouns
of the
Vowel
(i),
(2) in
few whose stems end in u, formerly long (grus, sus), were treated
as consonant-stems.
L Mute-Stems.
44. Masculine and Feminine nouns, whose stem ends
a Mute, form the nominative
in
is
by adding
-s
:
-s.
;
If the
if
it is
mute
a lingual (t, d), it is suppressed before c s)> it unites with -s, forming -x as, (
>
a palatal
guardian ;
45).
poSma, poem.
it
is
given
first
to
occurs in practice.
26
45, 46.
often modified
a.
LABIALS.
adip-is,
adeps.
:
Stems in -Ip- have e before p in the nominative l as, Most stems in dp- are compounds of the root CAP
;
In these the as, particip-is, particeps, sharer. (in capio, take) stem sometimes has the form cup-: as, aucup-is, auceps, fowler. Stems in It- (M. or F.) have e (short) in the nomib. LINGUALS.
The neuter capit-is has caput. native: as, hospit-is, hospes. Neuter stems ending in two consonants, and those ending in at- (Greek nouns), drop the final lingual as, cord-is, cor ; poemat-is, poema. Stems in Ic- (short i) have the nominative in -ex, c. PALATALS.
:
with a few exceptions ( 67. *), and are chiefly masculine : as, apic-is, apex; indic-is, index. Those in ic- (long i) retain I, and are feminine : as, cornlc-is, cornix. 9
46. Nouns of
Sing.
47.
4aJ
Third Declension.
27
custos, -odis
(c.},
guard;
comes,
#.
-itis (c.),
companion;
poema,
.
-atis (&,},
poem
47.
).
1 apparent mute-stems, having the genitive plural in -ium, are to be classed with i-stems ( 54)
Many
Greek neuters (as poSma), with nominative singular in -a, frequently end in the dative and ablative plural in -la, and in the genitive plural rarely in -orum. c. A few nouns apparent i-stems belong here canis, or canSa, gen. cania (stem orig. can-), dog.
b.
:
2.
Liquid-Stems.
48. In nouns whose stem ends in a Liquid (1, n, r), the nominative is the same as the stem, except when modified
as follows
a.
:
Stems
in
as in leon-ia,
led, lion} legion-is, legio, legion. b. Stems in din- or gin- (mostly feminine) drop n and keep an original 5 in the nominative : as, virgin-is, virgo, maiden. Also a few
hom5, man\
Apollin-ia, Apollo; carn-is, car5,y&r Most other stems in In- have e and
retain n: as, cornicin-ia, cornicen (M.), horn-blower} carmin-is, carmen (N.), song. 6 c. Stems in tr- have -ter in the nominative: as, patr-ia, pater,
father} mStr-ia, mSter, mother.* d. Many neuter stems in er- and or(originally s-stems) have -us in the nominative: as, oper-ia, opus, worki corpor-is, corpus, body.
Some stems
in er-
have
-is
few masculine and feminine stems have the nominative in -s as well as -r: as, honor-is, hoiios (or honor); arb5r-ia, arbos (or arbor), tree.*
NOTE.
1
That
as would appear from the nominative. parent speech, and depend upon
dif-
2 All these had in the stem. originally 8 These differences are inherited from the
ferent modifications of the
same
* had become weakThese, no doubt, had ened to tr- in some of the cases even in the parent speech. In Latin only the nom, and voc. sing, show the e. But cf. Marspitria and Mftrspiteria (MA(r)8-piter) 6 See Note 2, page 26.
38
e.
48-50,
one of
grain;
49. Nouns of
Sing.
5O-52.
Third Declension,
29
The
venter; fur,
see
61).
glls, 15r,
Vowel-Stems.
i-
(as
stem
turri-
except in neuters,
a. Thirty-five
is
formed by adding
I
-s
The
to e in the
1 nominative, and
many
as,
civgs or civis,
citizen
canes or
but loses
inserting e before
r.
in bri- and tri- does not add -s, These are imber, linter, uter,
venter
c.
54,
and
cf.
The nominative
ager). of neuters
is
the
change of I to S (as in mare). But when the e was lost, as in animal ( 53. c). 2
52.
Sing.
Nouns
3O
53, 54.
a. Nouns of the third declension in -es or -is (mostly feminine) or e (neuter) having the same number of syllables in the nominative and
genitive (parisyllabic).
b.
c.
Those
Neuters in
which have
54.
Many nouns
2 originally i-stems.
1.
These are
as,
Monosyllables with stem apparently ending in two consonants: urbs, moiis (gen. mentis), nox (gen. noctis), arx; together
with imber, linter, uter, venter ( 51. b}. 2. Stems in tat- (as civitas, -atis), 3 or in d or t preceded by a consonant (including participles used as nouns) also the monosyllables
;
glis,
Us, mas,
mus, nix,
scrobs
5 o).
3.
adjectives: as,
(
Nouns denoting birth or abode, having stems in at-, it-, originally Arpinas, -atis ( 164. .), with penates and optimatSs
are thus declined
7 6. 2).
:
They
54-57.]
IMur.
Third Declension.
31
NOM.
Cix. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.
imbrSs mitre's aetat6s imbrium aetatum (ium) murium muribus imbribus noctibus aetatibus urbibus minis (Ss) imbris (Ss) urbls(Ss) noctis (5s) aetfitis (gs) imbr6s murSa aetat6s noctes urbSs muribus imbribus noctibus aetatibus urbibus NOTE. The declension of these nouns in the singular differs in no respect from
urbfis
noctgs
urbium
noctium
that of consonant-stems,
and
in the plural in
i
no respect from
that of vowel-stems.
of the
stem
in the follow-
They
it
all
lack
b.
c.
entirely).
have the genitive plural in -ium (but some monosyllables For a few exceptions, see 59.
and accusative
plural in -ia.
d.
e.
The accusative plural (M. or F.) is regularly -is. The accusative singular (M. or F.) of a few ends in -im ( 56). The ablative singular of all neuters, and of many masculines and
57).
regular case-ending of the accusative singular of i-stems (M. or F.) would be -im as, sitis, sitim (cf. stella,
56.
The
-am
servos, -om)
is
changed
to -em
2.
3.
partim
b.
and
in
amussim.
The
accusative in -im
is found sometimes in febris, puppis, sementis, and rarely in many other words.
57. The regular form of the ablative singular of i-stems would be -I: as, sitis, siti; but in most nouns this is changed
-e.
a.
The
i.
2.
ablative in -I is found exclusively In nouns having the accusative in -im ( 56) also securis. In the following adjectives used as nouns aequalis, annalis,
;
:
aqualis,
tribulis.
3.
cousularis,
gentilis,
molaris.
primipilaris
except
(in verse)
mare, rete.
to
32
b.
57-60,
ablative in -I
is
found sometimes
2.
triremis,
c.
The
ablative of
i.
*).
The
defec-
tive
mane
mam
as Praeneste, Tergeste, d. Most names of towns in -e, and Sdracte, a mountain, have the ablative in -e. Caere has Caerete. e. For canis, see 47. c.
58. The
is
-is,
but this
very rarely found in nouns. The regular Accusative -is is common, but not exclusively used in any word. An old form for both cases is
-els (diphthong).
59. The following have -um (not -ium) in the Genitive plural: cams, iuvenis (originally consonant-stems); ambages, mare (once
only, otherwise wanting), volucris; also (sometimes) apis, caedes,
-is, -itis
as,
Arpinas,
Arpmatum Samnis,
;
Samnitum.
4.
Irregular Nouns.
is
60. In
irregularly modified in
Thus
-s in the
;
nominative, and are ingrus has also a nominative gruis sus has both suibus and subus in the dative and ablative plural. b. In the stem bov- (bou-) the diphthong ou becomes 6 in the nominative (bos, bSvis). In nav- (nau-) an i is added (navis, -is). In ISv- ( Zevs) the diphthong (ou) becomes u in lu-piter (for -pater), gen. 16 vis, etc.
flected like
The vowel-stems
add
mute-stems
c.
In iter, itineris (N.), iecur, iecinoris (N.), supellex, supellecnominative has been formed from a shorter stem, in
;
senex, senis from a longer so that these words show a combination of two distinct forms. The shorter form is found in the genitive iecor-is. d. Of the many original s-stems, only vas, vasis (N.) (pi. vasa,
(see p. 26, foot-note 2), retains native (see 48. d).
-orum)
its
Always
in the
formula
aqua
et Ignl interdicl
243. a).
61-63.1
Third Declension.
peculiar forms arc thus declined
:
33
61.
N., V.
Some
Sin-, ox, cow(C.). old man (M.)./^ (F.)- bone (N.). force (F.). swine (c.).
34
f.
plur.
63-65.
lampas
:
lynx
(-cis or -cSs),
as,
chelys, -yn,
-y
Capys, -yos,
h.
Several feminine
;
names
they
dat.
may
in -6 have gen. sing, -us, all the other also have regular forms as, Dido, gen.
:
or Dido, etc. Several Greek forms are irregularly retained in the vocative
;
Didoni
as,
Panthus,
voc.
Panthu
Orpheus, Orpheu
(cf.
Atlas, Atla
Daphnis,
43).
64.
Some
:
of
examples
base(F.}.
basi-
heros
herois
lampas
lampados lampadi lampada lampade
lampade's
basis baseos
basi
tigris
tigris (idos)
tigri
heroi
naidi
heroa heroe
basin
basi
tigrin(ida) naida
tigri (ide)
Plur.
bases
tigres
naidum
NOM. Atlas
GEN. DAT. Ace. Voc. ABL.
Atlantis
Atlanti
Dido
DIdonis (us) DTdoni (6)
Simois
Simoentis Simoenti
Capys
Capyos
Capyi
Daphnis
Daphnjdis Daphnidi
Atlanta
Atlas (a) Atlante
DTdonem
(6)
Simoenta
Simois
Simoente
Daphnim
DaphnY DaphnT
(in)
NOTE.
The
Rules of Gender.
65. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to the
termination of the nominative.
1
Dative,
herSisin (once
only).
ff 65, 66.]
Third Declension.
35
b.
a. Masculine endings are -5, -or, -OB, -er, -a (gen. -Idia, -Itia). Feminine endings are -aa (gen. -5tia), -6a (gen. -is), -is, -ye, -x,
;
and
e (following a consonant) also, -do, -go, (gen. -inis), -io (abstract collective), and -us (gen. -iidis, -utis).
c.
-y
-c,
-1,
-t
-men
(gen. -minis)
66. The following are general Rules for the Gender of nouns of the third declension, classed according to their stems.
Stems in i-, having -a in the nominative, are a. VOWEL-STEMS. Those having Feminine, except those mentioned below ( 67. a). 6 in the nominative and those in -al and -ar (which have dropped
the -e) are neuter.
Stems in 1- are Masculine, except sfl, fel, mel, b* LIQUID-STEMS. and sometimes sal (N.). Those in min- are Neuter, except homo, nemo, flamen (M.). Others Those in Sn- are in in- are masculine, except pollen, unguen (N.). masculine. Those in din-, gin-, ion-, abstract and collective nouns, are
feminine.
Those
30 given below
preceded by a short vowel are Neuter, except about Those in r- preceded by a long vowel are 67. b). (
masculine, except soror, uxor, glos, tellus (p.); crus, ius, pus, rus, tus (thus) (N.), in which the long vowel is due to contraction. Stems in b- and m- are Feminine, c. LABIAL STEMS (no neuters). except chalybs. Steins in p- are chiefly masculine (exceptions below,
Stems
Those
plur.
in at-, ut-, are feminine, except patrials penatga and optimates. Those in
6d-, 6t-, are masculine, except merces and quies with its compounds Those in 8t-, It-, are masculine, except abiea, merges, seges, (F.).
teges
ftt-
(F.),
signification.
Those
in
are neuter; those in nt- various (see list, 67. d}\ those in It-, rt-, feminine. (For a few isolated forms, see list, 67.) e. PALATAL STEMS. Stems in c- preceded by a consonant or long
vowel are Feminine, except calx, decunx, phoenix, storax, vervgx Those in c- preceded by a short vowel are chiefly masculine (for (M.).
exceptions, see
list,
67. e} also
those
g-,
nix (nivia)
(F.).
36
67.
of the
67. The following are the Forms of Inflection of nouns Third Declension, classed according to their Stems
a.
VOWEL-STEMS.
list,
-6s, -is
-Is, -is
about 100 nouns, chiefly feminine, 2&felis,pellis. Exc. aedllis, amnis, anguis, c., anndlis, antes (pi.), assis, axis,
c.,
buris, callis,
candlis,
c.,
cam's,
clunis,
hostis, c., ignis, invents, c., lactes (pi.), C., lares (pi-),
manes
(pi.),
vepres
(pi.), C.,
[Those marked
c.
are masculine.]
-,
-is
4Q, -alis
upwards of 20 nouns, all neuter, as mare, cubile. -aris ; -&r, 24 neuter, with several used only in the
:
plural, as
list,
all
F. ; rhus, rhois (ace. rhum), M. sus, misy, -yos, F. oxys, -yos, F. cinnabarl,
;
gummt,
sinapt, N. (indecl.)
b.
bos, bovis, c.
LIQUID-STEMS.
sol,
-1,
-lis
except
sil,
and (sometimes)
sal, N.
\_\ren\, splen, M.
Hymen, M.
10 nouns, M., as tiblcen$ except pollen, unguen, gluten, sanguen, N. -mSn, -minis (verbal), as dgmen ; about 60 nouns, N. \>\&flamtn, M. -on, -6nis (Greek) : canon, daemon, gnomon, M. ; aedon, alcyon, ancon,
n, -Inis:
;
-6,
all
many
family
-io,
-io,
-ionis (material objects, etc.), as pugio: about 30 nouns, masculine. -ionis (abstract and collective), as legio, regio: upwards of 180, feminine, including many rare verbal abstracts.
:
5, -Inia
67.J
Third Declension.
:
37
-do, -dlnis
-go, -glnis
-ir, -iris
:
:
nearly 50 nouns, as grando, feminine except cardd, drdo, M. about 40 nouns, as compago, feminine with margo, M. or F.
; ;
lar, salar, M.
v.
T/<?>,
-Sr, -ris
-er, -eris
-Sr, -gris
:
(mostly Greek)
,7<V,
N.
aether. M.
-gr, -gris
acipenser, agger, anscr, asser, aster, cancer, career, later, acer, cadaver, cicer, mulicr, F. passer, vesper, vomer, M.
: ; ;
laver,
papaver, piper,
slier,
siser,
verber, N.
-es, -6ris
-is,
:
Ceres, F.
cinis,
:
-Sris
nearly 70 nouns (besides many denoting the Agent, formed upon verb-stems), as favor, orator, all M. except soror,
uxor,
-6r, -6ris
:
F.
;
castor, rhetor, M.
flos,
arbor,
glos, F.
F.
;
ador, aequor,
marmor,
N.
-6s, -oris
-ur, -uris
-iir, -iiris
mos, ros, M.
os, N.
filr, C.
9 masculine, as vultur]
N.
murmur,
sul-
fur,
-tir,
-6ris
-Sris
-fts,
-fts,
-6ris
-us, -uris
14 nouns, as pectus, neuter, except lepus, M. tdlus, F. ^rr/?j, z;7j, pus, riis, tus (thus) N.
;
PECULIAR.
sencx, senis, M.
fellis;
Anio,
;
; delphln, -mis ; sanguis (-<?), -Inis ; ^, aeris; far, farris \ fcl, card, carnis, F.
-tents
glis,gliris,u.
C.
LABIAL.
;
-bs, -bis
chalybs, M.
:
1 scobs, scrobs, C.
-ms, -mis
-ps, -pis
:
F.
',
princeps
ops, slips, F.
forceps, stirps? c.
d.
LINGUAL.
feminine,
as
-s, -Sdis (mostly Greek): dromas, vas, .M. -es, -edis cupes, heres, M.
:
14 nouns,
lampas; except
merces,
;
F.
-Ss,
-gdis
pcs, quadrupcs, M.
obscs, praescs, c.
five
compes,
-gs, -idis
l
These
Originally i-stem.
38
-is,
67,
lapis, M.
-6s,
-odis
:
custos, c.
nepos, M.
:
cos, dos, F.
sacerdos, c.
{-tidis}, F.
-udis
inciis,
:
-atis
-as,
also,
ands
-Ss, -etis
celes, lebes,
mdgnes, M.
;
-es, -gtis
aries, paries, M.
seges, teges, F.
;
abies, F.
-6s, -Stis
-6s, -itis
:
interpres, c.
-us, -utis
-ns,
-ndis
-ns, -ntis:
frons, glans, iuglans, F. nearly 20 (besides many participles used as nouns), common, as infans ; dens, fons, mons, pons, M. frons, gens, lens,
;
mens,
-rs, -rtis
F.
:
(originally i-stems)
Mars, mors,
sors, F.
-ys, -ydis
-s,
-ntis (Greek)
chlamys,
;
F.
Atlas, -antis, M.
os, ossis
; puls, pultis, vds, vasis, N. ;
PECULIAR.
F.
;
as, assis, M.
Its,
caput,
-itis ; cor,
also,
compounds of -pus,
e.
PALATAL.
(pi.),
-ax, -acis
anthrax, corax,fraces
panax, scolopax,
pax,
F.
M..',
fax, styrax.
(storax), F.
vervex, M.
upwards of 40 nouns, masculine, as apex, 'vertex, except nex (necis}, pellex, F. (imbrex3\$,Q M.)
-Ix, -Icis
appendix, coxendix, filix, fornix, larix, salix, struix, vdrix, F. about 30 nouns, feminine, as cervix, radix; besides many in -trix, regular feminines of nouns of agency in -tor ( 162. d).
:
:
celox, vox, F.
dux,
c.
crux, nux, F.
balilx, lux, F.
merx
(def.), F.
calx, calyx, M.
coniux (^nx) grex, remex (gen. -igis), rex, M. ore.; \_\friix~\ with a few rare names of animals. (def.), lex, phalanx, F.
: ;
Other nouns
-ychis, M.
and
F.
-ectilis, F.
onyx,
f 68-70.]
fr
Fourth
39
FOURTH DECLENSION.
68. The Stem of nouns of the Fourth Declension ends
in u-.
line
This is usually weakened to i before -bus. Mascuand feminine nouns form the nominative by adding -B IK-HUTS have for nominative the simple stem, but with a
;
(long).
Nouns
Sing.
(p.).
NOM.
40
b.
c.
70-72.
d.
The nominative plural has rarely the form -uus. The genitive plural is sometimes contracted into -um. The following retain the regular dative and ablative
:
plural in
:
-ubus artus, partus, portus, tribus, veru also dissyllables in -cus as, lacus (but sometimes portibus, veribus). e. Most names of plants, and colus, distaff have also forms of the
;
',
second declension.
/.
ing in u- and o-
gen. in
70. d},
and
is
declined as follows: 1
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. Voc. ABL.
g.
domus
domus (domi, loc.) domui (dom5)
domum
domus domo (domu)
only locative form of
this is rare,
The
declension
is
domul.
But even
h.
An
almost universally used instead. old form of the ablative ends in -d : as, magistratud (cf.
is
and domi
62. d).
stems, or roots, by
fourth declension are formed from verbof the suffix -tus (-sus) (cf.
163.
)
:
as,
cantus, song, CAN, cano, sing; casus (for cad-tus), chance, CAD, cadd, fall', exsulatus, exile, from exsulo, to be an exile (exsul). Many are formed either from verb-stems not in use, or by analogy : as, consulates (as if from fconsulo, -are), senatus, incestus.
a.
The Supines
of verbs
accusative
:
and
ablative
as,
audltum,
memoratu. b. Of many
as,
verbal derivatives only the ablative is used as a noun : iussu (meo), by (my} command; so iniussu (populi), without (the
people's} order.
Of some only
the dative
as,
memoratui, divisul.
FIFTH DECLENSION.
72.
g-,
The Stem
of
in
is
which appears in all the cases. formed from the stem by adding -s.
1 The forms in parenthesis are less as locative, though genitive in Plautus
;
The nominative
domi
common.
is
regulal
domSrum
poetic.
72-74.]
Fifth Declension.
41
STEM
i-r-
NOM.
GEN. DAT.
Acc.
rSs rSI
r6I
res
dies
dig! (die) diel (dig)
dies
fides
fide"!
rSrum
rgbus
rgs rgs
digrum
diSbus
digs digs
fidel
rem
rgs re
in these
diem
digs
fidem
fidgs
fidg
Voc. ABL.
NOTE.
rgbus
it is
dig
digbus
All nouns of this declension are feminine, except 73. GENDER. dies (usually M.), day, and meridigs (M.), noon. Digs is sometimes feminine in the singular, especially in phrases indicating a fixed time, and regularly feminine when used of time in general : as, longa digs,
dig, on
set
as,
74. CASE-FORMS.
-gs (cf. -as of
first
a.
The
The genitive ending -ei was 36. ). sometimes contracted into -ei, -T, or-g: as, dii (^En. i. 636), and the phrases plgbi-scitum, tribunus plebel. An old Dative in -I or -6 also
declension,
is
mentioned by grammarians.
b.
The
fifth
declension
:
is
nouns have forms of both as, materia, genitive and dative in -gl are rarely found
c.
only a variety of the first, and several -ies ; saevitia, -igs. 1 The in these words.
(cf.
The
dative -e
found only in certain adverbs and expressions of time : as, hodig (for hoi-dig, cf. huic), to-day ; perendig, day after to-morrow i dig quarts (old, quarti), the fourth day\ prldig, the day
under a).
before. d. Of
nouns of the fifth declension, digs and rgs only are declined throughout. Most want the plural, which is, however, found in the nominative and accusative in the following: acigs, effigies, gluvigs,
spgs.'^
dies) are original ft-stems. The others are probably diSs, cf. (excepting res) corrupted s-stems, like mOles (cf. moles-tus) diurnus ; spes (cf. spero"). Some vary between the fifth and the third declen-
Nouns
in -ies (except
sion
as, requiSs, satigs (satias, gen. -fttis), plSbgs (plgbs, plSbis), fame* (famgs, gen. -is). * The forms facigrum, specierum, specigbus, spSrum, spSbus, are cited by grammarians, also speres, spSribua*
:
42
[75,76.
Some nouns
as, Caesar, Ccesar , Gallia, Gaul. of things not counted, but reckoned in mass : as, aurum, gold; aSr, air; triticum, wheat. ambition ; fortitude, courage; 3. Abstract nouns: as, ambitio,
:
2.
Names
calor, heat.
But many
sense.
a.
of these are
Thus
proper name
things,
may be
or even
and so become
common:
as,
duodecim
Caesares, the twelve Ccesars; Galliae, the two Gauls (Cis- and TransCasto're's, Castor and Pollux; loves, images of Jupiter. alpine) b. Particular objects may be denoted as, aera, bronze utensils, Hive's,
;
:
snowflakes; or different kinds of a thing : as, acres, airs (good and bad). c. The plural of abstract nouns denotes occasions or instances of the
quality, or the like
:
as,
quaedam excellentiae, some cases of superiof rest; calores, frigora, times of heat and cold.
are
76.
Some nouns
(plurdlia tantum
(cf.
79.
in the Plural
1. Many proper names: as, Athenae, Athens, ThuriT, Fhilippi, Veil, names of towns, Adelphoe (The Adelphi), the name of a play; but especially names of festivals and games : as, Olympia, the Olympic
Games ; Bacchanalia, feast of Bacchus ; Quinquatriis, Minerva ; ludi Roman!, the Roman Games.
2.
festival of
Names of
;
classes: as,
;
ancestors
3.
llberT, children
plural
Words
by
signification
as,
arma, weapons ;
\
9x\fia, joints;
f'01-es,
double-
in
some form
As noun,
;
Bacchus
b.
c.
optimas, an
as,
As
adjective: as,
the Elder.
In a sense rare, or found only in early Latin: as, scala, a ladder-, valva, a door; artus, a joint.
77.]
Defective Nouns.
43
:
77.
1.
Many nouns
Indeclinable nouns:
opui
(need}, secus.
2.
Nouns found
a.
in one case only (tnonoptotes} In the nom. sing, glos, F. b. In the gen. sing, dicis, naucT, N.
c.
as.
</.
.
memoratui, M. (cf. 71. ). amussim, M. In the abl. sing, pondo, N. mane, N. (Both also treated Of mane an old locative form as indeclinable nouns.
In the dat. sing, In the ace. sing,
;
f. 3.
71.
).
Nouns found
a. In the
b.
c.
d.
e.
in two cases only (diptotes). nom. and abl. sing, fors, forte, F. astus, astu, M. In the gen. and abl. sing, spontis, sponte, F. In the dat. and ace. sing, venui (veno in Tac.), vSnum, M. In the ace. sing, and plur. dicam, dicas, F. In the ace. and abl. plur. foras, foris, F. (cf. forgs).
;
4.
Nouns found
a. In
the
nom.,
-um,
-u (M.)
b.
c.
lugs, -em, - (p.). In the nom., ace., and dat. or abl. plur. gratgs, -ibus (F.). In the nom., gen., and dat. or abl. plur. iugera, -um, -ibus
78. i.
).
5.
(N., but iugerum, etc., in the sing., cf. Nouns declined regularly in the plural, but
defective
in
the
singular. a.
Nouns found
I,
dicionis,
frugis, -T, -em, -e (F.) ; opis, -I (once only), -em, -e (p., nom. as a divinity, see 46). d. Nouns found in the dat, ace., abl.: precT, -em, -e (F.).
-em,
-e (p.)
c.
Nouns found
-e (F.).
in the ace.
and
abl.
cassem,
-e (p.)
sordem,
(p.)
;
d.
Nouns found
obice
(c.,
ambage
(F.)
fauce
nom. obex
6.
Nouns
b.
regular in the singular, defective in the plural. a. ills and rus have only iura, rura.
calx, cor, cos, crux, fax, faex, lux, nex, 5s, pJLr, pix, praes, ros, sal, sol, tus (thus), vas, want the genitive plural.
c.
Most nouns of
the
fifth
74. d}.
44
7.
77,
7a
Nouns defective in both singular and plural. a. Nouns found in the nom., ace. sing. nom., ace., abl. plur. sentis, -em; -gs, -ibus. b. Nouns found in the gen., ace., abl. sing. nom., ace., dat, abl.
;
:
;
plur.
c.
vicis, -em, -e
-es, -ibus.
Nouns found
plur.
and
abl. sing.;
gen.
wanting: dapis,
-em,
-e.
VARIABLE NOUNS.
78. Many nouns vary either
1.
in
Declension or Gender.
7o./), and
:
In Declension
colus
(keteroclites,
nomina abundantid).
house (see
a.
(p.), distaff';
domus
(p.),
many
between the second and fourth declensions. b. Some nouns vary between the second and third as, iugerum, -I, abl. -e, plur. -a, -um, etc. Mulciber, gen. -beri and -beris sequesvas, vasis, and vasum, -I. ter, gen. -tri and -tris c. Some vary between the second, third, and fourth penus, penum,
names of plants
in -us, vary
gen.
penu. d. Many nouns vary between the first and the fifth (see 74. b). fames has e. requies has gen. -etis, dat. wanting, ace. -etem or -em abl. fame ( 57. c) pubes (pubis, puber) (M.) has -eris, -em, -e pecus has pecoris, etc., but also nom. pecu, dat. pecui; pi. pecua,
-I
and
-oris, abl.
femur
iocinoris, iecoris
2.
muuus
a.
The
:
-um
balteus, caseus, clipeus, collum, cingulum, pileus, tergum, vallum, with many others of rare occurrence.
b. The following have in the plural a different gender from the singular: balneae (F.), baths (an establishment). balneum (N.), bath; caelos (M. ace.). caelum (N.), heaven ;
carbasus dglicium
(p.),
sail;
carbasa
epulae
(N.), sails
(-orum).
(N.), pleasure;
dSliciae (p.),/*/.
frem
ioca
rastrum
(N.),
a jest; a rake;
(N.),
ioci (M.).
rastri (M.), rastra (N.). Ioca (N.), loci (M., usually topics, spots).
$ 79.]
Variable Nouns.
see 79. a, b (old edition)
78. 2. 0, *.]
45
[For
79
use.
a.
in old [79. c
larities of
Number
Many nouns
-is (P.),
Plural: as,
aedgs,
temple ;
aqua
(p.),
watery
(N.), help;
auxilium
bonum
career
(N.),
a good;
dungeon ;
,
bona, property:
carcergs, barriers (of race-course) castra camp.
,
(M.),
castrum
(N.) fort ; codicillus (M.), bit of wood; comitium (N.), place of assembly
(F.) plenty ; fides (p.), harp-string; finis (M.), end;
,
codicilli, tablets.
;
comitia, an
fides, lyre.
election (town-meeting).
copia
copiae, troops.
flngs, bounds, territories.
f ortuna (F.),
f ortunae, possessions. fortime; thanks (also, the Graces}. gratia (e.\ favor (rarely, thanks}', gratiae, horti, hortus (M.) a garden ; pleasure-grounds. impedimentum (N.), hinderance ; impedimenta, baggage.
,
litterae, epistle.
loci, topics.
locus (M.),//0^[pl.loca(N.)]
regular plur.)
ludus (M
Ifcdi,
public games.
.
natales, descent.
opera
(p.),
work ;
[ops] opis (p.), help ( 46) ; pars (P.), a part; plaga (p.), region ; rSstrum (N.), beak of a ship-,
sal (M. or N.), salt
; ;
is someb. The singular of a noun usually denoting an individual times used collectively to denote a group as, Poenus, the Carthagini:
ans ; miles, the soldiery ; eques, tJie cavalry. used c. Of many nouns the plural is usually, though not exclusively, (cf. 76) as, cervicgs, the neck; Quirltgs, Romans; viscera, flesh
:
faucgs, throat.
46
d.
79, 80.
number
;
as,
sceptrum). sceptre
75.
<:).
PROPER NAMES.
Roman had regularly three names, denoting the the person, gens, and the family.
8O.
a.
Marcus Tullius
the prcenomen, or personal name (like a Christian or given name) ; Tullius, the nomen (properly an adjective), i.e. the name of the gens
or house, whose original head was a (real or supposed) Tullus the cognomen, or family name, often in its origin a nickname, case from cicer, a vetch, or small pea.
Cicero,
in this
When two persons of the same family are mentioned together, the NOTE. cognomen is usually put in the plural : as, Publius et Servius Sullae.
b.
A fourth or fifth
of Scipio the
:
Thus the complete Younger was Publius Cornelius Scipio AfricaAfricanus, from his exploits in Africa ; AemiliS-
d.
A. Aulus.
App. Appius.
C. (G.) Gaius (Caius)
(cf.
M. Marcus.
6).
M'. Manius.
Sex. Sextus.
Sp. Spurius.
T. Titus.
Ti. Tiberius.
Mam. Mamercus.
N. Numerius.
P. Publius.
A feminine
Q
for
prsenomen
is
letter: as,
Gaia (Caia).
1 The Romans of the classical period had no separate name for these additions, but later grammarians invented the word "agnomen to express them.
81.}
lujlcction of Adjectives.
47
CHAPTER IV.
Adjectives.
INFLECTION.
ADJECTIVES and Participles are in general formed and declined like Nouns, differing from them only in their use. In accordance with their use, they distinguish gender by different forms in the same word, and correspond with their nouns in gender, number^ and case. They are (i) of
the First and Second Declensions, or
(2)
of the
Third
Declension.
1.
First
(a-
and
o-stems) are declined in the Masculine like servus, in the Feminine like stella, and in the Neuter likebellum; as,
bonus, good.
SINGULAR.
F. M. STEM bono- bonS-
bonae bonae
miser, 'wretched.
83, 84.]
Inflection of Adjectives.
alter,' -terlus, the other.
49
whole, alius (N. aliud), other, totus, ullus, any. nullus, no, none.
neuter, -trlus
uter, -trlus,
:
,/M,r.
(of two),
solus, alone.
unua, **.
is
wA*A
Of these
the singular
thus declined
5O
Etymology: Adjectives.
16 vis (stem levi-), light.
84.
SINGULAR.
M., F.
PLURAL.
N.
M., F.
N.
levis
levis
levi
leve
levis
lev!
levSs
levia
levium
levibus
levis (es) levibus
levium
levibus
levia
levem
lev!
leve
levi
levibus
:
The
acer,
alacer, campester, celeber, equester, paluster, pedester, puter, saluber, Silvester, terrester, volucer, and are called adjectives of
three terminations.
So also, celer, celeris, celere; and names of months in -ber (cf. 51. ti) as, October. These are declined as follows
:
PLURAL.
N.
M.
F.
N.
acer
acris
acris
acris
acri
acre
acris
acres
acres
acria
acrium
acribus
acris (es)
acrium
acribus
acris (es)
acrium
acribus
acria
acri
acri
acrem
acri
acrem
acri
is
acre
acri
acribus
late,
acribus
acribus
and
in
This formation
:
comparatively
and hence,
in the poets
as,
funebris, illustris, lugubris, mediocris, muliebris, there masculine form at all. Thus
:
no separate
illustris, brilliant.
STEM illustri-
SINGULAR.
M., F.
PLURAL.
N.
M., F.
N.
N., V.
illustris
illustris
illustri
illustre
illustris
illustri
illustres
illustrium
illustribus
illustris
illustria
illustrium
illustribus
illustria
illustrem
illustri
illustre
illustri
(es)
illustribus
illustribus
CASE-FORMS.
true i-stems, retain in the ablative singular -I, in the neuter plural -ia, in the genitive plural -ium, and in the accusative plural regularly -Is (see 55 and p. 30, n. 2). But the forms of some are doubtful.
NOTE.
ablative in -e
sometimes occurs
in poetry.
84, 85.]
c.
Inflection of Adjectives.
51
celerum
celer, swift, when used as a noun, denoting a military rank, has The proper name Celer has the ablain the genitive plural.
tive in -e.
85.
The remaining
but all except Comparatives have the form of i-stems in the ablative singular -I, the nominative, accusative and vocative plural neuter -ia, and the
are Consonant-stems;
In the other cases they follow the genitive plural -ium. rule of Consonant-stems.
NOTE.
The
-e.
These adjectives (except comparatives) have the same nominative singular for all genders, and hence are called adjectives of one termination^-
1-
the stem by adding -a. a. Adjectives of one termination are declined as follows
Etymology :
b.
A djectives.
:
[85.
par, equal.
p5,rM., F.
Sing.
N., V.
M., F.
N.
N.
concdra
concordis
iens
euntis
par
paris
concord!
eunti
par!
concordem
concors
euntem
eunte
iens
(I)
oarem
par!
par
concord!
N., V. Concordes
concordia
euntes
euntia
pares
paria
GEN.
concordium
euntium
euntibus
euntis (es) euntia
parium
paribus
paris (es) paria
fiber, fertile.
dives, rich.
dlvitM., F.
uberN.
M., F.
Sing. N., V.
M., F.
N.
N.
praeceps
dives
divitis
diviti
fiber
uberis
uberi
dives
divitem
divite
uberem uber
ubere
uberes
praecipitia
divites
[dltia]
ubera
dlvitum
divitibus
divitis (es) divitia
old.
uberum
uberes
uberibus ubera
vetus,
STEM veterSINGULAR.
M., F.
(for
vetes-)
PLURAL.
M., F.
N.
N.
N.,V.
vetus
veteris
veteri
veteres
vetera veterum
vetera
veteribus
vetus
veterem
vetere
veteres
veteribus
most s-stems the r has
Of
these
itself into
bi-corpos),
degener
(forde-grenes).
c.
form
in -a
few adjectives of one termination, used as nouns, have a feminine as, clienta, hospita, with the appellative luno Sospita.
:
86, 87.]
Inflection
3.
of Adjectives.
53
Comparatives.
Sin-.
N., V.
(ii:\.
M., F.
N.
melior
melioris
meliori
meliua
plus
pluris
DAT.
Ace. ABL.
Plur. N., V.
meliorem
plus
plure
meliores
meliora
plurgs
plura
meliorum
melioris (gs)
plurium
pluris (es)
pluribus plura
pluribus
;
The stem
all
or- in
of comparatives properly ended in os- but this became cases except the neuter singular (N., A., v.), where s is retained,
and 6
is changed to u (cf. hondr, -oris; corpus, -dris). paratives appear to have two terminations. b. The neuter singular plus is used only as a noun.
Thus com-
The
genitive
(rarely ablative)
is
(cf.
252. a).
The
dative
is
several,
has sometimes neuter plural compluria. All other comparatives are declined like melior.
4.
Case-Forms.
The Ablative
singular
commonly ends
-e.
in
such (especially in the ablative absolute, have -e ; but participles used as adjectives have regularly -I. The following have uniformly -I: amens, anceps, concors (and other compounds of cor), censors (but as a substantive, -e), degener,
its
In the following, -e
is
superstes, sospes also in patrials (see 54. 3) and stems in at-, ut-, rt-, when used as nouns, and sometimes when used as adjectives.
;
54
f.
Etymology: Adjectives.
The
87, 88.
The accusative genitive plural ends commonly in -ium. which are less inclined in even in ends -Is, comparatives, plural regularly to the i-declension.
d.
1.
The
prmceps, praepes,
:
as,
quadru-pes,
2. Sometimes, in poetry, in participles in -ns as, silentum concilium, a council of the silent shades (Virg.). e. In vetus (gen. -gris), pubes (gen. -gris), uber (gen. -8ris),
which did not become i-stems, the endings -e (abl. sing.), -a (neut. nom. ace. plur.), -um (gen. plur.) are regular. (Uber has also -I in abl.)
f. I. Several adjectives vary in declension: as, gracilis (-us), hilaris (-us), inermis (-us), bicolor (-orus). few are indeclinable as, damnas, frugi (really a dat. of ser2. vice, see 233), nequam (originally an adverb).
3.
as, (a)
exspes
etc.,
(only nom.),
exlex (exlegem)
pernox (pernocte)
() primoris, seminecT,
is
Potis
pote
Special Uses.
:
following special uses are to be observed Many adjectives have acquired the meaning and construction of nouns: as, amicus, a friend ; aequalis, a contemporary; maiores, ancestors (see p. 47, head-note, and 188).
88.
The
a.
b.
Many
adjectives, from their signification, can be used only in the These may be called adjectives of common
Such are adulescens, youthful; [fdeses], -idis, slothful] inops, -opis, poor; sospes, -Itis, safe. Similarly, senex, old man, and iuvenis, young man, may be called masculine adjectives. c. Many nouns may be used as as, pedes, a footman adjectives 188. d). or on foot (see Such are especially nouns in -tor (M.) and -trix (p.), denoting the agent ( 162. a}: as, victor exercitus, the conquering army ; victrlx causa, the winning cause,
.
d. Certain forms of
many
;
These
as,
148. d, e)
92) as, melius, better ; levius, more lightly. NOTE. Adverbs ending in -e and -ter were also once case-forms:
dearly
,
as, cftre,
148. a, b).
89.]
Comparison of Adjectives.
55
COMPARISON.
In Latin, as
parison
tive.
1.
:
in English, there arc three degrees of comthe Positive, the Comparative, and the Superla-
Regular Comparison.
81). The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ior 1 (neuter -ius ), the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um) to the stem of the Positive, which loses its final vowel as,
:
(st.
(st.
caro-)
;
carior, dearer]
iQvipr, lighter',
^carissimus^^mr^/.
levissimus,
lightest.
levi-)
happy
dull
(st. felic-)
bbes,
(st.
hebet-)
a. Adjectives in -er
nominative.
The comparative
Seer, keen
;
regular
as,
acrior, acerrimus.
So vetus (gen. veteris) has superlative veterrimus. from the old form veter and maturus, besides its regular superlative (mJLtiilis-Simusj, has a rare form maturrimus. For the comparative of vetus, vetustior (from vetustus) is used. b. The following in -lis add -limus to the stem clipped of its vowel
;
:
facilis
(st. facili-),
humilis.
as, facilia.
take in their comparison the forms of corresponding participles in -ns, which were anciently used as adjectives as,
:
^Adjectives
in -us
preceded by any vowel but u rarely have forms means of the adverbs magis, more ;
maxime, most:
idQiieua^y?/
,'
as,
jnagis idoneus,
maxime
idoneus.
NOTE.
1
suffix (earlier -ios) is the same as the Greek -Icav, or the Skr. That of the superlative (-issimus) is a double form perhaps for -iostimus (comparative and superlative), or possibly for -ist-timus (two superlatives). The endings -limus and -rimus arc formed by assimilation ($n./) from -timus and -Simus. The comparative and superlative thus formed are new stems, and are not strictly to be regarded as forms of inflection. -iyans.
;
The comparative
56
Etymology: Adjectives.
89-91.
Most derivatives in -Icus, -idus, -alls, -aris, -Iks, -filus, -undus, -timus, -inus, -Ivus, -orus, with compounds (as degener, inops) are also compared by means of magis and maxime.
e.
Participles
when used
A
:
form ot diminutive
is
made upon
the stem of
some compara-
as,
grandius-culus, a
2.
little
larger (see
164. a).
Irregular
lar
,bpnus^meliqr. optimum good, better, best. malus. peior. pessinma bad, worse, worst.
v eit magr"g, mainr, greater, greatest. parvus, minor, minimus. smalL less, least. jnultus, plus J^4-(fi 86~L plurimus, much, more, most.
.
7^-^^
nequam
__frugi
(indecl.),
(ct.
(cf.
87. f. 2}
87. f. 2).
findecU, frugalior. frugalissimus, useful, worthy y*>ri or, dextimus. on the , dexter j^ right, handy.
NOTE.
These
irregularities arise
different
stems
(cf.
89. c).
91.
out a Positive
a.
The
on this side} ^citerior. citimus. hither, hither most. in, intra'fprep. in, within} :_iriterior, intimus, inner, inmost.
prior, primus, former, first. next. p_roge^adv. near} propior, proximus, nearer, ultra^adv. beyond} ulterior, ul timus, farther, farthest.
pjrae,
pro
(prep, before}
:
b.
Of
when used
as
1 The forms in -tra and -terus were originally comparative (cf. alter) so that he comparatives in -terior are double comparatives. Inferus and superus are comparatives of a still more primitive form (cf. the English comp. in -er).
,
The
those in
like
superlatives in
-timus (-tumus)
-mus like Imus, summus, primus, are still more primitive. Forms extremus are superlatives of a comparative. In tact, comparison has always
sa.y further er
and furMerest.
91, 92.]
Comparison of Adverbs.
57
^xterua, exterior, extremua (extimire). outer, outmost 82. d ) Inlfifciar, Tnfimnn. (imus), Urw.er, lowest (
[posterus]. posterior, onatrgmua poatumusj, latter, last. l. superior, fiupxmus__or summus, higher\ highest.
(
The plurals, exteri. foreigners*, inieri, the gods below; posterity ;,auperL. the heavenly gods, are common 88. b), are formed the c. From iuvenis, W7tt///,,senex, old man (cf.
comparatives rupior. younger, senior, older.
minor natu and maior natu are sometimes used (nsitu being often The superlative is regularly expressed by minimus and omitted). maximus, with or without natu.
NOTE.
a.
1.
In these phrases
natu
is
<J
253).
falsus, fidus compounds), inclutus (or inclitus), invictus, invitus, novus, pius, sacer, vafer, vetus ( 89. a). 3. The superlative is wanting in actuosus, agrestis, alacer, arcanus, caecus, diuturnus, exilis, ingens, ieiunus, longinquus, obllquus, opimus, proclivis, propinquus, satur, segnis, serus. supinus, surdus, taciturnus, tempestivus, teres, vicinus, and in some
(with
its
The positive is wanting in deterior, deterrimjus simus p<->*-j^- pnti^Bitni-ia 2. The comparative is wanting in bellus, caesius,
;
adjectives in -ilis.
NOTE. Many adjectives as aureus, golden are from their meaning incapable of comparison; but each language has its own usage in this respect. Thus niger, glossy black, and candidus, shining -white, are compared but not ater or albus, meaning absolute dead black or white (except that Plautus once has atrior)
;
3.
Comparison
of
of
Adverbs.
is
92.
The comparative
Adverbs
comparative of the corresponding Adjective; the superlative is the Adverb in -5 formed regularly from
tive of the
as,
(from^carus^ dear) carius, caris.sime, ^a^e, dearly miser e (miseriter), wretchedly (from miser, wretched)
miserius,
miserrime.
leviter (from levis, light): levius, levissime.
audacter (audaciter) (from audax, bold}: aud^cius, audacissime, benS, well (from bonus, good) melius, optime. male", /'// (from makis, bad) pcius, pessiine.
: :
58
Etymology; Adverbs.
following are irregular or defective
;
:
92, 93.
The
diutius, diutissime.
all.
potius, rather-, potissimum,// of all, in preference to jiaepe, q/feft/^saepius, oftener, again ^ saepissime. satis, enough ; satius, preferable. secus, otherwise; secius, worse.
multuin^ (multo) nyagia, nvaxim.f, .nturh^ more, most. parum, not enough ^1^""% /^J, minime, least.
, ,
4.
Signification.
93. Besides their regular signification (as in English), the forms of comparison are used as follows
:
a.
audacior,
too bold.
Superlative (of eminence) often denotes a wry 7/z^# degree of a quality without implying a distinct comparison as, maximus
:
The
With quam,
vel, or
unus
it
denotes
quam maxime
potest
quam plurimi, as many as possible; (maxime quam potest), as much as can be;
virum iinum doctissimum, the one most learned man. c. With quisque, each, the superlative has a peculiar signification. Thus the phrase ditissimus quisque means, all the richest (each richest man) primus quisque, all the first (each first man in his
;
order).
Two
superlatives with
(Cat. Maj.
men
also denoted
by such adverbs as
(
admodum,
as,
170. c}
= pessimus
praealtus, very high (or deep). e. A low degree of a quality is indicated by sub in composition as, subrusticus, rather clownish; or by minus, not very; minime, not at all; parum, not enottgh ; non satis, not much.
f.
cestors (cf.
g.
often
means descendants.
each thing
is
As
it.
pile,
take
94.]
Numerals.
59
NUMERALS.
1.
1M-.
used
in
Cardinal numbers arc the regular scries of n umbers Ordinal numbers 1 are adjectives decounting.
Cardinal numbers answer the question quot ? how many f quotus ? which in order? one of how many?
These two
1.
CARDINAL.
Onus, una, unum, one. duo, duae, duo, two.
tres, tria, three.
ORDINAL.
primus,
-a,
ROMAN NUMERALS.
I.
-um,yrj/.
2. 3.
secundus
(alter), second.
II.
tertius, third.
III.
4.
5.
quattuor (quatuor)
quartus
qulntus sextus
IV.
qulnque
sex
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
6.
7.
septem
octo
8.
Septimus octavus
norms
decimus
IX.
10.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
13.
14.
15.
1
quattuordecim
qirindecim
6.
sedecim
septendecim
duodevlgintl (octodecim)
17.
1
8.
19.
undevigintl (novendecim)
viginti
undecimus duodecimus tertius decimus quartus decimus qulntus decimus sextus decimus Septimus decimus duodevicensimus undevlcensimus
vlcensimus (vigensimus) vlcensimus primus
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
20.
XX.
XXI.
21.
viginti
unus
(unus
et vlcensimus, etc.)
of the
of
The Ordinals (except secundus, tertius, octavus) are formed by means same suffixes as superlatives. Thus decimus (compare the form inflmus)
as the last of a series of ten
;
may be regarded
pro;
primus
is
(quartus, quintus, sextus) may be compared with the corresponding Greek forms in -ros, and with irpwros, superlative of irpd',
the forms in -tus
norms
is
contracted from
novimus
ending -simus. Of the exceptions, secundus is a participle of sequor; and alter is a comparative form (compare -repos in Greek). The multiples of ten are compounds of the unit with a fragment of decem as, viginti = dvi-ginti
:
(duidecem-tl?).
6o
CARDINAL.
30.
Etymology: Numerals.
ORDINAL.
tricensimus
[94.
ROMAN NUMERALS.
XXX.
XL.
L.
triginta
40.
50.
quadraginta
quinquaginta
sexaginta
septuagiiita
60.
70.
LX.
LXX.
80.
octoginta
LXXX.
xc.
c.
etc,
90. 100.
1
nonaginta
01.
centum centum
trecentl
200.
ducentl, -ae, -a
CI.
cc.
300.
ccc.
400.
500.
quadringentl
quadringentensimus
quingente nsimus sexcente nsimus
10,
cccc.
or D.
DC.
septingenti
octingenti
septingentensimus
DCC.
octingentensimus
DCCC.
nongenti
mille
nongentensimus
millensimus
DCCCC.
Clo,
or M.
100.
5000.
10,000.
100,000.
CCIOO.
ccciooo.
-ensimus
n:
as,
vie e-
For the
inflection of
unus, see
is
83.
It often
;
of same or only.
The
plural
numeral, to agree with a plural noun of a singular meaning : as, una castra, one camp (cf. 95. b). The plural occurs also in the phrase uni et alter!, one party and
the other (the ones
b.
and the others). Duo, 1 two, and ambo, both, are thus declined NOM.
94, 95.]
Numerals.
are rare, duodgvlgintl,
.
6l
un
duodequadraginta,
to 1000, are o-stems,
undgceu-
tum,
ii.
ninety-nine.
The hundreds, up
bonus.
and are
regularly declined
e. Mille, a thousand, is in the singular an indeclinable adjective. In the plural (milia or millia, thousands) , it is used as a neuter noun,
with a genitive plural. Thus, cum mille hominibus, with a thousand men ; but cum duobus milibus hominum, with two thousand Men. 1
NOTE. The singular mille is sometimes found as a noun in the nominative and accusative: as, mille hominum mlsit; but in the other cases only in connection with the same case of milia: as, cum octo milibus peditum mille equitum, with eight thousand foot and a thousand horse.
f.
The
like
bonus.
Distributives.
These answer
to the interrogative
or at a
as,
slngulT,
one by one.
8.
octSnl den! or
centem
2.
'tiiTHitivo-and-two.
duodevlcem
19.
3.
term, trim
noveni
dem
or
4.
5.
quaterm
quinl sen!
undevlcenl
20. vlceni 21. vicenl slnguli, etc.
30. trice nl
400.
quadringem
6.
7. 8.
septenl octoni
40.
50.
quadragenl
800. octingeni
9.
noveni
denl
10.
60.
qulnquagem sexagem
11.
12. 13.
dena milia
90.
nonagem
etc.
Or, in poetry,
cum
62
b.
Etymology: Numerals.
Instead of Cardinals, to express simple number,
:
95-97.
when a nolm is meaning as, bina castra, two camps (duo castra would mean two forts}. But the plural um is used (instead of singuli), to signify one (see 94. a), and trim (not term) for. three.
plural in form but singular in
c. In multiplication: as, bis bina, twice two] ter septenis diebus, in thrice seven days. d. By the poets instead of cardinal numbers, particularly where pairs
bina
hastilia,
in a set).
Numeral Adverbs.
the
96. The Numeral Adverbs answer (quoties), how many times, how often.
1.
question
quotiens
semel, once.
ter, thrice.
12.
duodeciens
40. quadragiens
50.
2. bis, twice.
3.
quinquagiens
quaterdeciens
60. sexagiens
70. septuagiens
4.
5.
quater
qumquiens
(-es)
16. 17.
qulndeciens sedeciens
80. octogiens
6.
7.
sexiens (-es)
septiens (-es) octiens
8.
19.
undeviciens
200. ducentiens
9.
noviens
deciens
10.
semel
et viciens, etc.
n. undeciens
:
30. triciens
NOTE. They are used, in combination with mille, to express the higher numbers as, ter et triciens (centena milia) sestertium, 3,300,000 sesterces. Forms in -ns are often written without the n as, quinquies.
:
4.
Other Numerals.
single,
97. The
adjectives
simplex,
triplex, quadru-, quincu-, septem-, decem-, centu-, sesqui- (i^), multi-plex, manifold, are called Multiplicatives.
a.
b.
PROPORTIONALS are
:
duplus, triplus,
etc.,
triennis, lasting two or three years] bimestris, trimestris, of two or three months, biduum, biennium, a period of two days or years.
c.
d.
PARTITIVES binarius, ternarius, of two or three parts. FRACTIONS: dimidia pars (dimidium), a half; tertia ^^.r^athird.
:
NOTE.
(a pound)
e.
But fractions are regularly expressed by special words derived from as as, triens, a third; bes, two-thirds.
:
Other derivatives are: unio, unity ; binio, the two (of dice); primanus, of the first legion; primarius, of the first rank; denarius,
a
sum
of 10 asses;
binus
98.]
63
CHAPTER V.
Pronouns.
more
primitive form
Personal Pronouns.
of the first person are ego,
/,
nos,
we
of
vos,/
or you.
64
b.
Etymology : Pronouns.
The
:
98, 99.
reflexive
pronoun of the Third Person has a special form used same for both singular and plural. It is thus
se
(seise"),
3.
Possessive Pronouns.
:
The Possessive pronouns are, for the first person meus, my, noster, our; for the second person: tuus, thy, your, voster, vester, /0#r; for the third person suus, his, her, their. These are declined like But first and second declensions (see the of 81, 82). adjectives meus has regularly mi (rarely meus) in the vocative singular mascu:
line.
Suus is only reflexive, referring to the subject. For a possessive NOTE. pronoun of the third person not referring to the subject, the genitive of a demonstrative must be used. Thus, patrem suum occidit, he killed his (own) father ; but patrem eius occidit, he killed his (somebody else's) father.
99. In the meaning and use of the Personal, Reflexive, and Possessive pronouns it is to be observed that
a.
To
nouns must be used, not the genitive of the personal or reflexive Thus, my father is pater meus, never pater pronouns (cf. 197. a). mel. b. The forms nostrum, vostrum, etc., are wedpart&tvefy: as,
so
The forms
of the genitive of the personal pronouns are really the mel, tul, sul, nostri, vostri, gen. sing, neuter So in early and later gen. plu. masc. or neuter contracted.
: :
The
objectively (see
as,
memor sis nostri, be mindful of us (me), me" tui pudet, I am ashamed ofyou.
99, 10O.]
Demonstrative Pronouns.
65
(/.
The
s6 or alter
alterum
as,
alter alterius
the other).
ova
among them-
e. The preposition cum, with, is joined enclitically with the ablative of the personal and reflexive pronouns as, tecum loquitur, he talks
:
with you.
f.
To
the
personal
and
sessive)
to
all
(and sometimes to the posare joined for emphasis: -met -te to tu (tute, also tutimet) -pte to
reflexive
enclitics
;
and
in
early
Latin
to
the
vosmetipsos proditis, you betray your own very suopte pondere, by its own weight.
selves.
4.
Demonstrative Pronouns.
that
are hie, this; is, ille, iste, with the Intensive ipse, self, and Idem, samel a. Ille is a later form of ollus (olle), which is sometimes used
;
in
-i,
-ae,
-I,
occurs
in ille
and
Iste
and
c.
ille is
Ipse
in early writers in the form ste, etc., syllable ; and the first syllable of ipse very often used as short in early poetry. is compounded of is and -pse (for -pte, from the same root
is
sometimes found
first
as potis)
occurs.
(cf.
declined, as in
99-/), meaning self. The former part was originally reapse (for re eapse), in fact. An old form ipsus
Idem
1
is
These demonstratives are combinations of O- and i-stems, which are not Hie is a compound of the stem ho- with the demonstraappears ir full in early Latin (nice), and when followed by the enclitic -ne (hicine). In most of the cases -ce is shortened to -C, and in many lost; but it is often appended for emphasis to forms that do not regularly retain rt In early Latin -C alone is retained in some of these (horunc). (as hdiusce). Hie and iste are sometimes found with the same enclitic: illic. illaec, illuc;
:
101. p. 67).
66
Etymology: Pronouns.
101.
From their signifias Adjectives, or alone as Pronouns. a vocative. have They cannot cation they (except ipse)
are thus declined
:
101, 102.]
Tile
Demonstrative Pronouns.
-ce.
67
Thus
N.
:
Sing.
N.
M.
istic
F.
NOM.
Acc. ABL.
Plur.
N.,
istaec
istac
illoc
istoc
istoc
ACC.
illaec
istaec
a. For the dative and ablative plural of hie the old form hibus is sometimes found haec occurs (rarely) for hae. b. The normal forms ill!, isti (gen.), and illae, istae (dat), are found also the nominative plural istaece, illaece (for istae, illae). c. The plural forms T, is, idem, isdem, are often written ii, iis, etc. Obsolete forms are eae (dat. for el), and eabus or Ibus (dat. plur. For el are found also Si and el. for Is).
; ;
d.
By composition
eccum,
gllas
;
ellos,
etc.,
are used as indeclinable adjectives, equivalent to talis, such: as, res giusmodi, such a thing (a thing of that sort : compare 215).
it
is
to
be
near the speaker (in time, place, thought, hence called the demonstrative of the It is sometimes used of the speaker himself; sometimes first person. for "the latter" of two persons or things mentioned in speech or writa.
is
Hie
used of what
is
It is
ing; more rarely for "the former," when that, though more remote on the written page, is nearer the speaker in time, place, or thought. b. Ille is used of what is remote (in time, etc.) ; and is hence called the demonstrative of the third person. It is sometimes used to mean
of what
" the former" also (usually following its noun) (see under hie, a} is famous or well-known; often (especially the neuter illud) to mean " the following."
;
1 The intensive -ce is also found in numerous combinations as, httiusce, hunce, horunce, harunce, h6sce, hisce (cf. n., p. 65), illlusce, Isce also with the interrogative -ne, in hocine, hoscine. istflcine, illlcine, etc. The intensive -pse is found in the forms eapse (nom.), eumpse, eampse, eopae, eapse (abl.).
:
;
68
c.
Etymology: Pronouns.
Iste
is
102-104.
:
used of what
is
hence called the demonoften in allusion to the person addressed, It especially refers to one's opponent (in strative of the second person.
court, etc.), and frequently implies a kind of contempt. d. Is is a weaker demonstrative than the others and does not denote
any special object, but refers to one just mentioned, or to be afterwards explained by a relative. It is used oftener than the others as a personal pronoun (see 98. I. a) and is often merely a correlative to the relative quT as, eum quern, one whom ; eum cSnsulem qul non dubitet
;
:
(Cic.),
e.
hesitate.
Ipse may be used with a personal pronoun of either person, as nos ipsi (nosmetipsi), we ourselves ; or independently (the verb containing the pronoun, or the context implying it), as ipsi adestis, j0# are yourselves present i or with a noun, as ipsi fontes (Virg.), the very
fountains.
NOTE. In English, the pronouns himself, etc., are used both intensively (as, he will come himself} and reflexively (as, he will kill himself} in Latin the former
:
the
latter,
by se or sese.
is are used to point in either direction, /. The pronouns Me, ille, and back to something just mentioned or forward to something about to be mentioned. The neuter forms are especially used to refer to a clause, animum videre phrase, or idea as, est illud quidem vel maximum
:
(Tuscul.
i.
Relative Pronouns.
1O3. The
clined
:
relative
pronoun
qul,
who, which,
PLURAL.
is
thus de-
SINGULAR.
quae
cuius cui
quod
cuius
cui
qui
quae
quibus quas quibus
quae
quibus quae quibus
quam
qua
quod
quo
who?
quae
cuius cui
quern
quam
qua
quid (quod)
quo
quo
104. J
AY/<///7v
Plural
and
Interrogative Pronouns.
that of the Relative.
105. d).
69
The
is rare
is
the
same as
The
singular quis
as an indefinite (see
the
$
NOTE. The Relative, Interrogative, and Indefinite Pronouns are originally of same Stem, and the forms for the most part are the same (compare 103 with The interrogative sense is 104). The stem has two forms, quo- and qui-.i
quae. quid, substantive, and vocat ? who calls ? quid videa ? ^qui, quae quod, adjective : as, quis ""*~-* ? what man- calls f ^auod wfat do yon sec ? gnT hnpin templum luhat temple do you see?
interrogative
f
CASE-FORMS. and
a.
The
relative has
The
indefinite
have
fluis.
NOTE.
is
But qul
is
and quis
:
common as an adjective, especially with words denoting a person as, qui nominat me? who calls my name? quis dies fuit? what day was it? quis homo? what man? but often qul homo? whatsortofa man? nescio qul sis,
very
are.
and dative are quoius, quoi. used for the ablative of both numbers and all genders but especially as an adverb (how, by which way, in any way), and in the combination quicum, with whom, as an interrogative or an Old forms
for the genitive
is
c.
indefinite relative.
d.
The
e.
dative
nominative plural ques (stem qui-) is found in early Latin. and ablative quis (stem quo-) is old, but not infrequent. The preposition cum is joined enclitically to all forms of the
pronouns
99. e)
as,
quocum,
qui-
cum, quibuscum.
NOTE.
(Juv. 4. 9).
But occasionally
cum precedes as
cum quo
f.
The The
accusative form
is
used only as a
adjective uter is used as an interrogative and indefinite reladeclined as an adjective of three terminations (see 83).
NOTE.
This word
is
cf.
intra
and Greek
in various
com-
From qui-
quae
made
are formed quis, quid, quern, quibus, qul (abl.) while qui, (nom.), are probably lengtlicniul forms of qu6-, qua- (see $ 32, decl. i), by the addition of the demonstrative particle i.
;
/O
a.
Etymology : Pronouns.
The adverb -cumqne (-cunque)
makes an
indefinite relative,
:
[
to
105.
the
(cf.
quisque) added
is
relative
which
word
as,
ever; cuiuscunque,
same meaning, may be used with any relative as, qualiscumque, cf whatever sort; quandocumque (also rarely quandoque), whenever; ubicumque, wherever. b. The interrogative form doubled makes an indefinite relative as, quisquis, whoever (so utut, however, ubiubi, wherever}. Of quisThis
suffix,
NOTE.
with the
is
wanting
in classic use
NOM.
Acc. ABL.
Plur. NOM.
D.,
quisquis (quiqui)
quemquem
quoquo
quiqui
quaqua
quoquo
ABL. quibusquibus
is
NOTE.
This compound
case-form
quoquS. The
quamquam
although (strictly however). Quiqui form. The grammarians give also a regular genitive and dative. is used like a genitive, but is probably locative.
c.
forms quisquis, quicquid, and used only as a conjunction, meaning (nom. sing.) is an early and quaqua a late
CuicuimodJ
Indefinite
quispiam, any
all.
Of
are the following: quidam, a, a certain; quivis, quilibet, any you please; quisquam, any at these the former part is declined like quis and qui, but they
compounds
all
have both
d.
The
quod (adjective) and quid (substantive) in the neuter. indefinite quis, otherwise rare, is found in the compounds
aliquis, some one, and the combinations si quis, if any ; lie quis, lest any, that none; ecquis, num quis, whether any, and a few others. These are declined like quis, but have generally qua instead of
quae, except in the nominative plural feminine. The forms aliquae, ecquae, nominative singular feminine, occur rarely.
NOTE.
instead of
if
The compounds quispiam, aliquis, and quisquam are often used quis with si, ne, and num, and are rather more emphatic, as si quis,
if
some
one, si
quisquam,
if
any one
NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.
aliquid (aliquod)
alicui
aliquem
aliquo
aliquam
aliqua
105,106.]
Plnr.
Conrln fives.
/I
NOM.
GEN. DAT. Acc. ABL.
aliqul
aliquae
aliqua
aliquorum
aliquos
in
aliquarum
aliquibus aliquas aliquibus
aliquorum
aliqua
The forms
-quid, substantive
as,
those in -quis and aliquod bonum, some good thing; but aliquid
;
of good).
all-, old
stem of alius
que added to the interrogative gives a uniquisque, every one, uterque, either of two, or both. In this combination quis is regularly declined. In the compound unusquisque, every single one, both parts are
versal
:
The
as,
declined,
and they are sometimes separated by other words. the signification how many, pray ? often
relative
in a
f.
g.
The
(-a,
cuius
and interrogative have rarely a possessive adjective patrial cuias (cuiat-), of what country.
are derivative adjectives
from the same stem as the interrogative. They are used as interrogative or relative, corresponding to the demonstratives tantus, talis (106).
//. Quisquam, with ullus, any, unquam, ever, usquam, anywhere, are chiefly used in negative sentences, or where there is an implied negative, as in interrogative or conditional sentences, or after quam,
than] sine, without] vix, scarcely: as, necquisquam ex agmine tanto, and nobody from that great throng] si quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any one is timorous, I am the man ; sine ullo domino,
without any master]
an quisquam usquam gentium est aequg miser? why I is there anybody anywhere in the world so wretched? /. Quisiiam is emphatic: pray, who? ecquis and iiumquis are compounded from the indefinite particle en and the interrogative num they mean not who, but any in a question: as, ecquis iios videt? does
;
any one
see us ?
num
.-
Correlatives.
lOtt. Many pronouns, pronominal adjectives, and adverbs have corresponding demonstrativet relative, interrogSuch parallel forms are called ative, and indefinite forms.
CORRELATIVES.
They
are
shown
in
Etymology: Pronouns.
DEMONSTR.
,
106. 107.
1NDEF.
RELATIVE.
1NTEKKOG.
1NDEF, RELATIVE.
that
q\i\,who
quoties ?
(quotiescumque)
108-10.
Inflection
of the Verb:
Voice,
<><></,
Tense.
73
CHAITKR VI.
I.
Verbs.
1O8. The inflection of the Verb denotes Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person.
a.
b,
The VOICES
~Tfie
are two Active and Passive. MnniTs arg foiirT'lr^jriV"*'- Subjunctive, Imperative, and^
:
c.
The TENSES
1.
For continue.^
2. Jor completed action, Perfect, Pluperfect, J There are separate terminations PERSON __ - andNuM.BER. rgt CA both in each of the three PERSONS, f ^ndi and I*"***,
d.
--
^^^
2.
for
the
singular
and
in the plural.
109. The following Noun and Adjective forms are also included in the inflection of the Latin Verb
a.
Four PARTICIPLES,
viz.
Active: the Present and Future Participles. Passive : the Perfect Participle and the Gerundive. 8
b.
The GERUND
this
is
in
sion, used only in the oblique cases of the singular. corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive (see 114. note).
c.
The SUPINE:
see
3.
71.
a and
114. b.
Defective Forms.
110. Special forms for some of the tenses are wanting verb
:
The Infinitive is strictly a case of an abstract noun, expressing the action of but it plays so important a part in verbal construction, that it the verb (p. I2O./) is properly treated as a part of the verb. 2 The Participles are Adjectives in inflection and meaning (see \ 25. e) but have the power of Verbs in construction and in distinguishing time. 8 The Gerundive is also used as an adjective, indicating necessity or duty (see In late use it became a Future Tussive Participle. 113. d).
; t
74
Etymology:
Verbs.
[110-12.
a. The Subjunctive mood wants the Future and the Future Perfect. In most constructions, these tenses are supplied without ambiguity by for the Present (or Imperfect) and the Perfect (or Pluperfect)
;
referred
to
future
time.
In
some constructions
the want
is
the proper tense of the verb signifying TO BE as, cum secuturus he will since sit, follow. b. In the Passive voice in all moods the tenses of completed action (Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect) are supplied by the Perfect
Participle with the present, imperfect,
and
TO BE
c.
as,
occlsus
eat, he
was
killed.
In the Imperative mood, the only tenses are the Present and the
Future.
d. In the Infinitive mood the Present (active and passive) and the Future in the active Perfect (active) only are formed by inflection. voice is formed by the Future Participle with the infinitive signifying
TO BE: as, amaturus esse, to be going to love; in the passive, by the Former Supine with iri (infin. pass, of ire, to go): as, amatum For the Perfect passive, see b above. iri, to be about to be loved.
II.
Voices.
111. The Active and Passive Voices in Latin generally correspond to the active and passive in English; but
a. The passive voice often has a Reflexive meaning as, induitur vestem, he puts on his (own) clothes] Turnus vertitur, Turnus turns
:
(himself).
NOTE. This use corresponds very nearly to the Greek Middle voice, and doubtless a survival of the original meaning of the passive ( 118. note).
is
b. Many verbs are used only in the passive form, but with an active or reflexive meaning. These are called DEPONENTS (deponentia), i.e., verbs which have laid aside (deponere) the active form and the passive
meaning (see
135).
2.
Moods.
The
:
Indicative
Mood
is
gations
in
as,
am
112.]
b.
Moods.
75
idiomatic uses, as in commands, and various dependent clauses. It is fmiw.-ntly translated by the English Indicative; sometimes by means of the auxiliaries may, might, would, should] sometimes by the (rare) Subjunctive sometimes by the Infinitive and often by the Imperative, especially in prohibiconditions,
; ;
tions.
Thus
let its
eainus,
go.
cum
venisset,
when he had
come.
ut videam, I am here to see (that I may see). tu ne quaesieris, do not tJiou inquire. nemo est qul ita existimet, there is no one who thinks
adsum
so.
beatus sis, may you be blessed. nS abeat, let him not depart.
quid morer, why should I delay ? sunt qui putent, there are some who think. imperat ut scribam, he orders me to write (that I write). nescio quid scribam, I know not what to write. licet eas>,you may go (it is permitted that you go). cave cadas, dorft fall. vereor ne eat, Ifear he will go. vereor ut eat, Ifear he will not go. si moneam audiat (pres.), if I should warn, he would hear. si vocarem audiret (imperf.), if I were (now) calling, he would
Jiear.
quae
cum
NOTE. The Latin Subjunctive is -often translated, formally, by means of the English auxiliaries may, might, could, would, etc., to distinguish it from the Indicative, because the English has no subjunctive in general use. But the Latin uses the subjunctive in many cases where we use the indicative; and we use a colorless auxiliary in many cases where the Latin employs a separate verb with more definite
Thus, / may write is often not scribam (subj.), but licet mihi / would write is scribam, scribere / can write is possum scribere scriberem, or scribere velim (vellem) I should write, (//etc.), scriberem
meaning.
;
; ;
(si)
c.
or (implying duty)
is
oportet
me
scribere.
The IMPERATIVE
place
is
but
266, 269). by the Subjunctive ( used chiefly as an indeclinable noun, as the In special con270, 271. d). subject or object of another verb ( structions it takes the place of the Indicative, and may be translated by
its
often supplied
is
d.
The INFINITIVE
that
mood
in
335
ff.).
NOTE.
J6
Etymology : Verbs.
3.
113.
Participles.
used as
The Present
participle (ending in -ns) has commonly the same participle in -ING: as, vocans, calling*,
(For its inflection^ see egens, legentes, reading. 85). b. i The Future participle (ending in -urus) is oftenest used to express what is likely or about to happen.
NOTE.
city is
When
as,
about to fall ;
It is
mansurus eram,
more
to
/ was going
to stay.
:
2.
as, purpose (see 293. ) hear (about to hear). The Perfect participle (ending in -tus, -sus) has two uses: It is sometimes equivalent to the English Perfect Passive parti-
also used,
rarely, to express
ciple in -ED: as, tectus, sheltered; acceptus, accepted ; ictus, having been struck ; and often has simply an adjective meaning: as, acceptus,
acceptable.
2.
It is also
no.
b~)
as,
vocatus
NOTE.
est, he
was
is
There
no
perfect participle of deponents, however, is generally sectltus, having followed. In the case of other verbs
is
some
different construction
used
for these
;
missing participles:
;
as,
(when he
cavalry struck
had come)
equitatu praemisso, having sent forward the cavalry (the d.um verberatur, while he is (being) having been sent forward)
(=
d. i. The Gerundive (ending in -ndus) is often used as an adjective implying obligation or necessity (ought or must} as, audiendus est, he must be heard.
:
NOTE.
When
TO BE
Periphrastic conjugation
2.
to
commonly has
its
the
same meanis
ing as the
Gerund
(cf.
14. a},
though
construction
different.
295
ff.)
;
e. The Participles may all be used as simple and the adjectives present and perfect participles are sometimes compared as adjectives
:
as,
amans, amantior, more fond; dilectus, dilectissimus, dearest. f. The Present and Perfect participles are (like adjectives) often
in the plural
(
188)
as,
regentes, rulers
113-15.]
Gerund
(Did Supine ;
Tenses.
77
is often used prcdicatively to indig. As an adjective, the participle cate some special circumstance or situation: as, moriturl vos salutS-
mus, we
at the point
of death (about
4.
Gerund and Supine. 114. The Gerund and Supine are used as follows:
a.
It
is
The GERUND
is,
a verbal noun, corresponding in meaning to the English verbal noun in -ING ( 295) as, loquendl causa, for the sake of speaking.
:
Gerund is found only in the oblique cases. A corresponding nominative is supplied by the Infinitive: thus, scribere est utile, writing (to write) is useful ; but, ars scribendi, the art of writing.
NOTE.
b.
The SUPINE
is
in
71. 0),
found only in the accusative ending in -turn, -sum and the ablative (or These are sometimes called dative, probably both) ending in -tu, -su. the Former and the Latter Supine. The Former is used after verbs and
the Latter after adjectives
1.
(
302, 303)
as,
2.
Tenses.
classes, viz.
:
Of continued action.
1.
2.
3.
FUTURE
Of completed action
4.
5.
6.
PERFECT: scrips!, I have written, I wrote. PLUPERFECT: scripseram, / had written. FUTURE PERFECT: scripsero, f shall have
a.
written.
a.
The
tenses of the Indicative have, in general, the same meaning but are in some cases dis;
Thus
is
as,
cum venero
quid habebo dabo, if I have (shall have) any thing. I will give. scrlbam, when I come (shall have come), I will write.
78
2.
Etymology : Verbs.
The Present and Imperfect
115, 116.
as,
iam diu aegroto, I have long been (and still am) sick. iam diu aegrotabam, I had long been (and still was) sick.
NOTE.
Pluperfect, that I
Here the Perfect, aegrotavi, would imply was well at the past time designated.
that I
am now
well;
b. The Imperfect is used to describe in past time a continued action or a condition of things : as, scribebat, he was writing*, ardebat, it
separate uses,
is
Indefinite).
Perfect Definite represents the action of the verb as completed in present time, and corresponds to the English (present- or compound-) perfect: as, scrips!, I have written.
2. The Perfect Historical narrates a simple act or state in past time without representing it as in progress or continuing. It corresponds to the English past or preterite and the Greek aorist as, scripsit, he
:
The
wrote ; arsit,
it
blazed up.
b.
tenses of the Subjunctive Mood are chiefly used in dependent clauses, following the rule for the Sequence of Tenses (see 286) but
d.
The
266
if.,
283, 308).
-PERSONAL ENDINGS.
116. Verbs have regular terminations 1 for each of the three Persons, both singular and plural, active and passive.
These are:
Sing.
1.
ACTIVE.
(-6 or-i):
PASSIVE.
-r
:
-m
:
:
2. -s 3. -t
amo-r,
:
I am
loved.
-ris
-tur
ama-tur, he
PASSIVE.
is loved.
PlUF.
1.
ACTIVE.
:
-muB
:
ama-muSj'ze/tf /<?z/.
-mur
-ntur
ama-mur, we are
ama-miiii,
:
loved.
2. -tis
3.
-nt:
-mini:
1 These terminations are fragments of old Pronouns, whose signification is thus added to that of the verb-stem (compare p. 19, note i). But the ending -mini in the second person plural of the passive is a remnant of the participial form found in the Greek -fifvos, and has supplanted the proper form, which does not appear in Latin. It is thought by some scholars that -nt has a similar origin.
116-18.]
NOTE.
Fotws of
the
Verb.
79
The present indicative of the active voice has lost the -m, and ends This modified stem-vowel -6 except in sum and inquam ( 119, 144. b). 5 ,tands for blended in sound with a preceding vowel (amo = fama-m). The
in the
and
the future in
-b5 have
-m.
:
a.
The
SING.
2.
PLUR.
2. 3.
-stis
amav-i-stis,
:
you
loved.
-erunt or -6re
amav-grunt
(^-Sre),
they loved.
b.
The Imperative
:
Sing.
2.
2.
ACTIVE.
-to
him
love,
-tor
ama-tor,
let
him
be loved.
Plur.
2.
-te
-mini
ama-mini, be ye loved.
ama-ntor,
let
3.
-nto
xma.-r&Q.letthemlove. -ntor
them be
loved.
21).
This
is
2.
The ENDING,
b.
consisting of
a. the signs of
mood and
tense.
116).
the verb voca-vi-t, he called, the root is VOC, modified into the verb-stem voca-, which by the addition of the tense sign -ul (-vl) becomes the perfect tense vocavl; and to this is added the personal ending (-t) of the third person singular.
I.
NOTE
Thus
These endings are of various origin. In none of them, however, mood sign strictly inserted between the root and the personal terminations. All verb-forms are either inherited from a time when the elements were still significant and could still be compounded, or are imitations of such inherited
2. is
NOTE
the tense or
forms.
18.
for
The Verb-endings, as they are formed by the signs mood and tense combined with personal endings, are
8o
118, 119.
Forms
<>f
re
the
l'<
Verb.
8l
I'll til
fj<-rt
Sirig:
I.
-er-o
-eri-s
er5
-tus(-ta,
2.
eris
-turn)
3. -eri-t
lerit
f
Plnr.
i.
-eri-mus
-eri-tis
erimus
erunt
2. 3.
'"L'Heritis
-ta)
I
-eri-nt
IMPERATIVE.
I 'resent.
Sing.
2.
Plur.
-to
2.
-te
Sing.
2.
-re
Plur.
2.
-mini
rut ure.
2.
2.
-tote
2. 3.
-tor
-tor
2.
3.
-to
3.
-nto
3.
-ntor
For convenience a
verb
is
table of the
Noun and
here added.
INFINITIVES.
Prcs. Perf.
i.n.iv.-ri; in.
-i
Fut.
-turns
(-a,
-um) esse
PARTICIPLES.
Pres.
J'crf.
-ns, -ntis
Fnt.
-turus,
-a,
-um
Oer.
-ndus,
-a,
-uin
GERUND.
-ndi, -ndo,
SUPINE.
-turn, -tu
-ndum, -ndo
The i of the Perfect, which in early Latin is always long except before NOTE. -mus, is of doubtful origin. It is probably in all cases a part of the stem, as it is
dedi, stetl, where it takes the place of the vowel a. In the suffixes -vi (of unorigin) and -si (akin to those of Greek t5e/|a and Skr. adikshani) and in the perfects of consonant-roots, it seems to be, but probably is not, a mere connecting vowel. The S before -tl and -tis is also anomalous. Most scholars regard it as a remnant of es; but it may be, like the personal endings, of pronominal origin. The Passive is a middle (or reflexive) form peculiar to Latin and Celtic, and of
in
known
uncertain origin.
119. The verb sum, be, is both irregular and defective, having no gerund or supine, and no participle but the
Future.
Its
conjugation
is
its
important v
82
Etymology :
PRINCIPAL PARTS
INDICATIVE.
Present.
:
Verbs.
Infin. esse, Perf. fui,
Pres.
sum,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Sing.
i.
sum, I am.
119, 120.]
83
1.
rinr.
I.
2.
3.
2.
3.
fuerimus,w^ shall'have been. iueritis, you ivill have been. i-aeiint, they will have been.
este, &?/<?. eat.ote, ye shall
IMPERATIVE.
I'rwiit.
rntnr<-.
.s/;/^. 2.
Plitr. 2.
be.
2.
2.
be.
3.
3.
INFINITIVE.
rri'si-nt.
esse, /0
&?.
Perfect,
ftiisse, /# //tf?^
^<?.
/V>
^ about to be.
PARTICIPLE.
i'it
t
nre.
futurus,
-a,
-um, about
to be.
a. The present participle, which should be fsens (compare Sanskrit sant), appears in that form in ab-sens, prae-sens and as ens (comThe simple form ens is sometimes found in late pare o>v) in pot-ens. or philosophical Latin as a participle or abstract noun, in the forms 6ns, being ; entia, things which are. Indicative: Future, escit, escunt (strictly an b. RARE FORMS.
;
Subjunctive
fuant
Perfect,
fuvimus
etc.,
Pluperfect, fuvisset.
etc.,
NOTE.
of meaning.
For essem,
forem, fores,
which
ER
(see
12O. The verb sum appears in numerous compounds, will be treated under Irregular Verbs ( 137).
The
root of the verb
NOTE.
\
sum
is
is
ES,
which
in the imperfect
S.
is
changed
to
ii. a. i),
and
in
many
cases
shortened to
as found in several languages more or less closely " the following table, the Indo-European" being the primitive or theoretic form, and the form syam corresponding to the Latin sim (siem)
:
INDO-EUROPEAN-
SANSKRIT.
GREEK.
(opt.)
LATIN.
LITHUANIAN.
es-mi
es-si
es-ti
as-mi
as-i
as-ti
syam
syas
syat
ew"
iffri
s-um
es
es-t
es-mi
es-i
es-ti
tfffffi
s-masi
S-tasi
s-mas
s-tha
s-anti
syama
syata
syus
^a^4v fart
^vrf1
s-umus
es-tis
es-me
es-te
es-ti
8-anti
s-unt
The
Perfect
t<pv
and
Old form.
84
Etymology :
Verbs.
121, 122
121. The parts of the Latin verb may be formed upon three different stems (partly real and partly supposed),
called the Present, the Perfect,
(see
ff.).
The
with the Gerund and Gerundive, are formed upon the and collectively are called the Present System.
b.
PRESENT STEM,
the
The tenses of completed action in the active voice are formed upon PERFECT STEM, and are called the Perfect System. c. The Perfect and Future Participles and the Supine are formed
called the Supine System.
Since Latin verbs are commonly spoken of under the form of their present tense, the other parts are usually said to be derived from this. It is only in the verbs formed later in the language that this is true. Thus armavi, I have armed, does come from armo, / arm; but Sivi, I have allowed, does not come from sino, / allow; but both sin5 and slvi come from a common source, the
I.
NOTE
by different processes. The Influence of Analogy. Many Latin verbs were not inherited from the parent speech, but formed during the separate existence of the language. The forms of these verbs are not strictly compounds of root or stem and ending, but are imitations of verbs already existing in Latin. For it is only by analogy that elements (parts of words) not complete and significant in themselves can be used to form new A'ords in a developed language. When stems are not felt as significant, they cannot be used for composition. Thus a form like fugabat could be made only from a complete word fuga, or from some form in which fuga seemed to be a complete word and must be regarded, not as a compound of stem and auxiliary, fuga- + bat (like ara- + bat), but as an imitation of forms like arabat, which Simple Perfects like dedl and compound originally were really compounds. forms like vexi have both influenced, by analogy, the production of new forms, like momordi from mordeo, mansl from maneo.
22, 123, 124),
root (see
NOTE
2.
Latin verbs are classed as Regular or Irregular according as they do or do not follow the inflection of the Four
Conjugations.
in
Stems, ending respectively in a-, e-, 6-, I-. With this difference of stem most of the other differences of conjugation
coincide.
122. J
Regular
Verbs.
85
a. Verbs are accordingly classed in Four Regular Conjugations, distinguished by the stem-vowel which appears before -re in the Present Infinitive Active.
b.
its
conjugation
throughout, are
2. 3.
4.
The Present Indicative showing the present stem and The Present Infinitive the conjugation. The Perfect Indicative, showing the perfect stem. The Supine (or the Perfect Participle), showing the supine
\ >
stem.
c.
The
First
amo, amare, amavi, amatum, amor, amari, amatus. Present- and Verb-stem ama-, Perfect-stem amav-, SupineActive,
love.
Passive,
stem
am at-.
blot out.
Second
Third: tego, tegSre, texi, tectum, cover. Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus.
Fourth
in the perfect
Second conjugation, however, the characteristic e- rarely appears and supine: the type of this conjugation is, therefore
Second: moiieo, monere, monui, monitum, warn. Passive, moneor, nioneri, monitus.
d.
In
many
or
more
as,
2, 3,
2. 3.
domo, domare, domui, domitum, subdue. maneo, manere, mansi, mansum. remain.
peto, petgre, petivl, petitum, seek. vincio, vincire, vinxi, vinctum, bind.
to the conjugation to
4,
3,
4.
which the
first
or Present-
86
Etymology :
1.
Verbs.
Present Stem.
NOTE. The parent speech from which Latin comes possessed verbs with present stems of three different kinds. These verbs were formed
as follows
First
: :
personal endings. These noun-stems had been formed from roots by the addition of various
:
From roots, by adding the personal Second From noun-stems, by adding the
endings.
-yami,
and stems, by adding a common suffix (probably -yomi) which already contained the personal endings. Verbs of all these forms were inherited by the Latin. Of the first class few survive, and these are counted as irregular, except such as have been forced into some one of the four conjugations. Examples are est,
Third
:
From
roots
etc., later
from edo
Of
das, from do (dare) flemus, from fleo. In these the verb-stem the second class a large number remain.
;
fert,
from fero
(I-)
This
Besides
is
this, the
Verbs of this form are often called primitive verbs, often preserved. because the language lost the power of making new forms of this type They make up the third conjugation. Exexcept in a few cases. amples are: fero (stem feroe-) for bher-o-mi (cf. fert in the first
for star-no-mas plectunt (stem So pello (stem pelloe-) for pel-yo-mi. plectoe-) disco (stem discoe-) for di(c)sco-mi. This last form became the 167. a). type for a large number of verbs called inceptive (see
class)
Of
the third class, those verbs in which any vowel (except u) came (-yami) suffered contraction so as to present
a-, e-, I-, at the
first,
second, and fourth conjugations respectively. In imitation of these long vowel-stems numerous verbs were formed by the
Romans
regular
mode
forgotten)
suffix -ize
verbs, just as in English the borrowed can be added to adjectives to make a verb as, modernize. Those verbs of the third class in which a consonant or u came in
;
-yami
Such
verbs
fell
form of it,
for
partly into the third conjugation, giving rise to an irregular and partly into the fourth, and some have forms of both.
Examples are: (con)spicio, -spicere, forspek-yomi; veniS, venire, (g)ven-yomi cupio, cupere, but cupivi orior, oritur, but oriri. But pluo, pluere, for plu-yomi and hence, by analogy, acuo, acuere.
; ;
123.
1
Present Sfrw.
in all
87
.is
Hut
those cases
many
phonetic changes have been at work to produce irregularitihas arisen the traditional system which may be practically represented
as follows
:
is
in all
a. In the First, Second, and Fourth conjugations, by adding a long vowel (a-, -, I-) to the root, whose vowel is sometimes changed: as, voca-re (voc), mone-re (MEN, cf. meminl), sopi-re (SOP).
NOTE.
all really
as, temne-re (TEM), plect-6 phonetic representative of original i) (PLEC), cresce-re (CRE), pell-o (for pel-io, PEL), mitt-6 (MIT). 2. By i, which in most forms disappears in inflection (see 126. c)
:
(FUG).
also be
The
root
may
changed
: :
2.
By lengthening the vowel as, dic-e-re (DIG), caed-e-re (CAD?). By the repetition of a part of it (reduplication') as, gT-gn-e-re
(GEN).
3.
By
inserting a nasal
(m
or n)
tang-e-re
(TAG). d. In some verbs the present stem is formed from a noun-stem irregularly treated as a root: as, statu-e-re (statu-s), aestu-a-re
(aestu-s) cf. acuo, acuere. e. A few isolated forms use the simple root as a present stem as, These are counted as irregular. fer-re, fer-t es-se vel-le, vul-t.
; :
; ;
SANSKRIT.
SANSKRIT.
i.
vach-aya-mi
vach-aya-si vach-aya-ti
voc-(a)-5
voc-a-s
2.
vah-a-mi
vah-a-si vah-a-ti
veh-o
vch-i-s
vch-i-t
3.
pag-ya-mi
pag-ya-si pa^-ya-ti
-spic-i-o
-spic-i-s
voc-a-t
-spic-i-t
vach-aya-mas
vach-aya-tha vach-aya-nti In some cases
(cf.
voc-a-mus
voc-a-tis
vah-a-mas
vah-a-tha
vah-a-nti
vch-i-mus
vch-i-tis
pag-ya-mas -spic-i-mus
pag-ya-tha
pag-ya-nti
-spic-i-tts
voc-u-nt
veh-u-nt
-spic-i-unt
there appears to be a connecting vowel not explained above; but this comes from the irregular use of a verb-stem in place of a root, as in
oritarus
ortus),
monitus
(cf.
mens, mentis).
88
f.
Etymology: Verbs.
123-125.
few have roots ending in a vowel. These generally use as stem the root without additions, but sometimes modified as, present da-mus (DA), fle-mus (stem fie-, root form unknown), sisti-mus
:
But others, as rui-mus (RU), are formed with an additional (STA). vowel according to the analogy of d.
2.
Perfect Stem.
is
formed as follows
is
(u) (see p. 120, c) voca-v-i, audi-v-i; or to the root: as, son-u-I (sona-re, root SON), mon-u-i (mone-re, MON treated as a root).
The
suffix
added
NOTE.
$ 9.
d)
as,
In a few verbs the vowel of the root is transposed and lengthened (see stra-v-1 (sterno, STAR), spre-v-i (sperno, SPAR).
suffix
b.
The
is
added
to the root:
as, carp-s-I
(CARP), tex-I
as,
NOTE. fmx-i
c.
The
(FIG, present
The root is reduplicated by prefixing the first consonant generwith 8, sometimes with the root-vowel: as, ce-cid-i (cado, CAD), ally to-tond-i (tondeo, TOND).
NOTE.
reduplication has been
In fld-I (for ffe-fld-I, find-6), scid-i (for fsci-scid-i, scindo), the lost, leaving merely the root.
is
lengthened: as, eg-i (ag-6), fug-i (ftig-i-6). used as the perfect stem as, vert-i (vert-6, solv-i used as root). SOLV (solv-6, VERT), f. Sometimes the perfect is formed from a lost or imaginary stem
e.
d.
is
as,
peti-v-i (as
if
Supine Stem.
1
is
formed by adding
t-
(or
B-)
the root, with or without i: as, cap-t-um (capio, CAP), moni-t-um (moneo, MON used as root), cas-um (for cad-t-um, CAD).
To To
the verb-stem
as,
NOTE
supine
:
i.
The
as,
2.
NOTE
The supine
(as
1
if
petl-t-um
or imaginary verb-stem
as,
p. 121, 3.
126.]
Sufinc Stem.
89
1 26. The forms of the several conjugations from which, 118, all the moods and by adding the verb endings in tenses can be made are as follows
:
a.
The
First
Conjugation
includes
:
all
verbs which
;
with a few the root to form the present stem * as, ama-re root ends in a (do, dare; for, farl; flo, flare; no, nare
stare).
1.
add 5- to whose
;
sto,
amo = fama-o), and in ame-mus. ame-s, changed 2. The perfect stem regularly adds v, the supine stem t, to the For exceptions, see present stem: as, ama-v-I, ama-t-um.
The stem-vowel
5is
is
to 6
as,
130.
b.
includes
all
mone-re
;
ends in e
neo, ne-re
re-or, re-rl).
:
1. In the present subjunctive a is added to the verb-stem as, mone-a-s, mone-a-mus (cf. 118). 2. A few verbs form the perfect stem by adding v (u), and the supine stem by adding t to the present stem as, dele-v-I, dele-t-um. But most form the perfect stem by adding v (u) to the root, and the supine stem by adding t to a weaker form of the present stem, having 1 for S For lists, see as, mon-u-i, moni-t-um. 131.
:
:
c.
includes
root
to
all
137)
add
S-
to
the
form
fse-se-re (reduplicated from SE, cf. satum). 1. The stem-vowel S- is lost before -o, becomes
u2
before the other endings of the indicative and imperative as, teg-6, in the imperfect indicative it becomes e teg-it, tegu-nt as, tege; :
bam
in the future, e
as,
teges
i 8
;
as, tega-s.
Verbs
before a, 6, u, and e
as,
capi-at, capi-unt,
as,
but lose
it
elsewhere:
cap-it (not
See
lists,
132.
and supine stems are found in this conjugaBut the perfect is never formed from the
(
121. n. i).
2
8
The present stem is thus the verb-stem. For exceptions, see \ The gerundive varies between -endus and -undus ($ 12. d). The e in capiet, once long, was afterwards shortened.
130.
90
d.
Etymology:
The Fourth Conjugation
:
Verbs.
all
126, 127.
includes
1 as, audi-re.
as, audi-v-i, supine stems regularly add v, t, to the verb-stem audi-t-um. 2 The endings of the third conjugation are added in the
third person plural of the present (indicative and imperative), in the as, imperfect and future indicative, and in the present subjunctive
:
e.
The
as,
amav-eram, amav-ero, amav-erim, amav-issem, amav-isse. g. The tenses of completed action in the Passive voice are formed by
to the perfect participle the corresponding tenses of continued action of the verb esse as, perf. amatus sum; plup. amatus eram, etc.
adding
4.
127. The following synopsis shows the forms of the verbs arranged according to the several stems. Amo, a
regular verb of the
first
conjugation,
is
taken as a type.
IMPERF.
FUT.
PERF.
j !
PLUPERF.
PUT. PERF.
IND.
amav-i
amav-erim
j
ama-re
i
amat-urus amav-isse
i
esse'
PART, ama-na
IND.
amat-urus
amat-us sum amat-us sim
SUB.
eram essem
ero
ama-ri
j
ama-tum
Ger.
iri
|
amat-us esse
PART.
ama-ndus amat-us
A
;
in i
few are formed from noun-stems, as flnl-re (from fini-s), and a few roots end but these are not distinguishable in form.
133.
138.]
Spiriat I'onns.
:
91
is a. in tenses formed upon the perfect often lost and contraction takes place. Thus, 1. Perfects in -avi, -gvi, -ovi, often contract the two vowels into 5,
amarim for amaverim as, amasse for amavisse amavissem consugrat for consugverat flgstis for flevistis nosse for novisse. So in perfects in -vi, where the v is a part of the present stem as, commorat for commoverat.
6,
6 respectively
for
amassem
;
NOTE.
The
first
amavi)
is
never con-
except before at and ss, and very rarely in the third person perfect
as,
audieram
for
audiveram
audisse
for
audivisse
audisti
for
The forms
In
many
(from sivero or siverim), are archaic. forms from the perfect stem, is, iss, sis are lost in like
if
manner when
dixisti (x
s would be repeated
;
cs)
traxe
for
traxisse
they were retained as, dixti for evasti for evasisti vixet for
:
vlxisset;
archaic
c.
erepsemus
for
erepsissemus.
to
drop the vowel- termination of the imperative, making die, due, f&c, The forms dice, fSr; but compounds in -ficio retain it, as confice. duce. face (never fere), occur in early Latin.
For the imperative of scio, the future form scito is always used and scltote usually in the plural. e. The following ancient forms are chiefly found in poetry: 1. In the fourth conjugation -Ibam, -Ib5 for -iebam, -iam (future). These forms are regular in eo, go ( 141). 2. In the present subjunctive -im as in duim, perduim (for dem,
d.
in the singular,
:
sum
retained in
their
religious formulas.
This form
is
regular in
In the perfect
-sim, -so
as,
ausim (= ausus faxim, faxo, iusso, recgpso, (= fgcero, etc.) aim). 4. In the passive infinitive -ier: as, vocarier for vocarl; agier for
agi.
-assere is found used as a future perfet 5. A form in -asso, amassis, from amo levasso, from levo impetrassere, from impetro iudicassit, from iudico.
:
92
Etymology: Verbs.
FIRST CONJUGATION. -ACTIVE VOICE.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Pres. amo,
INDICATIVE.
Present.
Infin.
amare,
Perf.
amavi.
Supine amatum.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amo, I low.
amem
ames amet
amemus
ametis
ament
Imperfect*
amabam, / loved.
amabas,^?// loved. amabat, he loved.
amarem
amares amaret
amabamus, we
amabant,
loved.
amaremus
amaretis
amarent
Future.
amabimus, we shall love. amabitis, you will love. amabunt, they will love.
Perfect.
amavi,
I loved.
amaverim
amaveris amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
loved.
amaverint
Pluperfect.
amaveram, I had loved. am averts, you had loved. amaverat, he had loved.
amaveramus, we had loved. amaveratis, you had loved. amaverant, they had loved.
amavissem
amavisses amavisset
amavissemus
amavissetis
amavissent
129. J
I'irst
Conjugation.
93
PLURAL.
'tit ii
I', ,-j'irt.
SINGULAR.
amaverimus, we shall have loved. amaveritis, you will have loved. amaverint, they will have loved.
IMPERATIVE.
i'ivs. 2.
am ate,
am ato.
amare,
to love.
to love.
GERUND.
GEN. amandi, of loving. DAT. amando,/0r loving.
SUPINE.
Former,
amatum
amatu,
to love.
129. The so-called Periphrastic conjugations are formed by combining the tenses of esse with the Future Active Participle and with the Gerundive: as,
First Periphrastic Conjugation. INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. sim amaturus sum, I am about to love. amaturus eram, / was about to love. essem amaturus ero, I shall be about to love.
Pres.
Imperf.
/>//.
Perf.
amaturus fui, I was about, etc. fuerim amaturus fueram, / had been about, etc. fuissem amaturus f uero, I shall have been about, etc. INFINITIVE Pres. amaturus esse Perf. amaturus fuisse
:
Pres.
Second Periphrastic Conjugation. amandus sum, f am to be loved. sim amandus eram, f was to be loved. essem Iwperf. /-///. amandus ero, I shall be [worthy] tobe loved. amandus fui, I was to be loved. fuerim Perf. fuissem Pluperf. amandus fueram, Iliad been, etc. //. Perf. amandus fuero, / shall have been, etc. INFINITIVE: Pres. amandus esse Perf. amandus fuisse
94
Etymology :
Verbs.
Pres.
amor,
Infin.
amari,
Perf.
amatus sum.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
amor, / am
amaris
loved.
amer
ameris
(-re)
ametur
amamur, we are
loved.
amemur
amemini amentur
Imperfect.
amarer
loved.
amareris
(-re)
amabatur, he was
loved.
amaretur
amaremur
amaremini amarentur
Future.
loved.
amabimur, we shall be loved. amabimini, you will be loved. amabuntur, they will be loved.
Perfect.
amatus sum, / was loved. amatus es, you were loved. amatus est, he was loved.
amati sumus, we were loved. amati estis, you were loved. amati sunt, they were loved.
Pluperfect.
amati sint
amatus eram, I had been loved. amatus eras, you had been loved. amatus erat, he had been loved.
amati eramus, we had been loved. amati eratis, you had been loved.
130.]
First Conjugation.
I 'at
ii
95
ri-
1'i-r/i'ct.
SINGULAR.
amatus er8, 1 shall have been loved. amati erimua, we shall have, etc. amatus eris.jw/ will have, etc. amati eritia, you will have, etc. amatus erit, he will have, etc. amati erunt, they will have, etc.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
i-'ut.
2.
amamini,
be ye loved. be loved.
3.
am at or,
he shall be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Present, amarl, to be loved,
rci'fect.
amatus
rut a re.
amatum
(amatus fore),
to be about to be loved.
PARTICIPLES. amatus, loved (beloved, or having been loved). Future (Gerundive), amandus, -a, -um, to-be-loved (lovely).
Perfect.
13O. There are about 360 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them formed directly on a noun- or adjective-stem as, armo, arm (arma, anus} caeco, to blind (caecus, blind) exsulo, be an exile
: ;
(exsul, an exile)
like
amo
The
166. a). Their conjugation is usually regular, ( of a though many only few forms are found in use. following verbs form their Perfect and Supine stems irregularly.
;
Those marked
crepo, crepui, crepit-, resound. cubo, cubul, cubit-, lie down. do, d^re, dedi, dSt-, give (DA).
kill.
subdue.
1
poto, potavi, *pot-, drink. seco, secui, sect-, 1 cut. sono, souui, sonit-, 1 sound.
sto, steti, stat- (-stit-), stand.
help.
totter.
sup.), glitter.
NOTE. Compounds ot these verbs have the following forms crepo dis-crepul or -crepcu'i. d6 circurn-, inter-, pessum-, satis-, super-, venum-do, -dedl, -dat-,
: :
gation
other
mic5
plic5
dl-micavi, -nticat-; c-micui, -micat-. re-, sub- (j^-), multi-plied, -plicavi, -plicat-; ex-plico (unfold), -J,
-iiv't
(-id'),
-catum (-ifum).
;
8t5
-stit't,
,
circum-sto, -stefi
l
(-stitl),
dl-sto,
no
perfect or supine.
96
Etymology :
Verbs.
SECOND CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, moneo, monere, monui, monitum; Passive, moneor, moneri, monitus sum.
ACTIVE.
INDIC.
PASSIVE.
131
Second Conjugation.
Future
Perfect.
monuero
monueris monuerit
monuerimus
monueritia
monuerint
monitl erunt
IMPERATIVE.
SING.
PLUR.
SING.
PLUR.
Pres.
2.
2.
monS
moneto mongtS
Fut.
3.
moneminl
monentor
INFINITIVE.
Pre*.
Per/,
monSre
Pres.
monSna
Per/,
monitua
Fut. moniturua
Qer.
monendua
SUPINE.
GERUND.
monendl,
-do,
-dum, -d5
monitum, monitQ
131. There are nearly 120 simple verbs of this conjugation, most of them denominative verbs of condition, having a corresponding noun and adjective from the same root, and an inceptive in -aco ( 167. a):
as,
caleo, be
warm ;
,
calor,
and
moneo.
weep
;
-oleo, grow.
d61eo, deneo, spin; vieo, plat; and compounds of -pleo, The remainder are :
:
The
-etum
audeo, ausus aum, dare. augeo, auxl, auct-, increase. caveo, cavi, caut-, care. cgnseo, cgnauT, cSna-, value.
cieo, civT, cit-, excite.
foveo, fovi,
fot-, cherish.
rejoice.
cling.
teach.
Etymology : Verbs.
iubeo, iussi, iuss~, order. langueo, langui, be faint. liqueo, liqui (-licui), melt. luceo, luxi, -luct-, shine. lugeo, luxi, luct-, mourn. maneo, mansi, mans-, wait. sedeo, sedi, sess-,
sit.
131,
mixt- (mist-), mix. strides, stridi, whiz. suadeo, suasi, suas-, urge. mordeo, momordl, mors-, bite. teneo (-tineo), tenui, tent-, hold. moveo, movi, mot-, move. tergeo, tersi, ters-, wipe. mulceo, mulsi, muls-, soothe. mulgeo, -si (-xi), muls- (-mulct-), tondeo, totondi, tons-, shear. milk. torqueo, torsi, tort-, twist. misceo,
-GUI,
paveo, pavi,_/fcr. pendeo, pependi, pens-, hang. prandeo, prandi, prans-, dine.
rideo, risi,
ris-,
laugh.
NOTE.
maereo,
arceo,
following have a perfect in -Ul, but have no supine. be sad) have neither perfect nor supine.
The
few (as
wardoff, egeo, need. pateo, lie open, studeo, attend to. sile5, be silent. called, be skilful, floreo, bloom. shudder, lack. horreo, careo, caneo, be white.
THIRD CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS: Active, tego, tegSre, texi, tectum; Passive, tegor, tegi, tectus sum.
ACTIVE.
INDIC.
PASSIVE.
Third
ACTIVi:.
INDIC.
99
PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
SUBJ.
TOO
Etymology:
Verbs
Verbs.
in -id.
Verbs of the third conjugation in -io have certain forms of the present stem like the fourth conjugation. They retain the i of the stem before
a, 6, u,
participle
and e, but lose it elsewhere except in the future and in the and gerund. Verbs of this class are conjugated as follows
:
PRINCIPAL PARTS: capio, capgre, cepi, captum; capior, capi, captus sum. ACTIVE. PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
132.J
'//
/ / (/
C< njngation
>
101
Verbs of the third conjugation rndinp in -i5 are the following: capio", N<>TF.. cupi6, faci6, fodi6, fuj?i6. iacio", pario, quatio, rapiS. sapiS, \\ith
compounds
in
;
For
their
lists
132.
1,*5li.
The
following
lists
include
most
simple
verbs
of
the
stem.
a.
Forming the
perfect stem in
s(x)
124. b
and note):
como, compsl, compt-, comb, deck. rado, coquo, coxi, coct-, cook. rego,
-cutio, -cussi, -cuss-, shake. demo, dempsi, dempt-, take away.
rodo, rosi,
ros-,
gnaw.
fict-,
fa shion.
scatter.
frendo,
-fresi, fress-,
gnash.
take.
rise.
despise
ludo, lusi, lus-, play. mergo, mersi, mers-, plunge. mitto, mlsi, miss-, send.
trudo, trusl,
trils-.
thrust.
necto [NEC], nexi (nexul), nex-, uro, ussi, ust-, burn. tc weave. vado, -vasi, -vas-, go. nubo. nupsi, niipt-, marry. veho, vexi, vect-. draw.
pecto, pexl (pexul), pex-, comb.
vivo, vixl, vict-,
live.
102
b.
Etymology :
Reduplicated in the perfect
(
Verbs.
132.
124. c)
cado, cecldl, cas-,/<z//. caedo, cecidi, caes-, cut. cano, cecini, cant-,
sing.
curro, cucurri, curs-, run. pendo, pependi, pens-, weigh. disco [DIG], didici, (disciturus), posco, poposcl, (posciturus), learn. demand.
-do, -didi, -dit- (as in ab-do, etc., with cred5, vendo), put [DHA].
fallo, fefelli, fals-, deceive.
pungo
prick.
[PUG],
pupugi, punct-,
sisto [STA],
pango
parco,
(-tendi),
peperci,
(pars-), spare.
c.
Adding u (v)
to the verb-root (
cerno, -crevi,
-cret-, decree.
till.
pono
compescS, compescui,
consulo,
-lui,
restrain.
consult-, consult.
seize.
-cumbS
lie
permit.
Adding Iv
-ivi,
arcesso,
arcessit-,
petit-, seek.
seek.
132.
Third Conjugation.
(cf.
103
124.
e.
d):
1 edo, edi, esum, eat (see lego, Iggi, ISct-, gather. 140). lino [LI], lev! (Hvi), lit-, smear. emo, Smi, empt-, buy. facio, fed, fact-, ;>>/tf/'<f (see 142). linquo [Lie], -liqui, -lict-, leave. nosco [GNO], novi, not- (co-gnit-, fodio, fodl, foss-, dig. S-gnit-, ad-gnit-), know. frango [FKA(;], fregi, fract-, break.
rumpo
vinco
-iect-).
f.
(cf.
124. e)\
pinso,
-si,
bruise.
cud 6,
cute.
facesso,
-dl, prehens-, seize. ruo, rui, rut- (ruit-) fall. facesai, facessit-, exe- scando, scandi, scans-, climb.
,
prehendo,
scindo
[SCID],
scidi,
sciss-,
ward off.
tear.
findo [FID],
ico, ici, let-,
fidi,
////.
fiss-, split.
settle.
lap.
loose,
pay.
wash.
pando,
open
.
pandi,
pans-
verro, verri, vers-, sweep. verto, verti, vers-, turn. (pass-), viso [VID], visi, vis-, visit. volvo, volvi, volut-, turn.
:
NOTE.
The
claudo, limp.
fatisco, gape.
fulgo, flash.
glisco, swell.
sublatum
supplied
glubo,
peel.
The
following
compounds
is
of
leg-5
have -lexi
diligrS,
intellego,
negleg-6.
these the perfect stem cation (^ 124. c. note).
2 In
the
same
104
Etymology:
Verbs.
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
PRINCIPAL PARTS
:
auditum
sum.
ACTIVE.
INDIC.
PASSIVE.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
SUBJ.
133.J
io6
Etymology: Verbs.
134, 135
sarrio, -ivl (-ui), -itum, hoe. saepio, saepsi, saept-, hedge in. salio (-silio), salui (salii), salt- sentio, sensi, sens-,y^/.
(-sult-), leap.
The
caecutiS, be purblind.
dementio, be mad,
ferocio be
fierce.
Parallel Forms.
134. Many verbs have more than one set of forms, which only one is generally found in classic use as,
:
of
lavo, lavare or lavgre, wash (see 132. seated, scatere or scatgre, gush forth. ludifico, -are or ludificor, -ari, mock.
fulgo, fulgSre or fulgeo, fulgere, shine.
e).
DEPONENT VERBS.
135. Deponent Verbs have the form
1st conj.
of the Passive
:
as,
mlror, mlrari, miratus, admire. 2d conj. vereor, vereri, veritus, jfozr. 3d conj. sequor, sequi, secutus,/^//^^.
4th conj. partior, partiri, partitus, share.
INDICATIVE.
II.
Pres.
mlror
mlraris (-re)
miratur
mlramur mlraminl
mlrantur
Impf. mirabar
Put.
Perf.
mlrabor
135.]
Deponent
\\-rbs.
TO/
SUBJUNCTIVE.
i.
n.
in.
iv.
Fres.
//////.
/'<;/.
mTrer
verear
verSrer
veritus
sequar
partiar
mnarer
miratus sim
aim
partlrer
partitua
aim
IMPERATIVE.
mlrare, -ator,
etc.
ver6re, -Stor
sequere, -itor
partire, -Itor
INFINITIVE.
Pres. mlrarl
Perf.
ver6rl
sequl
partlrl
Fut.
secutua esse veritus ease miratua esae partitua eaae mil aturua esse veriturus esse secuturus esse partiturus esse
PARTICIPLES.
verSns
veriturus
veritua
partiSns
partiturua
partitus
Ger.
mirandus
mirandi, -6,
etc.
verendus
etc.
sequendus
sequendi,
etc.
partiendus
partiendi, etc.
GERUND.
verendi,
SUPINE.
mlratum, -tu
a.
veritum, -tu
secutum,
-tft
partitum, -tu
as,
Becpieiia, following.
secuturus, about
to follow.
sequendus,
to-be-followed.
The
otherwise deponent
c.
perfect participle generally has an active sense, but in verbs it is often passive as, mercatus, bought ; adeptua,
:
The
future infinitive
is
thus,
aequor
secutum
hoc confitendum est, this must be acknowledged. moriendum est omnibus, all must die.
to
e. Most deponents are neuter or reflexive in meaning, corresponding what in Greek is called the Middle Voice ( in. a). f. Some deponents are occasionally used in a passive sense as,
:
criminor, 7 accuse, or f am accused. g. About twenty verbs are, with an active meaning, found in both active and passive forms as, mereo or mereor, / deserve.
;
io8
h.
all
Etymology :
More than
-Iri,
Verbs.
135, 136.
half of
all
The
deponents are of the First Conjugation, and following deponents are irregular
:
adsentior,
get.
apiscor, (-ip-),
adsensus, assent. nascor, -i, natus, be born. nitor, -T, nisus (nlxus), strive. -I, aptus (-eptus),
obliviscor,
-i,
oblltus, forget.
opperior, -Iri, oppertus, await. expergiscor, -I, perrectus, rouse. ordior, -Iri, orsus, begin. orior (3d), -iri, ortus, (oriturus), experior, -iri, expertus, try.
defetiscor,
-I,
-fessus, faint.
rise.
paciscor, -I, pactus, bargain. gape. fruor, -I, fructus (fruitus), enjoy. patior (-petior), -I, passus (-pesfungor, -I, functus, fulfil. sus), suffer. gradior(-gredior),-i,gressus,j/(?/. -plector, -I, -plexus, clasp.
Irascor,
-I,
labor,
-I,
profijciscor,
queror,
-I,
loquor,
speak.
-i,
revertor,
reversus, return.
-miniscor,
-mentus, think.
ringor,
-I, -I,
rictus, snarl.
metior,
-iri,
mensus, measure.
sequor,
tueor,
utor,
secutus (sequutus),
tuitus (tutus), defend. ultus, avenge.
morior,
-I (-IrT),
mortuus (mori-
follow.
-eri,
turus,
die.
-i,
nanciscor,
find.
-I,
The deponent comperior, -iri, compertus, is rarely found for comperio. Revertor, until the time of Augustus, had regularly the active forms in the perfect system, revert!, reverteram, etc.
NOTE.
/'.
The
turn aside (to lodge). medeor, -eri, heal. reminiscor, -I, call to mind. diffiteor, -eri, deny. melt vescor, liquor, -I, feed upon. (neut.).
devertor,
NOTE.
Deponents are only passive (or middle) verbs There is hardly one that does not show at
whose
some period
of the
Semi-Deponents.
136.
in
few verbs having no perfect stem are regular the present, but appear in the tenses of completed action
as deponents.
passives.
These are
are
:
They
rejoice.
'
136, 137.]
a.
Deponent
there
is
IOQ
From audeS
and
b.
rare elsewhere.
The active forms vapulo, vSpulare, be flogged, and vgiieo, vgulre, be sold (contracted from vgiium Ire, go to said), have a passive meaning, and are sometimes called neutral passives. To these may
be added
fieri, to be
tnade (see
142),
and exsulare,
to be
banished
(live in exile).
NOTE. The following verbs are sometimes found as semi-deponents: iuro, iurare. iuratus, swear; nubo, nubere, nupta, marry; placed, placere, placitUS, file use. [For the regular Derivative Forms of Verbs, see \ 167.]
IRREGULAR VERBS.
137. Several verbs add some of the personal endings
of the present system directly to the root, or combine two verbs in their inflection. These are called Irregular Verbs
(cf. p.
86).
They
fio,
and
their
compounds.
of inflection with the
Sum has already been inflected in 119. a. Sum is compounded without any change
prepositions ab, ad, de in, inter, ob, prae, In the compound prosum, pro retains
its
before e.
Thus,
INDIC.
Pres.
SUBJ.
prosim
prosis
prosit
prosumus
prodestis
proslmus
prositis
prosunt
Imp.
Put.
Perf.
prosint
helping.
proderam, / was
prodero, / shall
profui, I helped.
prodessem
profuerim
help.
profuissem riupf. profueram, I had helped. /'. P. prof uero, / shall have helped.
IMI-I.K.
prodes, prodesto,
etc.
Intt.
IXFIN. Pres.
prodesse
Perf. profuisse
to help.
profuturua esse
PART.
profuturus, about
116
Etymology :
Verbs.
137,
b. Sum is also compounded with the adjective potis, or pote, making the verb possum. This is inflected as follows
:
able,
INDICATIVE.
Pres.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
possim
possis possit
possimus
possitis
possint
possem
potuerim potuissem
able.
Pres.
PART.
NOTE.
;
Perf. potuisse
(adj.),
powerful.
etc.,
The forms potis sum, pote sum, Other early forms are potesse possiem, -es, possit) potestur (with pass. inf. cf. $ 143. a).
;
occur
in
early writers.
(for
-et
poterint, potisit
its
compounds
malo
ne volo), nolle, nolui, be unwilling. magis or mage volo), malle, malui, wish
Present.
rather, prefer.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
INDIC.
SUBJ.
volo
vis
velim
volumus
volunt
velimus
velint
voltis(vul-)velitis
volebam
vellem
138, 139.]
/; v v 'gi< Id r
Verbs.
Ill
IMIT.KATIVK.
noli
jFuf.
nollte, do not.
nClito
n61Ito
velle
voluisse
nolle
INFINITIVE. iioluisse
malle
maluisse
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. volgns, -willing,
nolgns, unwilling.
GERUND.
volendi
(late)
for si
etc.,
The forms sis for si vis, sultis NOTE. volo, nevls (ne-vis), mage volo, mavolo,
ne
139. Fero,
ferre,
tttll,
1 latum, bear.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
112
Etymology :
Verbs.
140.
14O. Edo, edere, edi, esum, eat, is regular of the third conjugation, but has also some forms directly from the root (ED) without the These are in full-faced type. characteristic vowel.
ACTIVE.
PASSIVE.
Irregular Verbs,
141. Eo,
Pres. S.
Ire, IvI,
Itum, got
SUBJUNCTIVE.
earn, eas, eat
INDICATIVE.
eG,
Is, it
P.
Imus,
Itis,
eunt
eamus,
irem,
eatis,
eant
Imperf.
Future,
Ire's,
iret
Iremus,
iretis, irent
Ibimus,
Perfect.
Ibitis,
ibunt
Iverim (ierim) Ivissem (Issem)
IvI
(ii)
IMPERATIVE.
X,
itote,
eunto
Fut. iturus
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ire
PARTICIPLES.
Pres. iens, euntis
Fut. iturus
Ger.
eundum
GERUND: eundi,
a.
-do,
-dum, -do
are transitive.
The compounds ade5, approach, ineo, enter, and some They are inflected as follows in the passive
:
INDIC.
Pres.
SUBJ.
Pres.
adeor
adiris
Impf. adibar
Fut.
Perf.
adear
adibor
aditus
adltur
sum
INFIN.
Perf.
adimur
PART.
aditus
adeundus
Thus
The infini;rson singular of the passive : as, itum est ( 146. d}. ive Iri is used with the supine in -um to make the future infinitive
passive
?),
147.
c.
i).
be sold
(i.e.
vgnum
eo, go to
b.
and
c.
in the
v are more common, compounds are regular as, adii, adieram, adiisse (adisse). The compound ambio is inflected regularly like a verb of the
:
:
has also several forms in the passive. In the perfect system of eo the forms without
fourth conjugation. But it has also ambibat in the imperfect indicative. d. Pro with eo retains its original d as, prodeo, prodis, prodit.
1
Root
I, cf.
ffyu
the
e stands
for ei,
I.
14
Etymology:
Verbs.
142, 143.
142. Facio, facSre, fed, factum, make, is regular. But it has imperative fac in the active, and besides the regular forms the future The passive of facio is perfect faxo, perfect subjunctive faxim.
fio, fieri,
stem of fio are regular of the fourth conjugation, but the subjunctive imperfect is fierem, and the infinitive
tenses of the
first
The
fieri.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. S.
fio, fls, fit
P.
Imperf. Future,
Perfect,
fiant
factus eram
IMPER.
INFIN.
fi,
fiunto
Fut.
Pres. fieri
Perf. factus
PART.
factum
iri
a. Most compounds of faci5 with prepositions change a to ent stem), or g (supine stem), and are inflected regularly: as,
I (pres-
a,
and have
as,
-factus,
These
as, bene-fS'cis
19c.
OA few isolated
it
viz.,
confit,
happens,
lacks,
infit,
confiet
defiunt
defiet
infiunt
effieri, to be effected.
confiat
confieret
confieri
defiat
defieri
interfieri, to perish.
interflat,
let
him perish.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
lost their Present stem, and use tenses of the Perfect, in which they are inflected regonly These are ularly.
143,144.]
a.
1 CoepI, S fogan
Defective
;
Verbs.
Fut. Part
115
Infin.
coepisse
coepturus
Perf.
The
passive
is
infinitive: as,
coeptus
sum
vocSri, / began to be called, but coepl vocare, / began to call (cf. For the present incipio is used. 144. note). b. OdI, I hate '^ perfect participle osus, hating or hated (perosus, utterly hateful), future participle osurus, likely to hate. / remember ; 8 with the Imperative memento, mec. Memiiii,
mentote
NOTE.
Part.
meminSns.
OdI and merninl have a perfect form with a present meaning, and are called preteritive verbs. Novl and consuevl (usually referred to nosco and COnsuescS) are often used in the sense of / know (have learned), and / am accustomed (have become accustomed), as preteritive verbs. Many other verbs are
occasionally used in the
same way
(see
279.
Remark).
144. Many
maereo,
In
in its
Such are
-ere, be
sorrowful
:
(cf.
is
maestus, sad)',
many
compounds
Some
a.
as,
Aio, Isay:
516, ais, ait
;
aiunt
etc.
SUBJ.
PART.
b.
aiens
only, except in poetry, in direct quotations, is possibly from the same root)
:
like the
inquiunt
IMPER.
c.
inque, inquito
fSrl, to speak,
It
The deponent
as,
has also
IMPER.
INFIN.
1
fare
farl
2
Root OD, as
in
odium.
n6
Etymology:
Verbs.
144.
PART. Pres. (dat.) fanti Perf. fatus, having spoken. Ger. fandus, to be spoken of. GER. fandi, -do SUP. fatu
Several forms compounded with the prepositions ex, prae, pro, inter, occur: as, praefatur, affari, profatus, interfatur, etc. The compound infaiis is regularly used as a noun (child). Infandus, nefandus,
are used as adjectives, unspeakable, abominable. d. Quaeso, I ask, beg (original form of quaere,
132. d), has
PART.
e.
quaesens
triumph, has the following :
Pres.
Ovare,
to
ovat ovet Imperf. ovaret PART. ovans, ovaturus, ovatus GER. ovandj
INDIC. Pres.
SUBJ.
/.
as,
Pres. sing, salve, plur. salvete, hail I (from salvus, safe and sound). An infin. salvere also occurs.
Pres. sing, ave (or have), plur. avete, Fut. aveto, hail or farewell.
Pres. sing, cedo, plur. cedite (cette),WV, tell. Pres. sing, apage! begone! (properly a Greek word).
g. Queo, / can, nequeo, / cannot, are conjugated like eo. are rarely used except in the present.
They
INDIC.
SUBJ.
INDIC. Present.
SUBJ.
queo
quis
quit
queam
queas queat
queanius
queatis
iiequeas
nequit
iieqminus
nequitis
nequeat
quimus
qultis
nequeamus
iiequeatis
queunt
queant
nequeunt
Imperfect.
nequeant
quibam
quibat quibant
quirem
quiret
nequibam
nequibat nequibant
nequirem
nequiret nequirent
quirent
144, 145.]
INDIC.
I))ipcrsonal
SUBJ.
Verbs.
117
SUBJ.
INDIC.
Fut i/ rr.
quibo quibunt
quivl
quivit
qulverit
nequibunt
Perfect.
iiequivi
nequivistl
quivgrunt
qulssent
nequivit nequiveruiit
nequisset
INFINITIVE.
quire
nequivisse
quieus, queuntis
nequigns
infinitives
:
;
NOTE.
as,
quitur, quitus, queatur, queantur, nequitur, nequitum and coepl ($$ 137. note and 143. a).
cf.
possum
Impersonal Verbs.
145.
Many
the third person singular, the infinitive* and the gerund. These are called Impersonal Verbs, as having no personal
1
subject.
CONJ.
I.
ii8
Etymology:
Verbs.
[146.
:
classified as follows
Verbs expressing the operations of nature and the time of day : ; ningit, it snows ; grandinat, it hails ; fulgurat, it
vesperascit
(inceptive,
167.
*z),
lightens*,
it
grows
late;
lucet hoc
iam,
verb
it is
In these no subject is distinctly thought of. Sometimes, however, the used personally with the name of a divinity as the subject as, luppiter tonat, Jupiter thunders. In poetry other subjects are occasionally used: as,
NOTE.
is
b. Verbs of feeling, where the person who is the proper subject becomes the object, as being himself affected by the feeling expressed 221. b). Such are: miseret, it grieves ; paenitet in the verb ( (poenitet), it repents ; piget, it disgusts ; pudet, it shames ; taedet, it wearies : as, miseret me, I pity (it distresses me).
Such verbs often have also a passive form: as, misereor, I pity NOTE. and occasionally other parts as, paeniturus (as from (am moved to pity) fpaenio), paenitendus, pudendus, pertaesum est, pigitum est.
;
:
c.
their subject (
270. a,
fit, it
happens.
pleases.
est, it is resolved.
it is
licet, it is permitted.
certum
constat,
decet,
clear.
/'/
placet, videtur,
it is
seems gooa.
delights.
/'/
becoming.
it
is needful.
remains.
may be used personally. Libet and licet have The participles libens also the passive forms libitum (licitum) est, etc. and licens are used as adjectives.
NOTE.
Many
of these verbs
The passive of intransitive verbs is very often used impersonally pugnatur, there is fighting (it is fought) itur, some one goes (it is 1 gone) parcitur mihi, I am spared (it is spared to me, see 23O).
d.
:
as,
This use of the passive proceeds from its original reflexive meaning, the action being regarded as accomplishing itself (compare the French fela sefaii).
147.]
II 9
in the
The The
The
By
so-called "Periphrastic Conjugations" (see 129). tenses of completed action in the passive formed
:
by the
as,
amatus
:
eat.
formed as follows
supine in -um as, amatum irl. By fore (or futurum ease), with amatus fore).
2.
(as
3.
the subjunctive
(cf.
NOTE.
Origin and History of Verb-Porma.
The forms that make up the conjugation of a verb are composed of formations from a root, originally separate, but gradually grouped together, and afterwards supplemented by new formations made on old
to supply deficiencies. Some of these forms were inherited, already made, by the Latin language; others were developed in the course of the history of the language itself.
lines
i. PRESENT STEM. The Present stem is a modification or development of the root (see 123). In regular forms of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations it appears in all the other parts of the verb (including noun and adjective forms) as well, and is accordingly called
the Verb-Stem.
The
made from
as follows
to the present stem. Thus root AR, present- (and verb-) ara-s, ara-mus, ara-tis.
b.
stem art-
In the Imperfect Indicative the suffix -bam, -bas, etc. (originally a bam is probably the imperfect of the root
<v'co, be),
meaning I was.
word
hence ara-bam.
originally a case of a noun, as in I was a-ploughing, The form probably began in the second or the third
conjugation and from that was extended to the others. c. In the Future Indicative a similar suffix, -bo, -bis,
etc., is added (by the same process), bo is probably a present form of the same root BHU, with a future meaning as, ara-bo.
:
Etymology :
This form once in use in
Verbs.
all the conjugations was later supplanted and fourth by an inherited form, which was originally an optative mood, differing from the present indicative only in the final vowel of the stem (see 126. c. i) as, suge-bo (old) sugam, suges
in the third
(later).
were added
vowel
e.
as,
In the Imperfect Subjunctive a suffix, -rem, -res, etc., was added. -rem is doubtless a very old modal form of sum diverted from its
original use.
f.
adjective
system were
originally separate formations made from the root by means of noun-suffixes. These forms being associated with the verb became
types for the formation of new ones from the present stem, in cases where no such formation from the root ever existed. Thus regere is originally a dative (or locative) of a noun like genus, generis but as regere seems to be rege -f re, so ara-re was made in the same manner. Gerendus is the noun-stem geron-, i.e. GER + on- (gero, 162. c} + dus; but it seemed to be gere + ndus, and thus -onis,
;
gave
2.
rise to
ama-ndus.
PERFECT STEM.
The
European speech
terminations (see
preterite forms of
(perfect with have in English) the proper 118) are added directly to a root-form, which v;as originally a reduplication (doubling) of the root with vowel change. Thus st5, root STA, perfect steti (for fstesti) cf. pungo (root PUG),
a. In the real perfect
;
pupugi
b.
(later
pupugi)
auxiliary
In other inherited verbs the perfect was formed by a verbal (some form of sum) added to the root (or later to the present
Thus dic5, root Die, perfect f die-si (dixi). This auxiliary a complete verb-form, contained, of course, the personal termibeing
stem).
nations.
c.
The remaining
but containing the personal terminations. But these form'ative processes had been forgotten long before the Latin language reached
origin,
we know it. The form in -vi, however, became the type for new Perfects. By the Romans, the first person singular of the Perfect (however formed), losing its final vowel, was treated as a new stem, from which other forms were developed by the use of added
the stage in which
auxiliaries or
This stem
is
121
Stem. Thus were formed the Pluperfect and the Future Perfect Indicative, thr Perfect ;ind Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Perfect Infinitive. The terminations of these tenses are parts
of
sum
3.
in
some form
how
they are
made
is
uncertain.
SUPINE STEM.
The
Perfect
and Future
Participles
and the
Supine, though strictly noun-forms, each with its own suffix, agree in having the first letter of the suffix (t) the same and in suffering the same phonetic changes (by which the t becomes s, u. a. 2).
several
Romans
used as nouns or adjectives, were felt by the as belonging to one system, and are conveniently associated
\\iththeSupineStem.
Thus,
pingo, pictum, pictus, picturus, pictura, pictor. rideo, risum (for rid-tum), risus (part.), risus (noun), risurus,
risio, riser, risibilis.
The signs of mood and tense are often said to be inserted between the Root (or verb-stem) and the Personal ending. No such insertion is possible in a developed language like the Latin. All true verb-forms
shown above, of composition ; that is, of adding to the root or the verb-stem either pronouns (personal endings) or fully developed auxiliaries (themselves containing the personal terminaare the result, as
tions), or of adding similar auxiliaries to the perfect stem tation of such processes. Thus amabamus is made by
;
or of imi-
adding to ama-, originally a significant word, or a form conceived as such, a full verbal form fbamus, not by inserting ba between ama- and -mus.
122
Etymology:
Particles.
I4a
CHAPTER VII.
Adverbs, PARTICLES.
Prepositions,
Particles.
and
Conjunctions
are
called
In their origin these words are either (i) case-forms, actual or extinct, or (2) compounds and phrases.
Particles cannot always be distinctly classified, for many adverbs are used also as prepositions and many as conjunctions ( 152 and 155), and interjections must be reckoned as particles ( 27).
I.-ADVERBS.
1.
Derivation.
adjectives of the first and second declensions, by changing the characteristic vowel of the stem to -e: as, care, dearly^ from
a From
relic of
an old ablative
in
-ed
(cf. $
$&/).
From
stem.
adjectives of the third declensisn by adding -ter to the Stems in nt- (nom. -ns) lose the t-. All others are treated as
i-stems.
Thus,
acriter, eagerly from acer (stem acri-), eager. vigilanter, watchfully, from vigilans (stem vigilant-),
',
prudenter, prudently, from prudens (stem prudent-). aliter, otherwise, from alius (old stem ali-).
NOTE.
uter, alter
c.
This
suffix is
probably the same as -ter in the Greek -repos and in If so, these adverbs are neuter accusatives (cf. d).
first
Some
adjectives of the
of both forms (-e and -ter). Thus durus, hard, has both durg and duriter: miser, wretched, has both mis ere andjnj.seriter.
d.
The
is
often used as
an adverb
as,
multum, much;
facilS, easily;
quid, why.
So
(positive acriter)
regularly in the comparative degree : as, acrius, more keenly facilius. more easily (positive^Ssttg). ;
NOTE.
strictly
240. a).
148.]
e.
Derivation of Adverbs.
ablative neuter or (less
123
adjectives,
The
commonly) feminine of
;
pronouns, and nouns, may be used adverbially: quickly ; rgcta (via), straight (straightway}
crgbrS, frequently
:
fortS, by chance^ spontS, of one's own accord. f. Some adverbs are derived from adjectives not in use
plentifully (as if from
(ci.
saepgs, hedge,
as, abunde, fabundus, cf. abundo, abound} saepg, often and saepio, hedge in) propg, almost (as if from
; ;
tpropis). NOTE. Many adverbs and other particles are case-forms of nouns or pronouns. In some the case is not obvious, and in some it is doubtful. Examples may be
seen in the following: o. Accusative forms: 5ctQ.tum, quickly ; (comparative of Is), a second time;
last.
n6n
demum
(for
ne Qnum),
(superlative
0. Ablative or Instrumental forms ( 31. t) : qua, where; contra, on the other hand; intra, within ; qul, how; aliqui, somehow; volgo commonly ; frtistra,
,
and pronouns: as, qu5, whither; adeo, to that degree; ultro, beyond; citro, this side (as end of motion) ; retro, back; illoc
(for ill5-ce),
(cf. uls, cis, re-). Locative forms: ibi, there; ubi, where; peregri (peregre), abroad; hie (for fhoi-ce), here; interim, meanwhile (cf. inter) indS, thence ; tamen, yet ; olim (from ollus, old form of ille), once. Also the compounds extrinsecus, outside; hodie (hoi + die), to-day; perendie, day after to-morrow. e. Feminine accusatives: statim, on the spot; saltim, at least (generally
REMARK.
5.
saltern), from
nouns in -tis (genitive -tis). Thus -tim became a regular and by means of it adverbs were made from many noun and ; verb stems immediately, without the intervention of any form which could have an accusative in -tim as, separatim, separately, from separatus, separate. Some adverbs that appear to be feminine accusative are perhaps locative as, palam,
lost
adverbial termination
openly; perperam, wrongly ; tarn, so ; quam, as. C. Plural accusatives: as, alias, elsewhere; foras, out of doors (as end of
motion).
17.
Of uncertain formation:
(i) those in
meaning: as, funditus,_//w the bottom providentially; intus, within ; penitus, within ;
,
ablative
-tus (usually preceded by i), with an utterly ; divinitus, from above, (2) those in -dem, -dam, -do
:
as,
indeed; quondam, once; quandS (cf. donee), when; (3) (probably accusative of time), while; iam (perhaps locative, cf. nam), now. 9. Phrases or clauses which have grown together into adverbs (cf. notwithstanding nevertheless, besides) antea, old antidea, before (ante ea, probably ablative or instrumental) postmodo,/r<?jcv^/y (post modo, a short time after) denuQ.
quidem,
dum
anew (de nov5) prorsus, absolutely (pro versus, straight ahead) quotannis, yearly (quot annls, as many years as there are) quam-ob-rem, eminus at long range wherefore; cSminus, hand to hand (con manus) (ex manus) ob-viam (as in Ire obviam, to go to meet) pridem (cf. prae and -dem in i-dem), for some time ; forsan (fors an [est]) perhaps (it's a
;
chance whether) forsitan (fors sit an), perhaps (it would be a chance whether); scilicet (scl. licet), that is to say (know, you may); videlicet (vide, licet), to wit (see, you may).
;
I2 4
Etymology: Particles.
2.
Classification.
:
>.
Adverbs are
/a,
classified as follows
ADVERBS OF PLACE.
hither,
hie, here.
ibi, there. is tic, ther-e.
illic, there.
hue,
eo, thither,
way.
qua, by what way. quo, whiPher. unde, whence. ubi, where. alicubi, somei&here. aliqu6,/<?,etc. alicunde,/r^w,etc. aliqua, by, etc indidem eadem ibidem, in the-sajne eodem
place. alibi, elsewhere.
alio
aliunde
alia
ubiubi, wherever,
ubivis,. anywhere,
quoquo
undecunque undique
sicunde
quaqua
quavis siqua
nequo
I,
necunde
nequa
all the
k,
way
to.
anywhere. \, nowhere.
i.e.
beyond what
is
required).
quorsum
(for
retrorsum, backward.
utterly},
ADVERBS OF TIME.
;
quaftdo? when? (interrog.) ^im (quom, quum), when (relat.) """ut", when, as. mine, now; tune (twm},then; mox, presently ; iam, already; dum,
while.
respond
hie, ibi, istlc, illlc, and their correlatives, corin signification with the pronouns hie, is, iste, ille (see 102), and are = often equivalent to these pronouns with a preposition as, inde eo, etc.
1
ab
the relative or interrogative ubi corresponds with qul (quis) ali-cubi with aliquis, ubiubi with quisquis, sl-cubi with siquis (see 104, 105, with the
So
table of Correlatives in
pronouns.
-Uc
106). All these adverbs were originally case-forms of in -bi, -Ic, -inc, and -unde are locative, those in -6 and dative, those in -a and -ac ablative or instrumental (p. 123, note).
The forms
149.)
Classification of Adverbs.
125
after',
primum
poatrSmum
(after that,
umquam (unquam),
always.
ever;
numquam (nunquam),
never; semper,
aliquando, at some time, at length ; quandoque (quandocumque), ivhcnci'cr ; denique, at last. quotiens (quotiSs), how often; totiens, so often; aliquotiSns, a
number of times.
cotldie (quotldie), every day
nondum,
; in dies, from day to day. not yet; necdum, nor yet ; vixdum, scarce yet; quam primum, as soon as possible; saepe, often; crSbro, frequently ;
iam non, no
longer.
fcv
quam, how, as; Cam, so; quamvis, however much, although; qu5modo, how. cur, quare, why; quod, quia, quoniam (for quom-iam), because,
eo, therefore.
ita, sic, so;
ut
(uti), as,
how;
utut,
quamquam (quanquam),
even, also.
&.
although,
INTERROGATIVE PARTICLES.
an, -ne, anne, utrum, utrumne, num, whether. uonue. annSn, whether not ; numquid, ecquid, whether at all (ecquid intellegis? have you any idea? do you tinderstand at all?},
utrum (num),
"
"if.
an (annon, uecne),
or.
*4
... -ne
NEGATIVE PARTICLES.
;
non, not (in simple denial) baud (hau, haut), minime, not (in conne, not (in prohibition) neve, neu, nor; njdum, tradiction)
; ;
much
n.S,Jcstj
less.
.
quidem, not
.
even.
.
verum
sed ne
but also.
. .
.
but not even. quidem, not only NOT minus, if not; quo minus (quominus), so as not.
. .
.
.cjuin (relat),
A</to;
(interrog.),
wji^notf
so in n^escio, / know not; -qqf;^, / say uBTiJec^fln compos.), not; no (aid, I" say yes) ; negotium, business (nee otium); nemo (nS h8mo), no one; n5 quis, lest any one; necoplnatus, unexpected;
neque
eniro.,for
not.
126
Etymology: Particles.
ADVERBS OF MANNER
(see (see
148).
149-51.
NUMERAL ADVERBS
3.
96).
Two
'
as,
nemo non
a.
Many compounds
:
of which
non
is
the
definite affirmative
as,
Two
is
non
(belonging to the
as,
nemo
non, nullus non, nobody [does] not, above, not nobody, i.e. somebody). non, never not,
i.e.
i.e.
everybody [does]
(cf.
nonnemo
numquam
i.e.
always
(cf.
nonnumquam
sometimes).
The
quoque
as,
non
etiam
vi (Verres
ii.
by force.
117), this
crime
too.
Nunc
(for
is
fnum-ce) means
definitely
present, and
not used as in English of past time. Iam means now, already, at length, presently, and includes a reference to previous time through which the state of things described has been or will be reached.
It
time.
correlative to
With negatives it means (no) longer. cum, when, and may be used of any
is
time.
Tune,
cf.
(ftum-ce,
ut
si
nunc).
Thus
iam iam
I have already said before. Amer. 149), if he had atque roboris haberet (Rose. attained a suitable age and strength (lit. if he now had, as he will by
antea dixi, as
satis aetatis
and by).
non
est
iam
151, 152.]
Prepositions.
\2J
to be
quod iam
had come
fldrebat
ibHshed).
nunc quidem
dclrta
est,
tune
(Lacl. 13),
now
('tis
true)
sAe
[Greece] is ruined, then she was in her glory. turn cum regnabat, at the time when he reigned.
c.
scio, I
Certo means certainly] certg (usually), at any rate: know for a certainty; ego certS, I at least.
as,
certo
it. Frimum meansyfr.?/, "firstly" {first in order, orfor the'first time), and implies a series of events or acts. Prim 6 means at first, as opposed to afterwards, giving prominence merely to the difference of time as,
:
hoc
primum
sentio, this
I hold in
In enumerations, primum (or primo) is often followed by deinde, secondly, in the next place, or by turn, then, or by both in succession.
Deinde maybe
primum de
several times repeated (secondly, thirdly, etc.). The by denique or postremo, lastly, finally. Thus,
genere belli, deinde de magnitudine, turn de imperatore deligend5 (Manil. 6), first of the kind of war, next of its magnitude, then of the choice of a commander.
e. Quidem, indeed, gives emphasis, and often has a concessive meaning, especially when followed by sed, autem, etc. as,
:
THIS surely one may see. [Emphatic.] (securitas) specie quidem blanda, sed reapse multis locis repudianda (id. 47), (tranquillity) in appearance, 'tis true, attractive, but in reality to
licet (Loel. 54),
be rejected for
Ne
word or
many reasons. [Concessive.] either. quidem means not even or not words must stand between ne and quidem.
.
The emphatic
senex ne quod speret quidem habet (C. M. 68), an old man has NOT anything to hope for EVEN. sed ne lugurtha quidem quietus erat (Jug. 51), but Jugurtha was not quiet EITHER.
II.
-PREPOSITIONS.
152. Prepositions 1 are regularly used either with the Accusative or with the Ablative.
1 Prepositions are not originally distinguished from Adverbs in form or meaning, but only specialized in use. Most of them are true case-forms as, the comparative instrumental contra, I-ifra, supra, and the accusatives (cf. $ 88. d) circum. corarn, cum, circiter, praeter (comp. of prae), propter (comp. of prope). Of the remainder, versus is a petrified nominative (participle of vertC) ad versus is a compound of versus while the origin of the brief forms ab,
: ;
;
is
128
a.
Etymology: Particles.
The
following are used with the Accusative
:
152, 153.
ad,
to.
extra, outside,
in, into.
adversus, against,
adversum, towards,
ante, before.
infra, below.
inter, among.
intra, inside.
of.
apud,
at, near.
secundum,
of.
next
to.
contra, against.
erga, towards.
b.
penes, in the power, trans, across. ultra, on the further per, through. versus, towards. p5ne, behind.
1
:
The
a,
ab, abs, away from, by. absque, without, but for. coram, in presence of.
cum,
e,
with.
Ae,from.
ex, out
of.
sub, under.
tenus, up
to,
as far as.
c. The following may be used with either the Accusative or the Ablative, but with a difference in meaning
:
sub, under.
super, above.
indicate motion
to,
subter, beneath,
In and sub, when followed by the accusative, when by the ablative, rest in, a place as,
:
venit in aedes, he came into the house ; erat in aedibus, he was in the house. disciplina in Britannia reperta atque inde in Galliam translata esse exlstiis thought to have been discovered in Great Britain brought over to Gaul. sub ilice consederat, he had seated himself under an ilex. sub leges mittere orbem, to subject the world to laws (to send the world
and thence
under laws).
A,
a.
b.
153. The uses of the Prepositions are as follows 2 ab, AWAY FROM, FROM, OFF FROM, with the ablative.
:
Of place as, ab urbe profectus est, he set out from the city. Of time (i) from : as, ab hora tertia ad vesperam, fro m the third hour
evening; (2) just after :
office. 1
till
as,
For palam,
etc.,
see
261.
3, c.
;
from the object^ but often towards the speaker pare de, down from and ex, out of.
2
Ab
signifies direction
,
com-
153.]
Idiomatic uses:
Prt'posifioHS.
129
from
a reliquis dil'lerunt, they differ fro the others; ah parvulis, curly childhood ; prope ab urbe, near (not far from) the city ; hluTaiv al>, to set free from ; occisus ab hostc (periit ab hoste), slain
;
by an enemy ; ab hac partc, on this side a republica,y<V the interest of the state.
ab
re eius, to his
advantage ;
Ad,
ii.
TO,
b.
c.
ad urbem venit, he came to the city; ad meridiem, the south ; ad exercitum, with the army ; adhostem, toward the enemy ad urbem, near the city. Of time as, ad nonam horam, till the ninth hour. With persons as, ad eum venit, he came to him.
Of place:
Idiomatic uses: ad supplicia descendant, they resort to punishment ; ad haec respondit, to this he answered ; ad tempus, at the [fit] time ; adire ad
rempublicam, to go into public life; ad petendam pacem, to seek peace ; ad latera, on the flank ; ad arma, to arms; ad hunc modum, in this way ; quem ad modum, how, as; ad centum, near a hundred ; ad hoc, besides ; omnes ad unum, all to a man ; ad diem, on the day.
(cf.
post, after}.
Of
place:
as,
of the army.
b.
Of time
as,
:
Idiomatic uses
ante bellum, before the war. ante urbem captam, before the city
(a.d.v.) Kal., the fifth
quintum
day
too
Apud,
a.
Of place
AT, BY, AMONG, with the accusative. (rare and archaic): as, apud forum, at
:
the
forum
b.
as,
Helvetians ; apud populum, before the people ; apud aliquem, at one's house; apud se, at home or in his senses; apud Ciceronem, in [the
works
of] Cicero.
a.
b.
circiter, ABOUT, AROUND, with the accusative. Of place circum haec loca, hereabout ; circa se habent, they have with them. Of time or number (circa or circiter, not circum) as, circa eandem horam,
:
:
1 Circum, circa,
about the same hour ; circiter passus mille, about a mile. Especially about, in regard to : circa quem pugna est (Quintil.), with regard to whom, etc.
Contra,
as,
contra Italiam, over against Italy ; contra haec, in answer to this. Often as adverb: as, haec contra, this in reply ; contra autem, but on the other
hand ; quod
1
Circum
is
an accusative form
circ5,
is
instrumental
circiter, accusative
cum
(con-).
130
Etymology: Particles.
with the ablative.
153.
Of place Of time
:
as,
me ; cum omnibus
impedimentis, with
light).
as,
prima cum
luce, at early
dawn
(with
first
Idiomatic uses :
magno cum
cum
some one ;
hurt; confligere
cum
enemy;
ab,
esse
cum
telo, to
go armed ; cum
silentio,
in silence.
(cf.
De,
a.
out 0f).
Of
place
as,
de navibus
desilire, to
b.
the ships.
:
c.
* as, cognoscit de Clodi caede, he CONCERNING, ABOUT, OF learns of the murder of Clodius ; consilia de bello, plans of war. In a partitive sense (compare ex) , out of, of: as, unus de plebe, one ofthe people.
Figuratively,
many reasons ; qua de causa, for which reason; de improviso, of a sudden; de industria, on purpose; de integro, anew ; de tertia v\g\\\3.,just at midnight (starting at the third watch) ; de mense Decembri navigare, to sail as early as December.
to in),
(cf.
OUT
a.
all parts
b.
ex omnibus partibus silvae evolaverunt, they Jlew out from of the forest ; ex Hispania, [a man] from Spain. as, ex eo die quintus, the fifth day from that (four days after) ;
as,
ex hoc &\e,from this day forth. Idiomatically or less exactly: ex consulatu, right after his consulship; ex eius sententia, according to his opinion; ex aequo, justly ; ex improviso,
unexpectedly ; ex tua re, to your advantage; magnaex parte, in a great degree; ex equo pugnare, to fight on horseback; ex usu, expedient; e regione, opposite ; quaerere ex aliquo, to ask of some one ; ex senatus consulto, according to the decree of the senate ; ex fuga, in [their]
flight (proceeding immediately from it); unus e
filiis,
In, with the accusative or the ablative. i. With the accusative, INTO (opposed to ex).
a.
b.
reiecerunt, they drove them back into the woods. in lucem, till daylight.
Idiomatically or less exactly: in meridiem, towards the south; amor in (erga or adversus) patrem, love for his father ; in aram confugit, he fled to the altar (on the steps, or merely to) ; in dies, from day to day ;
in longitudinem, in length; in haec verba iurare, to swear to these words; hunc in modum, in this way ; oratio in Catilinam, a speech
in
against Catiline; in perpetuum, for ever ; diem vivere, to live from hand to mouth.
1
Of originally had
the
same meaning
as
de (compare
off).
153.]
2.
l^irpositions.
tin-
131
With
In very various connections: as, in castns, /;/ the camp (cf. ad castra, to, near the camp} in marl, on the sea ; in urbc esse, to be in to;.
;
or
tcmpi'tv,
/;/
StOUmf
/ have
of this
Infra,
a.
it
in
man ;
scribendo, while writing; est mihi in animo, at anchor ; in hoc hominc, in the case in dubio esse, to be in doubt,
in
mind;
in ancoris,
accusative.
;
Of
place as, ad mare infra oppidum, by the sea below the town caelum, under the sky.
infra
b.
Figuratively: as, infra Homerum, later than Homer ; infra tres peel is, less than three feet ; infra elephantos, smaller than elephants ; infra intimos
BETWEEN
AMONG
as,
me
ScipiSnem, between myself and Scipio ; inter 6s et offam, between the cup and the lip (the mouth and the morsel) ; inter hostium tela,
et
inter omnes primus, first of all ; inter inter si loquuntur, they talk together ; inter
a. Literally: (i) of motion (archaic) as, ob Romam, towards Rome (Ennius); ob viam, to the road (preserved as adverb, in the way of). (2) Of place
b.
Figuratively, IN
as, ob oculos, before the eyes. archaic, probably a word of account, balancing one thing against another): as, ob mulierem, in pay for the woman; ob rem, for gain. Hence applied to reason, cause, and the
in which,
like,
ON ACCOUNT OF
FOR
as,
ob earn
wherefore, why.
Of motion:
walls.
as,
per urbem
ire, to
go through the
city ;
b.
c.
Of time
as,
Figuratively, of persons as
as, per homines idoneos, through the instrumentality of suitable persons ; licet per me, you (etc.) may for all me. Hence, stat per me, it is through my instrumentality.
:
Weakened,
in
as,
one's
arms ; prae
a few connections) as, prae si portare, to carry in si ferre, to carry before one (hence figuratively), ex:
fi.
(compare English
as,
jov.
132
c.
:
Etymology: Particles.
153.
Of comparison as, prae magnitudine corporum suorum, in comparison with their own great size.
Praeter,
ALONG
1.
camp (along
2.
Figuratively,
BEYOND, BESIDES, MORE THAN, IN ADDITION TO, EXCEPT as, praeter spem, beyond hope ; praeter alios, more than others ; praeter
:
as,
sedens pro aede Castoris, sitting in front of the temple of Castor ; pro populo, in presence of the people. So pro rostris, on [the front of] the rostra; pro condone, before the assembly (in a speech) In various idiomatic uses: pro lege, in defence of the law ; pro vitula, instead
.
of a heifer ; pro centum milibus, as good as a [hundred] thousand ; pro rata parte, in due proportion ; pro hac vice, for this once ; pro consule, in place of consul ; pro viribus, considering his strength; pro
virili parte, to the best
of one's
ability.
:
as,
(cf. all
he
sits
next you.
Hence, ON ACCOUNT OF
along of)
as,
secundum me (Plaut), go behind me; secundum Htus, Literally: as, near the shore ; secundum flumen, along the stream (cf. secundo flumine,
ite
down
stream).
2. Figuratively,
ACCORDING TO
as,
a.
Sub, UNDER, UP TO, with the accusative or the ablative. Of motion, with the accusative as, sub montem succedere, to come
:
close to
the hill.
Idiomatically: sub noctem, towards night; sub lucem, near daylight; haec dicta, at (following) these words.
b.
sub
Of rest, with
:
personified as Jove)
Idiomatically
as, sub love, in the open air (under the heaven, sub monte, at the foot of the hill. sub eodem tempore, about the same time (just after it).
the ablative
as,
vulnus super vulnus, wound upon wound; super Indos, beyond the Hindoos. 260. c.} But, super tali re, about such an affair. (See
8 Supra, ON TOP OF, ABOVE, with the accusative
:
as,
:
supra terram, on the surface of the earth. So also figuratively as, supra hanc memoriam, before our remembrance ; supra morem, more than usual; supra quod,
1 Part,
besides.
of
sequor.
Comp.
of sub.
Instrumental of
superus,
\ 91. 6.
153, 154.]
Conjunctions.
133
a.
Of motion:
iace,
Trans, 1 ACROSS, OVER, THROUGH, BY, with the accusative. as, trans mare currunt, they run across the sea; trans flumen
fcrre, to
b.
Of rest
Ultra,
carry over a river ; trans aethera, through the sky ; trans caput throw over your head. as, trans Rhenum incolunt, they live across the Rhine.
BEYOND (on
cis
Padum
ultraque, on this side of the Po and beyond ; ultra eum numerum, more than that number ; ultra fidem, incredible ; ultra modum, im-
moderate.
[For Prepositions
in
Compounds, see
:
170.]
NOTE.
Some
as,
intus, insuper.
-CONJUNCTIONS.
154. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences. They are of two classes
:
a.
(see
1
.
Copulative or disjunctive, implying a connection or opposition of thought as well as of words as, et, and.
:
2.
thought
3. Causal,
as,
sed, but.
4. Illative,
b.
introducing a cause or reason : as, nam, for. denoting an inference : as, igitur, therefore.
clause
2.
3.
as,
quamquam,
although
4.
5.
(lit.
however much
it
etc.).
Temporal :
as,
postquam,
:
after.
:
6.
as, ut, in
order that
Conjunctions, like adverbs, are either petrified cases of nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, or obscured phrases : as, sed, an old ablative (cf. red, prod) quod, an old accusative dum, an old accusative (cf. turn, cum) vero, an old ablative of vSrus nihilominus, none the less; proinde, lit. forward from there.
; ;
NOTE
is
called
a conjunctive phrase
: as,
cf.
terminus.
134
Etymology:
Particles.
155.
155. Conjunctions are more numerous and more accuThe followrately distinguished in Latin than in English. 1 and the common list includes conjuncconjunctions ing
tive phrases
:
1.
Co-ordinate.
a.
et, -que,
et
et
et
. .
-que (atque)
-que
et
-que
-que (poet.),
(item),
both
and.
cum
qua
turn ; turn . . turn, both . and; not only qua, on one hand . . . on the other hand. inodo . . . xnodo, now . . now. aut . . . aut ; vel . . . vel (-ve), either . . or. slve (seu) . . slve, whether . . . or.
.
but also.
nee (neque)
et
.
nee (neque)
. . .
neque
nee
nee
neque
(rare), neither
. .
.
nor.
.
nee
and.
b.
ADVERSATIVE.
but.
nevertheless*
nam, namque, enim, etenim,^^. quia, quod, because. quoniam, quippe, cum (quom, quum), quando, quandoquidem, siquidem, utpote, since, inasmuch as.
propterea (. . . quod) t>/^r this reason (. that). quapropter, quare, quamobrem, quScirca, unde, wherefore, whence.
.
.
NOTE. Of these quia quod, quoniam, quippe, cum, siquidem, often introduce subordinate clauses. As all subordinate clauses have been developed from clauses once co-ordinate (p. 164), the distinction between co-ordinate conjunctions and subordinate is often obscure.
*
list
Some
See also
of correlatives, \ 106.
155, 156.]
Conjunctions.
d.
135
CONCESSIVE.
quidem,
to be sure, it is true.
2.
e.
Subordinate.
CONDITIONAL.
quod
si,
but
if.
modo,
if only, provided.
dummodo ne (dum
ne,
modo
f.
COMPARATIVE.
velut, veluti, velutsl, as if.
ut, uti, sicut, velut, prout, praeut, ceu, as, like as.
tamquam (tanquam),
quam, atque
quasi, utsl, ac
si,
etsl,
quamquam (quanquam),
al-
though.
quam vis, quantumvls, quamlibet, however much. licet (properly a verb), ut, cum (quom, quum), though, suppose,
whereas.
h.
TEMPORAL.
ubi, ut prlmum, postquam when. (posteaquam), quam, ante . quam, before , non ante prius quam, not
. .
.
until.
as.
until.
ut (uti), quo, so that, in order that. . not, in order that ne, ut ne, lest (that not)
. .
neve (neu),
nor.
quln
(after negatives),
quominus, but
156. The following are the principal conjunctions whose meaning requires to be noticed
:
a. Et, and, simply connects words or clauses ; -que combines more closely into one connected whole, -que is always enclitic to the word con-
nected or to the
first
Thus,
cum
and children.
and sivord. [Not as separate things, but as the combined means of devastation.] aqua et igni interdictus, forbidden the use of -water andfire. [In a legal formula, where they are considered separately.]
ferro ignique, -with fire
136
Etymology: Particles.
156.
with some emphasis or with some implied reHence it is often equivalent to and on the word added. But these distinctions depend so, and yet, and besides, and then. very much upon the feeling of the speaker, and are often untrans-
flection
latable
as,
more important
or less
(for
my
part)
and
not
is
expressed by
neque (nee)
as,
dixit,
and he
this.
Atque (ac), in the sense of as, than, of comparison and likeness as,
:
is
words
non secus
than
if.
pro eo ac debui, as was my duty (in accordance as I ought). aeque ac tu, as much as you. haud minus ac iussi faciunt, they do just as they are ordered.
simul atque, as soon
b.
as.
Sed and
the
but, are
used to
introduce something in opposition to what precedes, especially after but something else}. At introduces with emnegatives (not this
phasis a
new
is
At enim
which
is
almost always used to introduce a supposed objection presently to be overthrown. At is more rarely used alone in
this sense.
Autem,
however, now,
is
Atqui, hardly any adversative force perceptible. however, now, sometimes introduces an objection and sometimes a fresh step in the reasoning. Quod si, but if, and if, now if, is and often has
used to continue an argument.
to at.
Ast
is
is
equivalent
concessive is often followed by an adversative either in a coNOTE. ordinate or a subordinate clause as, etiamsi quod scribas n6n habebis, scrlbito tamen (Cic.), though you have nothing to write, still write all the same.
:
c. Aut, or, excludes the alternative; vel (probably imperative of volo) and -ve give a choice between two alternatives. But this dis-
tinction
is
sometimes disregarded.
Thus,
sum aut quae est in me facultas, but who am I or what special have I? [Here vel could not be used, because in fact a negand both
alternatives are excluded].
ative is implied
156.]
Conjunctions.
temri
137
quam
ant
niilla
all.
potius valetudine,
rather none at
what feeble health [he had], or [Here vel might he used, hut would refer only to
the expression, not to the fact], aheat, let him drink or (if he won't do that, then let him) [Here vel would mean, let him do either as he chooses]. quit.
was such
either in respect to
si
fortune or fame (whichever way you look at it). propinquos habeant imbecilliores vel animo vel fortuna, if they have relatives beneath them either in spirit or in fortune (in either respect,
for example).
cogniti sunt et aut deorum aut regum filii invent!, sons either ofgods or of kings. [Here one case would exclude the other.] implicati vel usu diuturno vel etiam officiis, entangled either by close intimacy or even by obligations. [Here the second case might exclude
cum
the
first.]
Sive (seu)
names
for the
is
or if}, but also with alternative words and clauses, especially with two
same thing:
sive arridens sive quod ita putaret (De Orat. because he really thought so.
is
as,
least.
and namque,/0r, usually introduce a real reason, formally d. expressed, for a previous statement; enim (always postpositive), a less important explanatory circumstance put in by the way; etenim
Nam
enim
(for, you see; for, you know; for, mind you} and its negative introduce something self-evident or needing no proof.
(ea vita) quae est sola vita nominanda.
neque
nam dum sumus in his inclusi compagibus corporis munere quodam necessitatis et gravi opere perfungimur. est enim. animus caelestis, etc. (Cat. Maj. 77). harum trium sententiarum nulll prorsus assentior. nee enim ilia prima vera v~>\.,for of course thatjirst one isn't true.
is used of things proved formally, but often has Igitur, then, accordingly, is weaker than ergo and is used in passing from one stage of an argument to another. Itaque, therefore, accordingly, and so, is used in proofs or inferences from the
e.
Ergo, therefore,
a weakened force.
nature of things rather than in formal logical proof. All of these are often used merely to resume a train of thought broken by a digression or parenthesis. Idcirco, for this reason, on
this account,
is
quia, quod,
si,
as, regularly followed (or preceded) by a correlative ut, n6, and refers to the special point introduced by
:
the correlative.
138
Etymology: Particles.
156.
neaegri quidem quia non omnes convalescunt, idcircS ars nulla medicmae est. primura igitur aut negandum est esse decs . . aut qui decs esse concedant eis fatendum est eos aliquid agere idque praeclarum; nihil est autem praeclarius mundi administratione, deorum igitur consilio administrate, quod si aliter est, aliquid profecto sit necesse est non est igitur natura melius et maiore vi praeditum quam deus. deorum praepotens neque excellens, si quidem ea subiecta est ei vel necessitati vel naturae qua caelum maria terrae regantur, nihil est autem
. . .
.
praestantius deo, ab e5 igitur mundum necesse est regl. null! igitur omnem ergo regit ipse est naturae oboediens aut subiectus deus
:
concedimus intellegentis esse deos, concedimus etiam providentis et rerum quidem maximarum. ergo utrum ignorant quae res maxumae sint quoque eae modo tractandae et tuendae an vim non habent qua tantas res sustineant e,t gerant? (N. D. ii. 76.) malum mini videtur mors. est miserum igitur, quoniam malum. certe. ergo et ei quibus evenit iam ut morerentur et ei quibus eventurum est
naturam.
etenim
si
miseri.
mihi
ita videtur.
miser. (Tusc.
i.
9.)
meministis
etc.
enim cum
turn igitur
illius nefarii
(Murena
f. Quia, a statement.
quod,
either a fact or
as, since,
Quoniam
(for
quom
iam), inasmuch
when
and
justifications,
Quando,
since, is
possunt quia posse videntur, they can because they think they can. locus est a me quoniam ita Murena voluit retractandus (Murena 54), must review the point, since Murena has so wished.
me
reprehendis
(Murena
67),
quod idem defendant (as he had you blame me because [as you
not) say]
charge which I have punished by the law. reprehendis me quia defendam (as he had) (Sulla, 50). cur igitur pacem nolo ? quia turpis est (Philip, vii. 9), wish for peace ? Because it is disgraceful.
why
then do
I not
non
In the denial of a reason, non quo is used as well as quia, and non quin, but not non quoniam. Thus,
non quod,
non quia
multis debeo
me meritorum
indebted
to
I am
many, but
(Philip,
because, etc.
non quin
pari virtute
not that there were not others of equal had not so much reason. but and good-will, they courage
habuerunt
6),
g.
Cum
(quom), when,
h. I,
is
is
often correlative
as
to-
156.]
/i.
'injunctions
Interjections.
I.
have a correlative
lit
Conjunctions, especially those of relative origin, fre(|' in another clause, to which th< md as,
:
semcntrm In nis,
ita inrtrs.
/s
,r<7t'>,
so sliall
VCH redp.
uti initium, sic finis est, as is t/tc bcginning% so is tin- onl. turn cum Catiliiuim cicichain (Catil. iii. 3), at (Jic time -v/ii'ii.
2.
is
cla
Examples
et
et, both
. .
and.
no-w
.
modo
nunc iam
qua
i.
.
.
modo,
mine, >um>
. . .
iam, now
.
simul
. .
simul, at once (this) and also (that), and, as well qua, both as, alike (this)
. .
and
(that)
The
concessives (etsi,
either a fact or a
relative
quamvls, etc., although} may introduce mere supposition, and are often followed by the cor-
tamen, yet, nevertheless; quamquam is regularly used to introduce an admitted fact and not a mere supposition.
Quamquam
{and
yet,
but,
(and rarely etsi, tametsi), in the sense of though however) are also used to introduce an independent
to limit or correct the preceding
statement
tlvuni)
ille
:
made
(quaniqnam
correc-
as,
quamquam,
dm?
(Cat.
Maj.
68),
Good Heavens !
there that
is
long
k. Autem, enim, and vero are postpositive, i.e. they always follow one or more words of their clause so generally igitur and often
;
tamen.
INTERJECTIONS.
io,
6, en, ecce, ehem, papae, v5h (of astonishment). evae, evoe, euhoe (of joy).
.
heu, Sheu, vae, alas (of sorrow) heus, eho, ehodum, ho (of calling)
gia,
st, hist.
euge (Upraise).
attestation
)
:
pro (of
as,
140
157
CHAPTER VIII.
Formation of Words.
NOTE. All formation of words is originally a process of composition. An element significant in itself is added to another significant element, and thus the meaning of the two is combined. No other combination is possible for the formation either of inflections or of stems. Thus, in fact, words (since roots and stems are significant elements, and so words) are first juxtaposed, then brought under one accent, and finally felt as one word. This gradual process is seen in sea
change\ sea-nymph, seaside. But as all derivation, properly so-called, appears as a combination of uninflected stems, every type of formation in use must date back of inflection. Hence words were not in strictness derived either from nouns or from verbs, but from stems which were neither, because they were in fact both ; for the distinction between noun- and verb-stems had not yet been made. After the development of Inflection, however, that one of several kindred words which seemed the simplest was regarded as the Primitive form, and from this the
other words of the group were thought to be derived. Such supposed processes of formation were then imitated, often erroneously, and in this way new modes of derivation arose.
adjectives,
Thus new
adjectives were
adjectives from verbs, and new verbs from adjectives and nouns. In course of time the real or apparent relations of many words became con-
new
fused, so that nouns and adjectives once supposed to come from nouns were often assigned to verbs, and others once supposed to come from verbs were assigned to nouns. Further, since the language was constantly changing, many words went out of use, and do not occur in the literature as we have it. Thus many derivatives survive of which the Primitive is lost. Finally, since all conscious word-formation is imitative, intermediate steps in derivation were sometimes omitted, and occasionally apparent derivatives occur for which no proper Primitive ever existed.
I.- ROOTS
1
AND STEMS.
:
ble
phenomena). Pronominal, expressing ideas of position and direction. Stems are divided into (i) Noun- (including Adjective-) stems, and (2) Verb-stems.
2.
NOTE.
Romans were
originally different (see p. 163), and often confounded, but in general were
treated as distinct.
For the
distinction
21, 22.
isa-60.]
Primary
Suffixes.
141
:
a.
Without change:
:
as,
is, id.
So
in verbs
b.
86).
With change of the root-vowel: as, luc-is (lux), LUC; pac-is (pax). So in verbs i-s for feis, from eo, ire fatur from for, fari.
: ;
In these cases it is impossible to say with certainty whether the form But for convenience the above order is ot root in a or in b is the original one.
NOTE.
adopted.
c. With reduplication: as, fur-fur, verbs: as, si-sto (root STA).
mar-mor, mur-mur.
So
in
2.
From
159.
II.-SUFFIXES.
by means
1.
of suffixes.
These are
Primary: added
by analogy)
to
verb-stems.
158.
2.
,
The
(cf.
*)
Secondary: added to a noun- or adjective-stem. Both primary and secondary suffixes are for the most part pronominal roots ( 157. 2), but a few are of doubtful origin.
suffixes, not being origdevelopment of a language. Suffixes once primary are used as secondary, and those once secondary are used as primary. Thus in hosticus (hosti + cus) the suffix -cus, originally ka (see $ 160. A) primary, as in paucus, has become secondary, and is thus regularly used to form derivatives; but in pudlcus, apricus, it is treated as primary again, because these words were really or apparently connected with verbs. So in English -able was borrowed as a primary suffix, but also makes forms like
NOTE.
The
distinction
clubbable, salable ; -some is properly a secondary suffix, as in toilsome, lonesome, but makes also such words as meddlesome, venturesome.
1.
Primary
Suffixes.
in
means
of
Primary
a. Inherited
addition of other suffixes, as we might make an adjective lone-ly-some-ish, meaning nothing more than lone, lonely, or lonesome.
b. By such accumulation of suffixes, new compound suffixes were formed which crowded out even the old types of derivation thus
:
142
160.
mentis, by the suffix on- (nom. -o) gave mentio, being divided into men + tio, gave rise to a new type of abstract nouns in -ti5 (phonetically -sio) as, legatio, embassy. A word like auditor, by the suffix io- (nom. -ius), gave rise to adjectives like auditorius, of which the neuter is used to denote the Hence torio- (nom. place where the action of the verb is performed.
and
N., becomes a regular suffix ( 164. /. 5). in English such a word as mechanically gives a suffix -ally, making telegraphically, though there is no such word as telegraphical. c. Examples of primary suffixes are :
-torium),
So
Vowel
a,
1
suffixes
found in nouns and adjectives of a- and o-stems, as sonus, ludus, vagus, scriba, toga (root TEG). i, less common, and in Latin frequently changed, as in rupes, or lost, as in scobs (scobis, root SCAB). U, disguised in most adjectives by an additional i, as in sua-vis (for
fsuadus, cf. ^5us), ten-uis (root TEN in tendo), and remaining alone only in nouns of the fourth declension, as acus (root AK, sharp, in acer, acies, w/cus), pecu (root PAC, bind, in paciscor).
2.
ta (in the form to-) in the regular perfect passive participle, as tectus, tectum; sometimes with an active sense, as in potus, pransus; and found in a few words not recognized as participles, as putus (cf. purus), altus (aid).
ti in abstracts
j8.
7.
and rarely in nouns of agency, as messis, vestis, pars, mens. But in many the i is lost. tu in abstracts (including supines), sometimes becoming concretes, as
8.
actus, luctus. na, forming perfect participles in other languages, and in Latin making adjectives of like participial meaning, which often become nouns, as
magnus (= mactus,
e.
ni, in
T).
Q.
nu, rare, as in manus, sinus. ma with various meanings, as in animus, almus, firmus, forma. va (commonly uo-) with an active or passive meaning, as in equus,
i.
arvum, conspicuus, exiguus, vacivus (vacuus). ra (or la, a passive participle termination in other languages), usually = pletus), sella passive, as in ager, integer, pleri-que (= plenus
(for sed-la,
cf. e'Spa).
Observe that
it
is
the stem, not the nominative, that is formed by the suffix, The vowel in is here given for convenience of reference. a to avoid puzzling questions of comparative grammar,
the form O, even in the Parent Speech.
though
it
160-62.]
K.
Significant landings.
143
ya (forming
including
many
gerundives in other languages), in adjectives and abstracts, of the first and fifth declensions, as exiraius, audacia,
\.
/tt.
Florentia, pernicies. ka, sometimes primary, as in pauci (cf. iraCpos), locus (for stlocus). In many cases the vowel of this termination is lost, leaving a consonant-stem as, apex, cortex, loquax. an (in-, on-), in nouns of agency and abstracts: as, aspergo, compago
:
(-inis),
if.
ger5 (-onis).
:
man
(men-
also used
in the
as,
agmen,
frater
flumen.
.
tar,
(i.e.
as,
pater
(i.e.
protector),
o.
ir.
p.
as, claustrum, mulctrum. as (sometimes phonetically changed into er-, or-), forming names of actions as, genus, furor, ant, forming active PARTICIPLES : as, legens, with some adjectives from
roots
unknown
as,
frequens, recens.
suffixes given below, belong to the Indoand most of them were not felt as living forspeech, European parent mations in the Latin.
2.
Significant Endings.
161. Both primary and secondary suffixes, especially in the form of compound suffixes, were used in Latin with
more or
meaning.
2.
They may
of Action
;
They form:
3.
i.
Nouns
of
Agency;
Names
NOTE. There is really no difference in etymology between an adjective and a noun, except that some formations are habitually used as adjectives and others as
nouns
($ 25. b, note).
HI.
162. Nouns of Agency properly denote the agent or But they include many words in which doer of an action. the idea of agency has entirely faded out, and also many words used as adjectives. Their significant endings are
:
added
144
162, 163.
vinco
(vie, supine
(victorious).
tonsum)
:
tonsor, tonstrix,
peto, seek (peti- as stem, sup. petitum) petitor, candidate. senator (lost verb fseno, -are), senator.
By analogy -tor is sometimes added to noun-stems, but these may be stems of lost verbs (cf. senator above) as, viator, traveller, from
:
via,
way
(but
cf.
invio).
NOTE i. The termination -tor (-sor) has the same phonetic change as the supine ending -turn (-sum) (p. 121. 3), and is added to the same form of root or verb-stem as that ending (see 125). NOTE 2. The feminine form is always -trix. Masculines in -sor lack the feminine, except expulsor (expultrix) and tonsor (tonstrlx). tor is an inherited termination (cf. NOTE 3. p. 143). The feminine is a further formation in -ca which has lost its final vowel (cf. 160. A).
,
b.
added
to verb-stems
making
:
nouns
as,
stem
-it-,
in mille, thousand},
soldier
(man
of
teges (verb-stem tege-, cf. tego, cover}, a coverer, a mat. comes, -itis (con- and meo, go, cf. trames, semita), a companion.
c.
-6 (gen.
-onis,
to
stems conceived as
verb-stems (but perhaps originally noun-stems) to indicate a person employed in some specific art or trade as,
gero (GES
compare -ger
armiger
many nouns
descriptive of per-
Names
of Actions.
163. Names of Actions are confused, through their with real abstract nouns and nouns denoting means and instruments. They are derived (i) apparently or really from roots and verb-stems (primary) or (2) from
suffixes,
noun-stems (secondary).
163.]
I.
Names of
Actions.
145
formations are
a. -or (st. or-, earlier 6s-), M., -6s (gen. -is, st. i-, earlier es-), p., -us (st. 8s-, earlier es- or os-), N., added to roots or forms conceived as
roots: as,
roots
as,
b. -16 (st. ion-), -tio (st. tion-), -tura (st. tura-), F., -tus (st. tu-), M., (phonetically -sio, -sura, -BUS), apparently added to roots or verbstems, making verbal abstracts which easily pass into concretes.
lego,gat/ier, enroll; leg-io, a legion (originally, the annual conscription}. rego, direct i reg-io, a direction, a region.
Insi-tio, grafting.
voco, pingo
call; v^ca-tio,
toil;
calling.
molior,
moli-tio, a toiling.
(PIG), paint; pic-tura, a painting. u. a. 2), perception. sentio, /<?/, sen-sus (for sent-tus, fruor, enjoy (for ffruguor) ; fruc-tus, enjoyment, fruit. NOTE i. tio, -tura, -tus are added to roots or verb-stems precisely as -tor, with the same phonetic change. Hence they are conveniently associated with the supine stem (see p. 121). They sometimes form nouns when there is no corresponding verb in use as, senatus, senate (cf. senex) mentis, mention (cf. mens) fetura, o/spring (cf. fetus) ; litteratura, literature (cf. litterae) cSnsulatus, consulship (cf. consul). NOTE 2. Of these endings, -tus was originally primary (cf. 160. 7) -15 is a compound formed by adding on- to a stem ending in a vowel (originally i) as,' dicio (cf. -dicus and dicis) -tio is a compound formed by adding on- to stems in ti-tura is formed by adding -ra, feminine as, gradatio (cf. gradatim) of -rus, to stems in tu-: as, natura from natus; statura from status (cf. flgura, of like meaning, from a simple u-stem, fflgu-s; and maturus, Matata).
: ;
c.
N.,
to
AG, root of ago, lead; 5g-men, line of march. re i-en, rule. regi- (stem seen in rego, direct) ; \
(
regi-mentum,
rule.
So colu-men,
pillar ;
146
163.
as,
sancti-monia,
matri-monium, marriage (mater, mother). Of these endings, -men is primary (cf. 160. v) -mentum is a NOTE. further development of -men made by adding to-, and appears for the most part later in the language than -men momentum as, momen, movement (Lucr.) So elementum is a development from L-M-N-a, l-m-n's (letters of the (later). alphabet), changed to elementa along with other nouns in -men. -monium
;
and -monia are compound secondary suffixes formed from mo-, as in the series almus, fostering; Almon, a river near Rome; alimonia, support. But the last was formed from alo later, when -monia had become established as a supposed primary
d.
suffix.
N.,
added
to verb-stems
:
MEANS
or
INSTRUMENT
as,
pasco, feed i pa-bulum, fodder. Bto, stand] sta-bulum, stall. tus (gen. turis), incense ; turi-bulum, a censer. voco, call; voca-bulum, a name, a word.
late 6, hide] lati-bulum, hiding-place.
veho, carry ; vehi-culum, wagon. pio, purify ; pia-culum, an expiation. cerno (crevi) sift ; cri-brum, sieve.
,
simulo, pretend] simula-crum, image. claudo, shut] claus-trum, a bar. aro, 1 plough] ara-trum, a plough. A few Masculines and Feminines of the same formation occur as
as,
f a-bula, tale.
facio,
mulgeo, milk ; mulc-tra, milk-pail. uro, burn] Aus-ter, South wind. These are no doubt compound nominal suffixes, bo- + lo-, CO- + lo-, NOTE. bo- + ro-, CO- + ro-, to- + ro-, but the series cannot be distinctly made out. historical period. They had become fully welded into independent suffixes before the
163.]
2.
Abstract Nouns.
147
stract
e.
Abstems
added
to adjective
So -do and
to verb-stems.
F.,
:
Thus
audax, bold; audac-ia, boldness. So fiduc-ia, prudens, wise; pruden-tia, wisdom. superbus, proud ; superb-ia, pride.
trlstis,
confidence (ffidux).
civi-tas, citizenship.
lumbus, the loin; lumba-go, lumbago (as plumbum, lead; plumba-go, black lead.
rubus, bramble (red bush)
prurio, itch
;
;
pruri-go, itching.
from
falbuo). Stems ending in o- or a- lose these vowels before -ia (as superb-ia), and change them to i before -tas, -tus, -tia (as boni-tas, above). Consonant-stems often insert -i before -tas as, loquax (stem loquac-), loquaci-tas but hoiies-tas, maies-tas (as if from old ad:
;
o after i is changed to e as, II. e). pius (stem pio-), pie-tas socius, socie-tas (see Of these, -la is inherited as secondary (cf. 160. ) -tia is formed NOTE. by adding -ia to stems with a t-suffix as, militia, from miles (st. milit-) molestia from molestus; dementia from Clemens; whence by analogy,
:
; :
-tas is inherited, but its component parts, ta- + ti-, are mali-tia, avari-tia. found as suffixes in the same sense: as, senecta from senex; semen-tis from semen, -tds is tu- + ti-, cf. servitu-do. -do and -g5 appear only with long vowels, as from verb-stems, by a false analogy ; but -do is do- + 5n- as, cupidus,
:
albidus, albedo (cf. gravidus, gravedo (cf. grave-sco) albe-sco) formidus, hot, formldS (cf. formldulSsus), (hot flash f ) fear ; -gO is possibly co- + 6n-; cf. vorax, voragS, but cf. Cethegus. -tildo is compounded of-d5 with tu-stems, which acquire a long vowel from association with verb-stems in u- (cf. volumen, from volvo): as, c5nsuetil-d5, valetdd5, habita-d6, sollicita-d5 whence servitude (cf. servitus. -tatis).
cupldo;
148
[163,164.
/. -ium, -tium, added to noun- and perhaps verb-stems, forming neuter abstracts, which easily pass into concretes denoting OFFICES and
GROUPS:
as,
(gen. hospit-is), a guest ; hospit-ium, hospitality, an inn. servus, a slave ; servi-tium, slavery, the slave class. collega, a colleague ; colleg-ium, colleagueship a college. auspex, a soothsayer; auspic-ium, soothsaying, an omen.
hospes
gaudeo, rejoice ; gaud-ium,/0/. benefacio, benefit} benefic-ium, a kindness (but cf. beneficus). de-sider5, miss (from fde-sides, out of place, of missing soldiers) desider~ium, longing. effugio, escape} effug-ium, an escape (cf. profugus). ad verbum, [added] to a verb} adverb-ium, an adverb. inter lunas, between moons} interlun-ium, time of new moon.
regis fuga, flight of a king} regifug-ium,y?^/ of kings.
NOTE.
160.
ium,
but
(cf.
),
is
g. Less
commonly -nia,
p.,
N.,
added
to noun-
as,
peed, cattle} pecu-nia, money (chattels), conticesco, hush} contici-nium, the hush of night augeo, increase} auxi-lium, help. pecu, cattle; pecu-lium, private property (cf. peculor, implying a noun fpeculum).
latro, robber} latro-cinium, robbery
(cf.
an
adj.
flatrocinus).
3.
Adjectives.
164. Derivative adjectives are Nominal (from nouns or adjectives) or Verbal (as from roots or verb-stems). Their significant endings are
:
I.
NOMINAL.
a. -ulus (-a, -um) (after a vowel -olus), -culus, -ellus, -illus, making an important class of adjectives, which are usually appropriated to one gender, that of the Primitive, and used as DIMINUTIVE NOUNS : as,
164.]
Nominal
;
Adjectives.
149
rlvua, a brook
gladius,
filius,
fllia,
rlv-ulus, a streamlet.
a daughter] flli-ola, a little da*ghterStrium, a hall] 5tri-olum, a little halL homo, a man ; homun-culus, a dwarf.
auris, an ear] auri-cula, a little ear. munus, N., a gift] munus-culum, a little gift.
fpuera (cf. puer, a boy} puella (for fpuer-ula), a girl. codex, a block ; codic-illi, writing-tablets.
;
NOTE I. These are all formed by adding Jus (originally -rus, cf. 160. ) to various stems, forming adjectives. The formation is the same as that of -ulus in / below. But these words became settled as diminutives, and retained their connection with nouns. So in English the diminutives whitish, reddish, are of the same formation as bookish and snappish, -culus comes from -lus added to adjectives in -cus formed from stems in n- and 8- : as, iuven-cus, Aurun-cus (cf. Aurunculeius), pris-cus, whence the cu becomes a part of the termination, and the whole ending is used elsewhere, but mostly with n- and S-stems, in accordance with its origin. NOTE 2. Diminutives are often used to express affection, pity, or contempt:
little
woman; homunculus,
REMARK
but
is
-cio,
added
to
stems in
:
added
to masculines only
as,
n-, has the same diminutive force, homun-cio, a dwarf (from homo,
a man}.
b.
-is,
M.,
added
relationship.
become nouns
as,
:
Tyndareus
:
daughter of Tyndarus. Atlas Atlanti-ades, Mercury] Atlanti-ades (Gr. Scipio Scipi-adgs, son of Scipio.
:
the Pleiads.
Tydeus _Tyd-Id6s, Diomedes, son ofTydeus. Ofleus Aiax Oll-eus, son of O ileus.
: :
150
164.
Thaumas
Hesperus
Tfraumanti-as,
:
Iris,
Hesper-ides (from
,
F.
pi.,
the
1.
as,
.
mons
(st. monti-), mountain; mont-anus, of the mountains vetus (st. veter-), old; veter-anus, veteran. ante lucem, before light ; anteluc-anus, before daylight.
egeo,
lack',
coll-mus, of a hill. div-inus, divine. libertus, onfs freedman ; libert-mus, of the class offreedmen.
collis, hill;
divus,y^;
vitulus, a calf; vitul-ina (sc. caro), veal. quis, who? cui-as, of what country? Infimus, lowest; Infim-as, of the lowest rank.
forum, a market-place; for-ensis, of a market-place, or the Forum. merum, piire wine ; mer-acus, pure. civis, a citizen; civ-icus, civic, of a citizen. fullo, a fuller; fullon-icus, of a fuller.
femina, a woman; femin-eus, of a woman, feminine. lact-eus, milky. lac, milk (st. lacti-)
;
But especially from proper nouns (names of places, peoples, and persons), denoting BELONGING TO or COMING FROM as,
2.
:
Cyzicus
Liguria
:
Samnium: Samnis,
gen.
a Satnnite}.
Sicili-ensis, Sicilian.
(a
Sicilia
Greek form).
Aquileia, a town in
Italy.
Aquila
Aquil-gius, a
Roman name;
164.]
3.
Nominal
Adjectives.
5 1
Many
membrum,
limb',
;
Aemilia (g5ns)
f Aufidius
M., a god of the woods. membr-ana, p., shin. Aemili-anus, M., name of Scipio Africanus.
(Aufidus), M.
Aufidi-Snus, a
Roman name.
caecus, blind] Caec-Tna, used as M., a gallua, a cock; gall-ina, p., a hen.
;
Roman name.
ru6,/0// (no noun existing) ru-ina, p., a fall. doctor, teacher^ doctr-ina, p., learning. Of these terminations, -anus, -enus, -inus are compounded from NOTE. -nus added to a stem-vowel as, area, arcanus collis, collinus. The long vowels come from a confusion with verb-stems, as in ple-nus, fIni-tus, tribu-tus, A few nouns occur of similar assisted by the noun-stem in a-: as, arcanus. formation, as from verb-stems in 5- (which were lost in the later language) and in a-: as, colonus (colo, cf. incola), patronus (cf. patro, -are), tribunus (cf. tribuo, tribus), Portunus (cf. portus), Vacuna (cf. vaco, vacuus). d. -alia, -aria, -elis, -His, -ulia, -nus, PERTAINING TO, of various
:
;
adjectives
as,
an enemy]
host-ilia, hostile.
-ter
(-tris),
(-turnua),
-ester (-estris), -timus, -ernua, -urnua, -ternus times, and the like (but some are
general adjectives).
marsh ] palua-ter, of the marshes. pedea, a footman] pedes-ter, of the foot. aex mgnsea, six months ] aemes-tris, semi-annual.
palus, a
finia,
wood] silv-ester, silv-estria, woody. an end] fini-timua, neighboring on the borders. her! (old hesi) yesterday ; hes-ternus, of yesterday.
,
silva, a
diu, long (in time) diu-turnua, lasting. ho die. to-day, hodi-ernua, of to-day.
;
152
164.
Of these, -ester is formed by adding tri- (cf. tro-, 160) to stems NOTE. t-or d- (phonetically S-). Thus pedet-tri- becomes pedestri-, and others follow the analogy, -ernus and -urnus are formed by adding -nus to S-stems as, diur-nus (for fdius-nus), and hence, by analogy, hodiernus (hodie).
in
:
/. -atus, -itus, -utus, PROVIDED WITH, making adjectives with formed from nouns, but in reference to an imaginary verb-stem (cf. the English horned, crested, hooked)*
participial ending,
an ear ;
aur-itus, long-eared.
versus, a turning} vers-utus, crafty, adroit (full of turns). So -tus, added directly to nouns without reference to any verb
as,
funus, death i funes-tus, deadly. honor, honor} hones-tus, honorable. favor, favor$ faus-tus (for ffaves-tus), favor'able.
g. -eus, -ius, -aceus, -icius, -aneus (-neus), -ticus, MADE adjectives of very various meanings as,
:
o^
or
aurum, ?&/; aur-eus, golden. pater, a father } patr-ius, paternal. uxor, a wife ; uxor-ius, uxorious.
rosa, a rose} ros-aceus, of roses. later, a brick} later-Icius, of brick.
sub
volo,y?j/; vola-ticus,
ius is originally primitive ( 160. K) -icius and -,ceus are formed NOTE. by adding -ius and -eus to stems in 1-C-, a-c- (suffix CO-, orig. ka-, 160. X) -eus corresponds to Greek -eioy, -eos, and has lost a y-sound (cf. ya-, 160. ). -neus is no- + -eus ( 160. S) -aneus is formed by adding -neus to a-stems. For -ticus, see 159. n.
; ; ;
adjectives
or do, rank, order} ordin-arius, regular. ar gen turn, silver} argent-arius, of silver or money. extra, outside} extr-arius, stranger.
merit us, earned} meri-torius, profitable. de versus, turned aside} devor-sorius, of an inn (cf. i. 5). NOTE. Here -ius ($ 160. *) is added to shorter forms in -ariB and -or:
pecaiiarius (from pecaiiaris), bellatorius (from bellator).
as,
164.]
/.
Nominal
fixed forms of the
Adjectives.
suffixes
as,
153
Many
above adjective
:
make nouns,
more or
1.
less regularly
with something:
aren-ariae, F. pi.,
Asin-Sria,
3.
p.,
name of a
,
-arium (regular) place of a thing (with a few of more general meaning) as,
:
aer-5rium,
tepid-arium,
treasury (from aes, copper} warm bath (from tepidus, warm). sud-arium, N., a towel (cf. sudd, -are, sweat}.
N.,
N.,
salt}.
calend-arium,
4.
N.,
:
-toria (-soria)
Agita-toria, p., a play of Plautus, The Carter (from agitator), vor-soria, p., a tack (from versus, a turn).
5.
-torium (-sorium)
:
(regular), place
general meaning)
as,
devor-sorium,
audi-torium,
tec-torium,
ten-toriuin, N.,
N.,
N.,
N.,
an inn (as from devorto, turn aside} a lecture-room (as from audio, hear}. a tent (as from tendo, stretch}.
porto, carry, and portus, harbor}.
por-torium,
6.
bov-ne,
ovi-, sheep}.
as,
penetr-ale (esp. in pi.), N., inner apartment (cf. penetro"). Saturn-alia N. pi. (the regular form for names of festivals}, feast
-tum,
querc-gtum,
Argil-etum,
oak grove (from quercus, oak}. The Clay-pit (from argilla, clay}.
154
9.
164.
villa, farm
house).
a workshop (from faber, workman). M., ox-tender (from bub-ulus, dim., cf. bos, ox). N., song (from cantus, act of singing). rubr-ica, p., red paint (from ruber, red).
fabr-ica,
p.,
bubul-cus, cant-icum,
10.
as,
alv-eus, M., a trough (from alvus, the belly). capr-ea, p., a roe (from caper, he-goaf).
flamm-eum,
11.
12. -ter
N.,
a bridal
veil (from
its
color).
163. /").
as,
(stem tro-) and -ter (stem tri-), -aster -ester: Aus-ter, M., South wind (from uro, burn).
eques-ter, M., knight (for fequet-ter, see <?, note). sequ-ester, M., a stake-holder (from derivative of Be<ya.or follow) ole-aster, M., wild olive (from olea) (cf. surd-aster, from surdus).
,
k. -osus, -(o)lens,
PRONE TO
as,
fluctus,
wave; fluctu-osus,
VERBAL.
PRONE TO, FITTED 1 TO, apparently added to verb-stems, forming adjectives, to express the action of a verb as a QUALITY or TENDENCY, -ax, denotes a faulty
-x,
is
oftener passive.
Thus,
pugno, audeo,
to fight$
to
cupio, to desire; cup-idus, eager bibo, to drink ; bib-ulus, thirsty (as dry earth, etc.). protero, to trample; proter-vus, violent, wanton. noceo, do harm} noc-uus (noc-ivus), hurtful, injurious.
capio, take; cap-tivus, captive, M.. a prisoner of'war. reci&o, fall back ; recid-ivus, restored.
1
The forms
felt
164.]
1'crh.il A.ljtrfi.
155
NOTE. Of these, -ftx is a reduction of -acus (stem-vowel ft- + -cue), become independent and used with verb-stems. Similar lorms in -6x, -Ox, -Ix, and -0.x are found or i.nnlLd in derivatives: as, imbrex. M., a rain-tile (from imber);
eenex, old (from seni-s) f er5x, fierce (from ferus) atrSx, savage (from celSx, F., a yacht (cf. cellS) fllx, happy, oi\g./ertile (from fold". cf. also victrlx (from siu -k [?] ) fidxlcia, F., confidence (as from ffldux) victor). So manducus, chewing (from mandS). -idus is no doubt denominative, as in herbi-dus, herb; tumidus, noollen callidus, tough, cunning (cf. callum, (cf. tumu-lus, hill; tumul-tus, uproar) tough jlfsh) muci-dus, slimy (cf. mflcus, slime) tabidus, wasting (cf. tabes,
;
ater, black)
;
wasting disease).
But
later
it
was used
-ulus
is
the
same
surrix
form adjectives directly from verb-stems. as in diminutives, but attached to verb-stems. Cf.
to
;
;
imitor and imago) sedulus, sitting by, attentive (cf. domi-seda, home-staying, and sedo, calm} pendulus, hanging (cf.pondo, abl., in weight; perpendiculum, a plummet; appendix, an addition) stragulus, covering (cf. strages) legulus, a picker (cf. sacri-legus, a picker up of things
aemulus, rivalling
(cf.
sacred).
to verbs.
-Ivus and -tlvus have become secondary and are used with nouns: as, aestlvus, of summer (from aestus, heat) ; tempestlvus, timely (from tempus) cf. domes-ticus (from domus).
m.
-ills,
as,
frag-iliB, </ra& nosco (GNO), know; no-bilis, ivcll known famous. eximo, take out, select ; exim-ius, choice, rare (cf. e-greg-iua)
,
NOTE.
Of these, -ius
-ills is certainly
secondary
as,
-minus, -mnus.
-/zo/os,
Greek
These endings are properly participial (cl and ama-minl). They form a few nouns in which the
:
as,
FE, produce
f-mina, woman
(the producer).
alo, nourish;
o.
alu-mnus, a foster child, nursling. -ndus (the same as the gerund-ending) forms a few
:
active or
r<?-
flexive adjectives
as,
sequor, follow \ secu-ndus, second (the following), favorable. 1 roto, whirl (from rota, wheel) rotu-ndus, round (whirling ).
;
in the revolving
months (Virg.).
156
NOTE. This armiger), gero
[164,165.
is no doubt on-+-dus: as, t&erus ( s t. ger5-, cf. geron-), fgerondus (cf. -bundus and -cundus; and
turunda, a paste-ball).
p. -bundus, -cundus, with a participial meaning, but denoting con* tinuance of the act or quality.
tremo, tremble; treme-bundus, trembling. morior, die; mori-bundus, at the point of death.
for, speak
;
f a-cundus, eloquent.
So
ira,
NOTE.
etc.
Cf.
IRREGULAR DERIVATIVES.
q* The primary suffix on- (nom. -6) is used as secondary to form nouns denoting POSSESSED OF (originally adjectives), and so expressing a character, and often used as proper names:"1 as,
epulae, a feast; epul-o, a easier. nasus, a nose; nas-6, with a large nose (also as a proper name). -volus (in bene-volus), wishing; vol-ones (pi.), volunteers.
frons, forehead; front-6, big-head (also as a proper name). So curia, a curia ; curi-o, head of a curia (also as proper name).
restis,
a rope;
resti-6,
a rope-maker.
to,
and verbum,
intervening fadverbus.
lati-fund-ium, large estate; latus, wide, fundus, estate. gu-ove-taur-Hia, a sacrifice of a sheep, a swine, and a bull; sus, swtne, ovis, sheep, taurus, bull, where the primitive would be impossible in Latin, though such formations are
common
in Sanskrit.
IV.
-DERIVATION OF VERBS.
This
suffix is the
same
as in
165,166.]
1.
J) -rn',i/it>u of
t
/vAv.
157
the parent speech. 2. Derivative verbs are those formed in the development of the Latin as a separate language. They are of
or adjectives.
167).
Denominative Verba.
166. Verbs were formed in Latin from almost every form of noun- and adjective-stem.
a.
i.
Verbs of the
first
conjugation
are
:
meaning
fuga, flight
fugo,
put
to flight.
No doubt originally particular forms of stem formed particular conNOTE. jugations of verbs, but from changes of stem and from various cross-analogies the Thus relation between conjugations and stem-forms became entirely confused. poeua should make fpunare, but it really makes punire, in accordance with an
i-stem, as in
2.
impuni-s
in
in another.
Many verbs of the First Conjugation are formed from o-stems, changing the o- into a-. These are more commonly transitive. Thus,
stimulus, a goad (stem stimulo-) stimulo (-are), incite. aequus, even (stem aequo-) aequo (-are), make even. hlbernus, of the winter (stem hiberno-) hiberno, pass the winter. albo (-are), whiten. albus, white (stem albo-)
;
few verbs, generally neuter, are formed by analogy from con3. sonant- and u-stems, adding a to the stem as,
:
vigil, awake ; vigilo (-are), watch. exsul, an exile ; exsulo (-are), be in exile. hiemps (stem hiem-), winter-, hiemo (-Sxe),pass aestus, tide, seething; aestuo (-are), surge, boil.
the winter.
levo (-are),
lighten.
A few verbs of the Second Conjugation (generally intransitive) are recognizable as formed from noun-stems, but most are inherited, or
the primitive noun-stem
1
is
lost
as,
first
directly
(2)
These are (i) formed conjugation arc inherited. a vowel, as dare (DA), stare (STA), nare (NA) or (3) uncertain, as amare. p. 86), as vocare
in
;
58
2).
canus (stem cano-), hoary; caneo, be hoary. tumulus, hill (implying f tumus, swelling) turned, pro-vidus, foreseeing} pro-vide5 foresee. But moneo, remind; cf. memini, remember.
;
,
algeo, be cold;
cf.
algidus, cold.
conjugation has undoubtedly been formed partly through the agency of stems like those of the fifth declension in e-, originally es-: as, fsordes, -is, filth; sordeo, be dirty, cf. Eng. swart; tabes, -is, wasting;
NOTE.
The second
(cf.
also
pubes, pubesco)
res, thing;
But the traces of the original formation of these verbs are almost
Some
where probably an
verbs in -u5, -uere are formed from noun-stems in ui has been lost : as,
;
status, position
(old form of in), in, on induo, put on. So, by analogy, exuo, doff, from ex, out of. NOTE. Many verbs in u are inherited, being formed from roots in U: as, flu5, fluere; so-lvo, solvere. Some roots have a parasitic U: as, loquor, locutus.
d.
as,
indu
Many
moles
finis,
toil.
sitis, thirst
Some
arise
if
i-stems: as,
condus, storekeeper ; condio, -ire, preserve. insanus, mad; insanio, -ire, rave. gestus, gesture; gestio, -ire, show wild longing.
custos, guardian ; custodio, -ire, guard. NOTE. Some of this form are of doubtful origin: as, ordior, begin, cf. ordo and exSrdium. The formation is closely akin to that of verbs in -io of the third
conjugation (p. 100).
2.
167. The following classes of verbs regularly derived from other verbs have special meanings connected with
their terminations.
167.]
Derivation of Verbs.
,-59
NOTE. These classes are all really denominative In their origin, but had become so associated with verbs that nrw derivatives were often formed directly
from verbs without the intervention of a noun-stem.
a.
verbs.
INCEPTIVES or INCHOATIVES add -sco to the present stem of They denote the beginning of an action. Of some there is no
Thus,
caleo, be warm ; cale-sco, grow warm. labo, totter i laba-sco, begin to totter.
scio,
know; sci-sco,
determine.
So Ira-scor, get angry ; cf. Ira-tus. iuvene-sco, grow young] cf. iuvenis, young man. mite-sco,nra/ mild; cf. mitis, mild.
vesperS-scit,
it is
getting late ;
cf.
vesper, evening.
:
NOTE. Inceptives properly have only the present stem, but many use the perfect and supine systems of simple verbs as, calesco, calui proflciscor, profectus.
;
b.
as,
They are of the first conjugation, and are properly denominative, derived from the participle in -tus (stem to-).
like
as,
NOTE. But they were originally denominatives from a noun of agency in -ta, nauta, sailor. Hence some are formed from a stem different from the supine : ago, agito (not facto) so, dictitS, not fdictato, from dicto.
;
c.
ends in -esso (rarely -isso). verbs of practice tain energy or eagerness of action as,
:
capio, take; cap-esso, lay hold on. facio, do; fac-esso, do (with energy). peto, seek; pet-isso, seek (eagerly).
and
end
in -illo,
DIMINUTIVES (derived from real or supposed diminutive nouns) and denote a feeble or petty action as,
:
160
[167,168,
ing.
Desideratives end in -turio (-surio), and express longing or wishThey are of the fourth conjugation, and only three are in common
use
buy.
par-turio, be in labor.
NOTE.
formation.
Vis5, go
to see, is
3.
Compound
is
"Words.
is
Compound Word
made up
of
preposition,
how-
168.
a.
by composition as follows
first
:
1
i
The second
as,
and bull
b.
(cf.
164. r).
seventeen.
The
first
part modifies
:
the
as,
(Determinative Compounds}
The
first
force (Objective
1
Compounds}',
as,
In these compounds only the second part receives inflection. This is most the proper inflection of the last stem ; but, as this kind of composition is in fact older than inflection, the compounded stem sometimes has an inflection of its own (as, cornicen, -cinis; lucifer, -feri; ifldex, -dicis), from stems not occurring in Latin. Especially do compound adjectives in Latin take the form of i-stems: as, animus, exanimis; n5rma, abnormls (see note, p. 30). In composition stems regularly have their uninflected form: as, igni-spicium, in divining by fire. But O- and S-stems weaken the final vowel of the stem to i-, as ali-pes (from ala, st. ala-) ; and i- is so common a termination of compounded stems, that it is often added to stems which do not properly have it: as, foederir
commonly
fragus
(for t* oeder-f
ragus
168-70.]
Compound Words.
161
agri-cola (ager, fcola akin to colo"), a farmer. aimi-ger (arma, fger akin to gero), armor-bearer. corni-cen (cornu, fcen akin to cano), horn-blower. carni-fex (car 6, ftex akin to facio), executioner.
d.
word
is
a noun,
quality
as,
both ends).
of the above classes appear only in the form of some Latin (cf. $ 164. r). further derivative, the proper compound being impossiblejn
Many compounds
169. In many apparent compounds, complete words not stems have grown together in speech.
are called Syntactic
compounds in the etymological sense. They Compounds. Examples are a. Compounds of facio, facto, with an actual or formerly existing noun-stem confounded with a verbal stem in e-. These are CAUSATIVE
strictly
:
in force: as, consue-faciS, habituate (cf. consue-sco, become accustomed} cale-facio, cale-facto, to heat (cf. calg-sco, grow warm). b. An adverb or noun combined with a verb as, bene-dico (bene
; :
dico), to bless; sat-ago (satis ago), to be busy enough. c. Many apparent compounds of stems: as, fide-iubeo
(fidei
A iw phrases forced
pro-consul, proconstil (for pr5 consule, instead of a consul). trium-vir, triumvir (singular from trium virorum). septen-trio, the Bear, a constellation (supposed singular of septem triones, The Seven Oxen).
Many syntactic compounds are formed by prefixa Particle to some other part of speech ing
170.
:
a.
In these comPrepositions are prefixed to Verbs or Adjectives. retain their original adverbial sense * as,
:
The prepositions sometimes, however, have their ordinary force as prepositions, ad, in, circum, tr5ns, and govern the case of a noun as, transire flumen, to cross a river (see 239. b. Rem.).
especially
:
62
a. ab,
170
ad, TO,
circum, AROUND: circum-munire, to fortify completely. com-, con- (cum), TOGETHER or FORCIBLY: con-ferre, to bring
together ; col-locare, to set firm. de, DOWN, UTTERLY de-spicere, despise ; dSstruere, destroy. S, ex, OUT: ef-ferre (ec-fer5), to carry forth, uplift. in (with verbs), IN, ON, AGAINST : In-ferre, to bear against.
:
inter,
BETWEEN, TO PIECES : inter-rumpere, to interrupt. ob, TOWARDS, TO MEET: of-ferre, to offer} ob-venlre, to meet. sub, UNDER : sub-struere, to build beneath.
AND ABOVE:
perstes, a survivor,
NOTE. In these compounds short a of the root is weakened to i before one consonant, to e before two: as, facio, conflcio, confectus; iacio, eicio, eiectus. But long a is retained as, peractus.
:
b.
cles,
Verbs are also compounded with the following inseparable which do not appear as prepositions in Latin
:
parti-
amb- (am-,
dis-, di-,
an-), AROUND: amb-ire, to go about (cf. d//,<', about). ASUNDER, APART: dis-cedere, to depart (cf. duo, two)
.
por-,
FORWARD
(cf.
porro,
to
forth).
red-, re-,
open
(from claudo, shut) ; re-ficere, to repair (make-again), sgd-, s-, APART: se-cerno, to separate (cf. sed, but).
sometimes modified by an adverbial prefix. commonly prae), very j sub, somewhat*, in-, are regular, and may be prefixed to almost any adjective as,
c.
An
Adjective
is
Of these, per
(less
not^
NOTE.
terreo,
prefix.
in these senses, are also prefixed to verbs: as, perIn ignosco, in- appears to be the negative terrify; sub-rldeo, smile.
d.
Many
tradux, vine-branch
per-fugio. trans-ducfl.
PART SECOND.
USE OF WORDS
(SYNTAX).
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
THE study
of formal
grammar
fully
arose at a late period in the history of language, developed. The terms of Syntax correspond
accordingly to the logical habits of thought that have grown up at such a period, and have therefore a logical as well as a simply grammatical meaning. But Syntax
as thus developed
is
form of words
like
puerum
express a thought, and in some languages might even be a sentence while it does not logically declare anything, and does not, strictly speaking, make what we call a sentence at all.
pulcrum! oh!
beautiful boy
;
may
were no doubt significant just as to an infant the name of some familiar object will stand for all it can say about it. At a somewhat later stage, two simple roots put side by side l made a rudimentary form of propoas a child might say fire bright \ horse run. With this begins the first form sition
At a very
in themselves,
early period of spoken language, Roots and constituted the whole of language,
of logical distinction, that of Subject and Predicate; but as yet there is no distinction between noun and verb either in form or function. Roots were presently
specialized, or modified in meaning, by the addition of other roots either inal or verbal, and Stems were formed ; but the same stem could still
pronombe either
nominal or verbal. In this period composition is the only form of syntax. Still by combination chiefly of different pronominal elements with verb-stems and with noun-stems Inflections were developed to express person, tense, cose, and other grammatical relations,2 and we have true parts of speech. Not until language reached this last stage was there any limit to the association
later
manner in which they should be combined. But gradually, by custom, particular forms came to be limited to special uses, or were produced to serve those uses and rules were established for combining words
of words, or any rule prescribing the
;
These rules are in part general laws or forms of thought (Logic), resulting from our habits of mind (General Grammar) and in part are what may be called By-Laws, established by custom in a given language
in
call
what we now
Sentences.
(rarticular
1
is
In most languages there still remain traces of the unorganized forms of expresas, for example, the nominative or accusative in Exclamations ( 240. d), and the omission of the Copula (<J 206. c). These are sometimes wrongly regarded as cases of Ellipsis. Compare also the use of Interjections generally.
sion
:
Sometimes
19,
called accidents
i
;
hence the
;
"
accidence
note.
"
of the language.
Com-
pare pp.
note
78, note i
119-21
$ 118.
164
In the fully developed methods of expression to which we are almost exclusively accustomed, the unit of expression is the SENTENCE l that is, the completed state;
and Predicate. Originally every sentence is simple. But two simple sentences may be used together, without the subordination of either, to express a more complex form of thought than can be denoted by one alone. This is parataxis (arrangement side by side). In time two sentences, thus habitument, with
its
distinct Subject
ally
used
in connection,
come
to
relations, as parts of
one
logical idea,
be regularly associated with each other, in certain and the one is felt to depend upon the other.
is syntaxis (arrangement together). In this way, through various courses of development, which correspond to the growth of our habitual forms of thought, there are produced various forms of complex sentences. Thus timeo ne id accidat was originally two simple sentences: Ifear. Let that not happen! and
This
these,
(lest)
that
may
happen.
The
Syntax as
shown
I.
in the
annexed Outline.
or
Compound
(
viz.,
a single ( Containing
Predicate)
a.
180).
2.
COMPOUND:
b.
180. a).
180. V).
II.
The
i.
The SUBJECT:
ing of
Noun
or
its
equivalent
174. i).
(
1 b.
Pronoun contained
Neuter
in verb-ending
174. 2).
(intransitive)
Verb
175. a),
(
b.
III.
The
i.
The NOUN
Object)
(Subject or
186).
by
d.
e.
Noun
in
Oblique Case
(\ 178. a,
260).
f a.
179, 207).
2.
TheVERB(/mfrVa&)by
{
-j
b.
191).
180. b).
I c.
Subordinate Clause
IV Hence "
'
Rules of
( b.
Rules of
ff.).
1 The meaning of Sentence is "Thought" (sententia from sentire). The grammatical form of the sentence is the form in which the thought is expressed
171-73.]
Subject
ami
Predicate.
165
Sentence.
Definitions.
171.
a.
SKNTKNCK
is
Command.
DECLARATIVK
A
A
is
called a
SENTENCE
b.
as,
equua
SENTENCE
c.
sentence in the form of a Question is called an INTERROGATIVE as, equusne currit? docs the horse run?
:
A sentence
!
in the
as,
form of an Exclamation
is
called
!
an EXCLAMA-
TORY SENTENCE:
horse runs
quam
celeriter currit
aquus
how fast
the
d. A sentence in the form of a Command, an Exhortation, or an Entreaty is called an IMPERATIVE SENTENCE as, currat equus, let the horse run ; I, curre per Alpes, go, run across the Alps.
:
172. Every
Predicate.
sentence
of
consists
of
Subject and a
or thing
The SUBJECT
spoken
Thus
of.
sentence
that which
is
the person
The PREDICATE
in
is
is
equus
equus
is
NOTE. Every complete sentence must contain a subject ( 174) and a verb. The verb itself is usually the predicate, but when any form of sum is used simply
to connect a noun or adjective as an attribute with the subject, such word is called is known as the copula (or connective) the predicate noun or adjective, and Thus in Caesar consul erat, Ccesar was consul, Caesar is the ($ 176. a).
sum
subject,
consul
But
sum
alone.
It is
then
sunt
in the
NOMI-
equus
2.
currit, the
horse runs.
sits.
The Subject
of
an Infinitive
in
the
ACCUSATIVE
Imperative.
240. /). (see A finite verb is a verb in the Indicative, Subjunctive, or NOTE. These are called finite moods to distinguish them from the Infinitive.
66 174.
i.
174-76.
The Subject
est errare, to
of a sentence
is
:
usually a
Noun
or
some word
humanum
quaeritur
venit,
or phrase used as a
err
is
Noun
as,
human.
the question is
sit,
whether death
is
is
an
evil.
uncertain.
2.
But
be implied in the
:
ter-
as,
inqai-t, says he.
you run.
An
verb contains in
itself
an entire
statement:
cado,
I fall (am
sun
b.
complete
Transitive (or Active) verb has or requires a Direct Object to its sense (see 177) as,
:
NOTE i. Among transitive verbs FACTITATIVE VERBS are sometimes distinguished as a separate class. These state an act which produces the thing expressed fecit, he made a table by the word which completes their sense. Thus percussit, (which was not in existence before), is distinguished from
mensam mensam
he struck a table (which already existed). NOTE 2. A transitive verb may often be used absolutely without any object expressed: as, arat, he is ploughing, where the verb does not cease to be transitive because the object is left indefinite, as we see by adding, quid, what? agrum
suum,
his land.
3.
Predicate Noun.
is
1 76.
An
intransitive verb
often followed
by a noun or
is
This
called
a Predicate
mortuus
Noun
or Adjective
as,
cecidit,
he fell dead.
Quintus sedet iiidex, Quintus sits as judge. Caesar victor incedit, Casar advances victorious (a victor).
a.
tive (
be
especially is used with a predicate noun or adjecSo also verbs signifying to become, to be made, to 172. note). named, to appear, whence these are called COPULATIVE (i.e.
in
is
sometimes a
Noun
(see
\ 185. c).
176,177.]
b.
Object.
1'V
A
is
verb
in the
est
Predicate noun or adjective after the copula sum or a copulative same case as the subject (see 185. a).
Roma
stcllae
patria nostra, Rome is our country. lucidae erant, the stars were bright (cf.
est,
stellae lucebantj.
consul creatus
dicit
Object.
person or thing indirectly affected is called the INDIRECT OBJECT. Only transitive verbs can have a Direct Object; but an
Indirect Object
transitive verbs
may be used
(
in-
225, 226).
Thus
pater vocat filium (direct object), the father calls his son. milii (ind. obj.) agrum (dir. obj.) ostendit, he showed me a field.
mini
it is
pleasing
to
me.
between transitive and intransitive verbs is not fixed, but most transitive verbs may be used intransitively, and many verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object and so become transitive ($ 237. 3).
NOTE.
The
distinction
a.
When
a transitive verb
is changed from the Active to the Passive becomes the Subject and is put in the nom-
Active : pater filium vocat, the father calls [his] son. Passive: filius a patre vocatur, the son is called by his father. Active : lunam et stellas videmus, we see the moon and the stars. Passive : luna et stellae videntur, the moon and stars are seen (appear).
b. With certain verbs, the Genitive, Dative, or Ablative is used where the English, from a difference in meaning, requires the Objective.
Thus:hominem
video, I see the man (ACCUSATIVE). homini servio, I serve the man (l).vriVK, see 227). hominis misereor, I pity the matt (GKMTIVK, see 221. a). homine amico utor, I treat the man as a friend (ABLATIVE, see
c.
249).
verbs transitive in Latin are translated in English by an intransitive verb with a preposition as,
Many
petit aprum, he aims at the boar. laudem affectat, he strives after praise. curat valetudinem, he takes care of his health.
68
177-80.
NOTE. One or more words, essential to the grammatical completeness of a sentence, but clear enough to the mind of a hearer, are often omitted. This omission is called ELLIPSIS, and the sentence is called an ELLIPTICAL SENTENCE:
as,
adest, he
is
here;
quis?
(sc.
(sc.
adest), the
soldier.
5.
Modification.
178. Subject or a Predicate may be modified by a single word, or by a group of words (a Phrase or a Clause,
see
179,
1
80).
or group of words
may
itself
be
patiently, modifies the predicate fert, bears. b. The modifying word is in some cases said to LIMIT the
word
to
belongs. Thus in the sentence pueri patrem video, I see the boy's father) the genitive pueri limits patrem (by excluding any other father).
which
it
179.
PHRASE
is
or an Adverb.
Thus
the highest nobility, the words nobilitate, of the highest noble (or nobilissimus, are used the for nobilis, nobility, adjective very noble), and are called an ADJECTIVE PHRASE. In the sentence
he
was a man of
magna
celeritate,
celeritate venit, he came with great speed, the words magna with great speed, are used for the adverb celerrter,
and
are called an
ADVERBIAL
PHRASE.
is
called a
SIMPLE SENTENCE.
sentence containing more than one statement is called a COMPOUND SENTENCE, and each single statement in it is
called a
CLAUSE.
180.]
a. If to
Modification.
one statement
is
169
be CO-ORDINATE.
(
They
;
simply added to another, the clauses are said are usually connected by a Co-ordinate
is
Conjunction
154. a)
but this
sometimes omitted
208. b).
Thus
I came,
one statement modifies another in any way, the modifying clause is said to be SUBORDINATE, and the clause modified is called the MAIN CLAUSE. This subordination is indicated by some connecting word, either a
If
Subordinate Conjunction or a Relative ( 154. fr) as, oderint dum metuant, let them hate so long as they fear. servum misit quern secum habebat, he sent the slave -whom he had with him.
:
is
sometimes
called
COMPLEX.
NOTE.
clause.
c.
A subordinate clause
clause introduced
may
itself
called
a RELATIVE CLAUSE.
clause introduced
by an adverb of time
called a
TEMPORAL
CLAUSE.
Thus
dum
tacent clamant, while they are silent they cry aloud. homines aegri morbo gravi cum iactantur aestu febrique, si aquam gelidam biberint primo relevari videntur, men suffering with a severe sickness, when (hey are tossing with the heat of fever> if they drink cold water,
seem atjirst
d.
to be relieved.
clause containing a Condition, introduced by si, if, or some sentence containing equivalent, is called a CONDITIONAL CLAUSE.
a conditional clause
is
called a
CONDITIONAL SENTENCE.
Thus, si aquam gelidam biberint, prlmS relevari videntur (cf. c above) is a Conditional Sentence, and si ... biberint is a Conditional Clause.
e.
is
called a
FINAL
CLAUSE.
edo ut vivam,
misit legates
I eat to
live (that I
may
live).
to
is
CONSECUTIVE
away
CLAUSE. 1
tarn
longe aberam ut
that I didn't see).
non
viderem,
I was
too far
away
single clause
in a-e are not mutually exclusive, but that a belong to several of them at once. Thus a relative clause is and subordinate usually subordinate, and may be at the same time conditional clauses may be co-ordinate with each other.
may
170
f.
180-84.
Sentences or clauses are regularly connected by means of CONbut frequently in Latin more rarely in English independent sentences are connected by Relative Pronouns or Adverbs. In this case, the relative is often best translated in English by a con-
JUNCTIONS
201. e, 336. b. Rem.): as, (cf. cum and when he had come there (whither when he had come). venisset, quo quae cum ita sint, and since these things are so.
AGREEMENT.
181.
is
word
is
said
to agree with
usage to be in the
182. The following are the general forms of Agreement, sometimes called the Four Concords
:
1.
or as Predicate
184,
185).
2.
3.
4.
of the ADJECTIVE with its Noun ( 186). of the RELATIVE with its Antecedent ( 198).
of the
VERB
with
its
Subject
204).
word sometimes takes the gender or number, not of the word with which it should regularly agree, but of some other word implied ad sensum in that word. This use is called SYNESIS, or construct
a.
I.-NOUNS.
183.
the
A noun used to describe another, and denoting same person or thing, agrees with it in CASE as,
:
ad urbem Athenas, to the city [of] Athens. Cicero consul creatur, Cicero is chosen consul.
The
cate
descriptive
(
noun may be
1.
either
an Appositive
184) or a Predi-
noun
185).
Apposition.
184. The descriptive noun, when in the same part of the sentence with the noun described, is called an APPOSITIVE, and is said to be in APPOSITION as,
:
184, 185.]
extcrnus timor,
Agreement of Nouns.
I/I
maximum concordiae vinculum, iungebat animos (Liv. ii. 39), their hearts. fear of the foreigner, the chief bond of harmony, united [Here the descriptive noun belongs to the subject.] / saw here four qnattuor hie primum 5men equos vidi (/Kn. iii. 537), horses, the first omen. [Here both nouns are in the predicate] litteras Graecas senex didici (C. M. 26), I learned Greek when an old man.
[Here senex, though
viz.,
something further
a. Words expressing parts may be in apposition with a word including the parts, or vice versa : as,
Gnaeus
b.
et Publius Scipiones,
Cneius
and Publius,
the Scipios.
it
An
as,
can:
sequuntur naturam, optimam ducem (Lsel. 19), they follow nature, the best
guide.
omnium doctrinarum
inventrices Athenas
(De Or.
i. 1
3),
Athens, discoverer
is
trunk, a
(Hot.
Sat.
i.
8. i).
A common
noun
258. c)
is
put
as,
Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe (Arch. 4), at Antioch, once a famous city. Albae constiterunt in urbe munita (Phil. iv. 6), they halted at Alba, a fortified town.
possessive pronoun or an adjective implying possession may take an appositive in the genitive case agreeing in gender, number, and case with an implied noun or pronoun ( 197. e) as,
d.
:
in nostro
omnium
ex Anniana Milonis
domo
(Att.
out of
Annius Mile's
e.
house.
2I4-/).
genitive is sometimes used instead of an appositive (see So also a dative in certain constructions (see 231. ).
2.
Predicate Agreement.
The
with
it
Predicate noun
may
agree (i) with the subject, being connected 176. a), or (2) with the (
185.
called a
descriptive
noun used
to
form a predicate
is
PREDICATE NOMINATIVE
according
to the construction).
72
a.
185, 186.
is
the
same as
case of the predicate after the copula and copulative verbs that of the subject ( 176. b) as,
:
(Ligar. 28), / have always been an adviser ofpeace. quae pertinacia quibusdam, eadem aliis constantia videri potest (Marcel. 31), what may seem obstinacy to some, may seem to others consistency.
you
sit
habeatur
vir egregius
Paul us
extraordinary man.
ego patronus
b.
exstiti (Rose.
Amer.
predicate noun
referring to
in the
plural: as,
iii.
i), Ccesar
case,
239. a*
-ADJECTIVES.
3-_Rulea of Agreement.
186. Adjectives, Adjective Pronouns, and Participles agree with theirnouns in Gender, Number, and Case.
vir fnrh's,
n.
hrm* man.
woman.
cities,
T
illamulier, that
cum
soldiers*.
imperatofc-vietus
beaten.'
All rules for the agreement of adjectives apply also to adjective proto participles.
An Attributive adjective simply qualifies its noun without the fo) intervention ot a verb, or participle, expressed or implied.
bonus iinperator. a good commander.
stellae lucidae. bright stars.
All other adjectives are called Predicate adjectives. A^ predicate adjective, like a predicate with the subject by esae or a copulative verb expressed or implied (see
\fy
i.
c,
below).
186, 187.]
Agreement of Adjectives.
173
186, above)
as,
(lit.,
vivum
vicJL
I saw
living).
fi With twn nr rnnrft^ nonn? the adjective is regularly plural, but sometimes agrees with the nearest (especially when attributive). Thus,
Nfcns pt J'.uryalus primi (/En.
Caesaris
v.
294), Nisus
fr
and Rurvalus
i.
first.
and
NOTE.
plural: as,
omni
et
'lP^
Fam
9),
I enjoy all
Ca'stuc* s
favor
An
adjective^ referring
to
cum
|
is
occasionally
taken.
more
.
One
sense to two or
An
as,
multae operae ac
vita
sj res, si vir, si
of much trouble
and toil.
(Mil. 19), if
moresqne mei.
my
life
and character.
fuit
any
thing, if
any
2.
may
if
the nouns
as,
i.
admunnuratio CVerr.
45),
ft
noise of assent
was
made
NOTE.
This
only
when
the
($ 205. d).
/^
different
and
children
evibraced him.
labor
(\\.~\
voluptasque fr.V societate qu^lani inter^seVaturaltsunt iuncta and tleligKtare bound togetnerby^certain natural
without
If nouns of different genders include both living beings and things a predicate adjective is sometimes masculine (or feminine), sometimes neuter, and sometimes agrees in gender with the nearest if that is plural as.
life,
:
NOTE.
Hna pfofecti
set out together.
i'pg
and the
royalfleet
iTniPA simt ITKpra rTvitn^ ct rex (id. xliv. 24), by nature a Jr^e state
hostile.
-
legates sortr*T 1p " r -^ r 'lll fiypppfi^ n4 &g ( icl v l $)> and the replies of the oracle should be waitedfor.
-
thflt the
ambassadors
174
Jd.
[187,188.
predi-
Two
or
more
as,
.
temeritas **
iniiigritia
gnnf
rashness,
and injustice
are [things]
to be
iii.
39), folly,
A collective noun may take an adjective of a different gender ( ana number agreeing with the gender and number of the individuals
implied (Sy nests,
182. a)
:
as,
v. 108), a part ready to contend. gars certare parati (JEn. duo milla relicti ^Liv. xxxvii. 39), tivo thousand were left. colomae aliquot deductae, Prisci Latini appellati (id. i. 3), several colonies were planted (led out) [of men] called Old Latins.
magna
9),
a large part [of the women] were/fated. [people of] every- age ran to meet
them.
of the superlative in the predicate sometimes takes the gender it is limited : as, which pamtive genitive by
yflwissim"
qnimaliiim felphinns est (Plin.Y the dolphin
is
the swiftest
[creature] of creatures.
2.
188. AdjectiveTare otten used as INouns (substantively) f f or people in general us.\in11y to d *r\n\ *^men of ...that-kind, the feminine women, and the
tkg rnafrculine
omnes^a// men (everybody). maiores, ancestors.
omnia, all things (everything). minorgs, descendants. barbari, barbarians.
Sabinae. the Sabine wives
ETomam Romans.
r
REMARK.
in this use.
cally
plural of adjectives^ pronouns, and participles ThesTBgular is rare except in a few words which have
The
pecome
practi-
nouns.
189. a.
modified by other adjectives. Thus, tnflg vi^Tlllfi p rn " TTmg iMur next-door neighbor.
' i
i
(cf.
218. ^/).
any ambiguity would arise from the substantive use of an be added. Thus, adjective, a noun must
When
188,189.]
Attjccth'cs
used Substantively.
hut,
175
poTentia
over everything,
[omnium
alone would
mean
/-<
Many
with the added meaning of some noun which from constant association as,
Ihc'plur.il,
:
understood
Africus [ventus], (he south-west wind. vitulma [caroj, veal (calfs flesh),
fera [bestia], a wild- beast. paTria [terra], the fatherland.
(
'.aFia [terra],
hiberna [castra], winter quarters. trireme. tmemispTavTs], a thjee~banked galley, argentariusTfaber] , a silversmith.
regia [domus], the palace.
NOTE.
These are
specific in
above.
A (#!)
adjective,
admodum
magis
/^,
1.
more of a man (more manly). few adverbs appear to be used like adjectives.
vir,
:
Such are
obviam
as,
to
.fit
obviam, he gofs
2.
and so
in
manner repeating
alia
(
as,
ii.
.
probabilja, contra alja djcimus (Off. probable^others the opposite (not probable)
7),
we
palam
4.
crl
So
also, rarely,
by a Greek construction
semper
ness.
my
189. Neuter adjectives are used substantively in the following special senses a. The neuter singular may denote either a single object or an
:
abstract quality
as,
189, 190.
passives,
146.
</).
used to signify objects in general having the quality denoted, and hence may stand for the abstract idea as,
b.
The
neuter plural
is
neuter adjective may be used as an appositive or predicate noun with a noun of different gender (cf. 187. c} as,
:
quam dolgr
^Tusc.
ii.
31), disgrace
is
[a thing] worse
than pain.
triste
varium
lupus stabulis. the -wolf is a grievous thing for the sheepfold. et mutiabile, Rf>Tn pfii; f6 m i n;\i woman is ever a changing
videtyr e^se
.
andJickle
an
evil
thing.
malum mini
d.
mors (Tuscul.
i.
9), death
seems
to
me
to be
(a bad thing)
neuter adjective
:
is
Infinitive or
Substantive Clause
istuc
as,
i.
12), that
very
human um
human.
aliud est errare Caesarem nolle, aluid nolle misereri (Lig. 16), it is one thing to be unwilling that Ccssar should err, another to be unwilling that he should pity.
3.
Fossessives.
19O. Possessive and other derivative adjectives are often used in Latin where the English has the possessive case, or a noun with a preposition (compare 184. d,
197. a): as,
piiffna
Cannensis the fight at Canna. ^",rn ani ; Caius Blossius of Cumce. aliena domus. another man's house. Caesarina celeritas^ (Att. xvi. 10), despatch like Ccesar's (Caesarian quickr
1'
ness).
a. Possessive
tiyely to
and other derivative adjectives are often used substandenote some special class or relation (see 197. d}: as,
ntrl, our countrymen or men of our party. SullanT, the veterans of Sulla's army.
11,
the partisans of
Pomp ey.
190-93.]
b.
177
4.
adjective, agreeing with the subject or object often used to qualify the action of the verb, having the force of an adverb as,
is
:
191.
An
nullus dubito,
first
to
come).
were glad to hear. laeti_a\jdiie, they erat Romae frequens (Rose. A. 16), he
serus in caelum redeas (Hor. Od.
5.
i.
192.
When two
as,
Iqngior quam latior acies erat (Liv. xxvii. 48), the line was broad (or, rather long than broad).
a.
it
Where magis
is
clari magis
b.
quam honestl (Jug. 8), more renowned than honorable. comparative and a positive, or even two positives, are sometimes
connected by
~old.
quam
as,
iv.
claris maioribus
61), of a family
vehementius quam caute (Agric. 4), with more fury than good heed.
NOTE.
This use
is
rarer
and
less elegant
193. Superlatives (and more rarely comparatives) dealso medius, ceterus, relinoting order and succession
quus
of
it, is
what
object,
meant
as,
summusmonv& e toP
in
of the
hill.
ultima platea^ at the end of the place. prior actio, the earlier part of an action.
reliqui captlyi. the rest
of the prisoners.
24),
in_colle_medio^ (B. G.
i.
halfway up
in
a region elsewhere
NOTE.
late at night.
medium
such expressions as *ffirfr ^rmijt.g.^ nrr>t. viae. the middle of the way; multum dii, ~ muck
|
*~~
"""""
178
194, 195.
-PRONOUNS.
some person or
thing without either
NOTE.
describing
A pronoun
it.
indicates
naming or
have denoted only ideas of place and direction (\ 157. 2), verbs can very rarely be formed. They may therefore stand for Nouns when the person or thing, being present to the senses or imagination, needs only to be pointed out. Some pronouns indicate the object in itself, without reference to its class, and have no distinction of gender. These are PERSONAL PRONOUNS. They stand
syntactically for
Nouns, and have the same construction as nouns. Others designate class, and take the gender of the individuals of that class. These are called ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. They stand for Adjectives, and have the same construction as adjectives. Others are used in both ways and, though called adjective pronouns, may also be treated as personal, taking, however, the gender
a particular object of a
;
Personal Pronouns.
in general, the
same
The
d}
as,
/ call you ;
but
quis
b.
me vocat? ego te voco, -who is calling me ? I (emphatic) am calling you. The personal pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural,
being used partitively
213. 2)
:
that in -urn
objectively (cf.
216),
and that
in -I oftenest
as,
ducem memorem vestri, oblitum sui (Cat. iv. 19), you have a leader who thinks (is mindful) ofyou and forgets (is forgetful of) himself. pars nostrum, a part (i.e. some) of us. nostri melior pars animus est (Sen.), the better part of us (i.e. of man) is
habetis
the soul.
NOTE.
"
One
(
of themselves
217):
(Cat.
as,
iii.
"
is
expressed by
ex
se), or
genitives
used objectively
c.
cupidus vestrum
custos vestrum
The
Latin has no personal pronouns of the third person except The want is supplied by a Demonstrative or a Relae).
Demonstrative Pronouns.
As adjectives, they follow the rules for the of adjectives ( 186, 187).
agreement
195.]
Demonstrative Pronouns.
179
As
nouns.
of
1.
substantives, they are equivalent to personal proThis use is regular in the oblique cases, especially
is.
Thus:
:
Personal
-ar et exercitus
ercitum
si
suum
dimisit, Cirsar
ems, Ca-sar and his army (not suns). [But, Caesar disbanded his [own] armv.]
ex-
spoken of).
his Caesar
ille
ita
respondit, to them
C&sar thus
replied.
had very little power, on account of his vottth. hi sunt extra provinciam trans Rhodanum primi, they (those just mentioned) are the Jirst [inhabitants] across the Rhone.
minimum
propter adolescentiam poterat, he (emphatic)
2.
Adjective
hoc proelio
facto, after this battle was fought (this battle having been, etc.). proelio, in the same battle. eius rel perltl, men acquainted with that business.
eodem
102.]
are sometimes used as pronouns of reference, to indicate with emphasis a noun or phrase just mentioned as,
:
The demonstratives
nullam virtus aliam mercedem desiderat praeter hanc laudis (Arch. 28), virtue wants no other reward except that [just spoken of] ofpraise.
b.
is
commonly
omitted, or
is
preferred
as,
memory
oblivionis malo, I prefer (like more) the art oj (than) [that] of forgetfulness.
Caesaris exercitus
Pompeianos ad Pharsalum
vicit, the
army of Casar
de-
7), imprisonment, legionem neque earn plenissimam despiciebant (B. G. the single legion, and thai not a very full one.
iv.
tuus dolor
but, etc.
humanus
is
quidem
sed, etc.,
per
Ti.
single slave,
unum servum et euro, ex gladiatori5 ludo (Att. i. 16. 5), by means of a and that too one from the gladiatorial school.
Gracchus regnum occupare conatus est, vel regnavit is quidem paucos menses (Lael. xii. 41), Tiberius Gracchus tried to usurp royal power%
or rather he actually reigned a few months.
i8o.
[195.
d. An adjective pronoun usually agrees with an appositive or predicate noun, if there be one, rather than with the word to which it refers
(cf.i 99 ):as,_
hie labor hoc opus
est,
this
is
the
toil,
[namely, revocare
regularly take a neuter pronoun], fons (Hor. Ep. i. 17. 45), this was the
head of
earn sapientiam interpretantur quam adhuc mortalis nemo [for id ... quod] (Lael. 18), they explain that [thing] which no man ever yet attained.
e.
est consecutus
to
be
wisdom
Idem,
the same,
is
phrase
as,
an
oration,
and very
cum
says
[haec] dicat, negat idem in Deo esse gratiam (N. D. 1.121), when he this, he denies also that there is mercy with God (he, the same man).
this case the
NOTE. This is really the same use as in c, above, but in cannot be represented by a pronoun in English.
pronoun
/. The intensive ipse, self, is used with any of the other pronouns or a noun for the sake of emphasis as,
:
to
me
(to
me
myself)
it
seemed dis-
quod ipsum, which of itself alone. in eum ipsum locum, to that very place.
is
by Just,
very,
g. Ipse is often used alone, substantively, as an emphatic pronoun of the third person as,
:
satis, ipsis non satis (Cic.), enough for me, not for themselves. omnes bom quantum in ipsis fuit (id.), all good men so far as was in their power (in themselves), beatos illos qul cum adesse ipsis non licebat aderant tamen (id.), happy they who, when it was not allowed them to attend in person, still were
mihi
there.
di capiti ipsius
viii.
484),
may
son-in-law's head.
Ipse
is
subject of the
often used alone, substantively, to emphasize an omitted first or second person as,
:
195, 196.]
RcJli.ni'C Pronouns.
l8l
i. Ipse, used substnntively, sometimes refers to a principal personage, to distinguish him from subordinate persons: as,
ipse dixit
(cf.
aurbs fya),
erat super
table].
HE
it.
Nomentanus
himself
k.
ipsum
[the host]
\rt.
Ipse
is
often, is rarely,
used instead of a
reflexive.
See under
Reflexives,
/.
196.
/.
is in
Ipse usually agrees with the subject, even when the English on a reflexive in the predicate as,
:
real
emphasis
me
ipse consoler,
/ console
myself.
[Not
me
lead us to expect].
207. a.
Reflexive Pronouns.
196. The Reflexive pronoun (se), 1 and usually its corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause
:
as,
virtus se novit, virtue
knows
itself.
Brutus amicum
Caesar
statuit
suum occidit, Brutus killed his friend. sibi Rhenum esse transeundum (B. G. iv.
cross the
that he
must
a.
is
In a subordinate clause of a
The
Reflexive
own
as,
bom
constantia (B. G.
i.
40),
from which
in itself).
it
[Caesar] noluit eum locum vacare, ne German! e suis finibus transirent (B. G. i. 28), Catsar did not wish this place to lie vacant, for fear the Germans would cross over from their territories.
si
qua significatio virtutis eluceat ad quam se similis animus adplicet et adiungat (Laelius 48), if any sign of virtue shine forth to which a
similar disposition
may
attach
itself.
(Skr. sva
This seems to have been originally the personal pronoun of the third person and Gr. o^tij), but it came by use to be purely reflexive.
82
2.
196.
subject of the
main
is
as,
i.
it
might be allowed
him a message
quern salutem
to
suam
nisi subsidium sibi submittatur, etc. (B. G. ii. that unless relief be furnished him (Iccius), etc. crediturum sibi (Q. C. iii. 8), who should trust his safety
him (Darius) ?
[Caesar] his uti conquirerent et reducerent, si sibi purgati esse vellent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), Ccesar ordered them (the Gauls) to hunt up and
bring back [the fugitives] if they (the Gauls) wished to be free from fault towards him (Caesar), hostium se habiturum numero confirmat, si aut Ambiorigem aut eius legates finibus suis recepissent, [Caesar] said that he should treat [them] as enemies if they received either Ambiorix or his envoys into their
territories.
decima legio
ei gratias egit, quod de se optimum iudicium fecisset (B. G. 41), the tenth legion thanked him because [they said] he had expressed
i.
si
high opinion of them. obsides ab eis (the Helvetians) sibi (Gesar, who is the speaker) darentur, se (Caesar) cum eis pacem esse facturum (B. G. i. 14), [Caesar said] that if hostages were given him by them he would make peace with them.
dixisse ferunt se intellexisse
Tarquinium
etc.
NOTE.
Sometimes
is or
ipse
qui se ex his
vellent,
non se hostem
vererl, sed
angustias itineris et magnitudinem silvarum quae intercederent inter ipsos (the persons referred to by se above) atque Ariovistum . timere
. .
dicebant (B. G. i. 39), those of them who wished to be thought less timid said they did not fear the enemy, but were afraid of the narrows and the vast extent of the forests which were between themselves and Ariovistus.
audistis
nuper dicere legates Tyndaritanos Mercurium qui sacris anniverapud eos coleretur Verris imperio esse sublatum (Verr. iv. 84), you have just heard the ambassadors from Tyndaris say that the statue of Mercury which was worshipped with annual rites among them was taken away, etc. [Here Cicero wavers between apud eos colebatur, a remark of his own, and apud se coleretur, the words of the legatt.
sariis
the
Tyndaritani.]
3.
etc.,
of the
main
though
it is
occasionally
found.
Thus
196.]
sunt
ita
Reflexive Pronouns.
183
multi ut eos career capere non possit (Catil. ii. 22), they are so that the prison cannot hold them. [Here se could not be used.] ibi in pruximis villis ita bipaitito fuGrunt, ut Tiberis inter eos ct pons interesset (Catil. iii. 5), there they stationed themselves in the nearest
many
farmhouses, in two dn'isions, in stick a manner that the 7'iber and the [Here inter se might be bridge were between them (the divisions). used, but it would refer to a purpose of the soldiers.] non fuit eo contentus quod ei praeter spem acciderat (Leg. Manil. 25), he was not content with that which had happened to him beyond his
hope.
Compare
fors
qui
fit
Maecenas
ilia
ut
nemo quam
obiecerit
contentus vivat
lot which choice has ALccenas, that nobody lives assigned him or chance has thrcnun in his way ? [Here sibi is used to put the thought into the mind of the discontented man.]
i),
how comes
it,
But,
Metellus in els urbibus quae ad se defecerant praesidia imponit (Sail. Jug. 61), Metellus posted garrisons in those cities which had revolted to him. [The author vacillates between the thought of Metellus and his
own.]
b.
The
sometimes
refers to the
subject of a suppressed
Paetus,
main clause
quos
frater
as,
omnes
libros
Patus gave me
his brother
c.
suus reliquisset mihi donavit (Att. ii. i), which (as he said in the act of donation)
(cf. 0).
The
:
reflexive
may
refer to
any noun
in its
own
clause,
which
(cf.
is
so emphasized as to
as,
elves
become
in a
manner
the subject
of discourse
the note)
Socratem
sm
interfecerunt, Socrates
was put
to
death by his
own fel-
low-citizens.
sua cuiquam non probarl (Milon. 81), how can any one
fail to approve his own safety ? [In this and the preceding example the emphasis is preserved in English by the change to the passive.] hunc si secuti erunt sui comites (Cat. ii. 10), this man, if his companions follow him.
NOTE.
sorbed
:
is
ab-
as,
ii.
17),
I am anxious
to
cure these
is
men
too
benefit (i.e.
own sword.
The
reflexive
may
follow a verbal
noun or adjective
sui laus, self-praise. impotens sui (Q. C.), without self-control. homines cum sui similibus servis (Phil. i. 5),
mtn
84
e.
196, 197.
infinitive or
may
an
as,
// is
bellum
est
sua
vitia
nosse (Cic.),
sit
f. Inter se,
cal action: as,
among themselves,
is
g. Sims is used for one's own as emphatically opposed to that of others, in any part of the sentence and with reference to any word in
it: as,
suis flammis delete Fidenas (Liv. iv. 33), destroy Fidentz with its own fires [Cf. Catil. i. 32.] (the fires kindled by that city, figuratively).
h. For reflexives of the first and second persons the oblique cases of the personal pronouns (mei, tui, etc.) are used (see p. 63) as,
:
morti me obtuli (Milon. 94), I have exposed myself to death. hinc te reginae ad limina perfer (^En. i. 389), do you go (bear yourself) hence to the queen's threshold. quid est quod tantis nos in laborious exerceamus (Archias 28), what reason is there why we should exert ourselves in so great toils ? singulis vobis novenos ex turmls manipulisque vestri similes eligite (Liv.
xxi.
$$,for
is
from
the squadrons
and maniples
nine
i.
like yourselves.
Ipse
avoid ambiguity
often (is rarely) used instead of an indirect reflexive, to and in later writers is sometimes found instead of the ;
and
3)
as,
de ipsms diligentia desperarent (B. G. i. 40), why cur de sua (he asked) should they despair of their own courage or his diligence ? x. 5), we found one qui mortuo Dare5 ipsas tueretur repperisse (Q. C. death of Darius. (said she) to protect us after the
omnia aut ipsos aut hostes populates (id. iii. 5), [they they themselves or the enemy had laid all waste.
4.
Possessive Pronouns.
197. The Possessive pronouns are derivative adjectives, which take the gender, number, and case of the noun to which they belong, not that of \h& possessor: as,
Caesar uxorem suam repudiavit, Ccesar put away his wife. haec sunt mea ornamenta, these are my jewels, [mea is neut. the speaker is a woman.]
pi.,
though
197.]
Possessive Pronouns.
ordincs,
185
mine are
the rows,
mei sunt
the
mea
descriptio (Cat.
M.
59),
mine
arrangement, [mea is fern., though the speaker is Cyrus.] multa in nostro collegio praeclara (Cat. M. 64), [there are] many fine
Mings in our
to.]
college,
[nostro
is
neut. sing.,
though
men
are referred
a.
The
[Never domus mei.] [Never pater nostri.] patrimonium iuum,your inheritance. [Not tui.]
domus mea, my
house.
NOTE i. In different languages the ideas associated with possessives are not always the same, and hence idiomatic uses differ. Thus my eulogist may, in Latin, be laudator nostri (Att. i. 14, 6), or, like the English, laudator noster (see Att. i. 16, 5), with a different conception of the relation. NOTE 2. The Possessive cuius, -a, -um, is rare : as, ctlium pecus? whose flock f The genitive ciiius is generally used instead.
2. Rarely instead of the Objective Genitive Thus, regularly:
(
217,
cf.
note
i,
above).
am
non solum sui deprecatorem, sed etiam accusatorem mei, not only a mediator for himself, btit an accuser of me (Att. xi. 8).
But occasionally,
ea quae faciebat, tua se fiducia facere dicebat (Ver. v. 176), what he was doing, he said he did relying on you (with your reliance). neque negligentia tua, neque id odio fecit tu5 (Ter. Phorm. ioi6),from neglect or hatred of you.
b.
to,
The possessives have often the acquired meaning of peculiar or favorable or propitious towards the person or thing spoken
of: as,
[petere] ut sua dementia ac mansuetudine utatur, they asked (they said) that he would show his [wonted] clemency and humanity.
tempore tuo pugnasti, did you fight at a fit time? (lit., your own). ignorant! quern portum petal nullus suus ventus est (Sen. Ep. 71), to him who knows not what port he is bound to, no wind is fair (his own).
NOTE.
sessive,
This use
often
is
and may
c. The possessives are regularly omitted (like other pronouns) they are plainly implied in the context as,
:
when
amicum
tive,
gratulatur, he greets his friend, [amlcum suum would be distinchis friend (and not another's); suum amicum, emphatic, his
own friend.]
86
197.
men
in check.
flamma extrema meorum^ (;En. ii. 431), last flames of my countrymen. NOTE. There is no reason to suppose an ellipsis here. The adjective becomes a noun like other adjectives (see 188).
e.
A
(
may have
a genitive in appo-
sition
d)
as,
mea
soli us
causa,/0r
my sake
only.
all.
nostra
omnium
ipsius
patria, the
country of us
suum
possessive representing a genitive may serve as an antecedent f. to a relative (see 199. b. note). g. For the special reflexive use of the possessive suus, see 196.
5.
Relative Pronouns.
NOTE. A Relative pronoun is propejrly^ an Adjective, in agreement with some word expressed or implied either in its own "clauseTor (often) in the antecedent (demonstrative) clause. The full construction would require the antecedent to be expressed in both clauses, with more commonly a corresponding demonstrative
to
which the
jter in
relative
would
refer: as,
ea loca facere
iv. 7),
coepit,
to
G.
the
he began
were.
is
march
quibus in locis PSSP Qermafrns (B. into those PLACES in which PLACES he heard
omitted.
an^W
Germans
commonly
The
antecedent
is,
in Latin, very
frequently (rarely in English) found in the relative clause, but Hence relatives serve two uses in the antecedent clause. 1. as Nouns (or adjectives) in their own clause : as,
:
more commonly
2.
who were
besieged at Alesia.
T^Balventio, qui superiore anno primum pilum dux^ggj:. ^Titus Balventio, who the year before had been a centurion of the first rank.
In this
latter
use they are often equivalent merely to a demonstrative with a conita gjnt (
junction: as,
qflfrft
mm
pf
Him
[and]
sitffe these^
things are
so.
This connective force does not belong to the relative originally, but is developed from an interrogative or indefinite meaning specialized by use. The clauses were Thus, qui quietus animo est, is est sapiens originally co-ordinate. That [man] is a sage. originally meant, Who is undisturbed in soul?
clause and
Relative pronoun indicates a relation between its own some substantive. This substantive is called
198,199.]
Thus,
Relative rronouns.
187
in the sentence
cum
nihil delectabat,
quod
fas esset.
its
right,
antecedent nihil with the predicate fas esset, indicating a relation between the two.the relative
quod
connects
198. A Relative agrees with its Antecedent in GENDI.K and NUMBER but its CASE depends on the construction of the clause in which it stands as,
;
:
puer qui venit abiit, the boy who came has gone away. liber quern legis metis est, the book you are reading is mine. via qua ambulnt clucit ad urbem, the path he walks in leads to the
city.
This rule applies to all relative words so form: as,.gualis, quantua. quicumque.
NOTE.
The
relative
may be
its
own
clause, or
egs
non modo
a. If a relative
it
186, 187)
as,
a son and a daughter at tfie same time, whom he dearly loved. prandes natii mitres et parvuli llb'eri. quorum utrorumque aetas miser icordiam nostram requirit (Ver. v. 129), aged matrons and little children, whose time of life in each case demands our compassion. uno tempore
amjsit, he lost
otium atque divitiae quae prima mortales putant (Sail. Cat. 36), idleness ' and weatth 'Which men CdunTthe first (objects of desire),
eae fruges et fructus quos terra gignit (N. D. which the earth produces.
ii.
and crops
199. relative generally agrees in gender and number with an appositive or predicate noun in its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender or
number
(cf.
195.
d)
as,
ew
HirFhas (N. D.
.
iii.
which which
[Not quod.]
xlii.
NOTE.
This rule
occasionally violated
as,
v.
is
called the
Thames.
88
a,
199, 200.
A relative
:
its
traction)
as,
sijiliQuid agas
eornm quorum.
consuesfr (Tarn,
to do,
v.
A relative
as,
may
.
.
cedent:
. quartum genus qni acre vetere alien 5 yacillant CCat. ii. 21), a fourth class, that are staggering under old debts. unus ex eo numero qui parati erantjjug. 35), one of the number [of those] who were ready. coniuravere de qua [i.e. coniuratione] dicam (Sail. Cat. 18), a pauci . few have conspired ... of which [conspiracy] I will speak.
. .
NOTE.
(cf.
So
regularly
when
the antecedent
is
nostra qui adsumus salus, the safety of us w]w are present. agrees with the nostrum implied in nostra].
[Here qui
2OO. The antecedent noun sometimes appears clauses but usually only in the one that precedes.
;
in
both
Some-
times
a.
as,
it is
wholly omitted.
Thus
in the relative clause:
loci natura erat haec quern Iqcujn nosfrT dplpgpffmt- (B. G. nature of the ground which our men had chosen was this.
b.
ii.
18), the
as,
quas res in consulatu nostro gessimus attigit hie versibus (Arch. 28), he has touched in verse the things which I did in my consulship. urbem quam statuS vestra esL/yEn. i. $73), yours is the city which I am
founding.
In this case a demonstrative antecedent clause as,
NOTE.
istos
(is, ille,
captiVOS duos, heri quos emi de praeda ... his no), those two prisoners that put fetters OH them.
.
jfiHitn
catenas singula-
riasL(Plaut. Capt.
bought yesterday,
cjyitatis ^calamitatem populo intulerat, qnaejpar.8 " poenas persolvit (B. G. i. 12), that part of the stafe which
Romano
ea princeps
had
brought
disaster
on
the
the first to
pay
the penalty.
first
In a sentence of this class the relative clause usually stands ao i. c), as in the example.
in Latin (cf. $
200, 201.]
c.
Relative Pronouns.
entirely omitted, especially if
it
189
is
in-
definite
as,
qui decimae
the eagle
qm
d.
V'fli'l"'* agnilnm .fercbat (B. G. iv. 25), [the man] ivho bore of ike tenth legion. cognoscetcntinlsit^id. i. 2i\/ie sent [men] to reconnoitre (who should,
etc.).
predicate adjective (especially a superlative) agreeing with its may stand in the relative clause
:
vasa ea quae pulcherrima apud eum viderat (Verr. iv. 63), those most [Nearly equivalent to beautiful vessels which he had seen at his house. the vessels of which he had seen some very beautiful ones.]
e.
or
quae res
:
is
used (instead of
quod
id
to
alone)
to refer to a
group of words or an idea [obtrectatum est] Gabinio dicam anne Pompeio? an utrique
verius? (Manil. 57), an affront is offered shall or to Pompey ? or which is truer to both ?
.
quod
est
say
Gabinius
multum sunt in venationibus quae res vires alit (15. G. iv. i), they spend much time in hunting, which [practice] increases their strength. [Cf.
.
. .
B. G.
ii.
5.]
NOTE.
But
quod
as,
Cassius noster,
10),
fuit, hostem reiecerat (Fam. ii. which was a great satisfaction to me had
voluptati
The
it
often
is in
English.
Thus,
quern mihi dedisti, the book you gave me. sum qui semper fui, I am the same man I always-was. eojnloco est cle quo tibi locutus sum, he is in the place I told you
liber
is
of.
b.
some other
particularly of a participle,
an appositive, or a
leges quae
nunc sunt^/^ existing laws (the laws which now exist). viciL. Cicsar the conqueror of Gaul (who conquered
is] the fruit
qui
illc
legit,
nut friiphyj mrtnt^/ri/s irfary [which a reader (one who reads). the pLiintijf (he who sues). qinj>etit,
glnrin qiiqp
of vi
201
comes
In formal or emphatic discourse, the relative clause usually 200. b) often containing the antecedent noun (cf. as,
:
-mala,
m^ nrinUTi patirnnf)
fti\
the evils
we
suffer
[in
to
us lighter.
such
in
NOTE.
contains
clause
:
In colloquial language, the relative clause in a demonstrative pronoun which properly belongs
cases
often
the antecedent
as,
ille
qui consulte
bene
licet
on his guard, he
may
enjoy
etc.
in apposition with the main clause, or put in the relative clause as,
:
firml amici. cuius generis est magna penuria. steadfast friends, a class of which there is great lack (of which class).
'
e.
relative
may
tive)
iSo.f)
as,
quae qui audiebant, and those who heard this (which things). quae cum ita smt,~and since these things are so. quorum quod simile factum (Cat, iv. 1 3), what deed of theirs like
relative adverb f. i. in the Locative case : as,
this ?
is
mortuus Cumis quo se contulerat (Liv. ii. 21), having died at Cumce, whither he had retired. [Here in quam urbem might be used, but not in quas.]
2.
relative
So, often, to express any relation of place instead of the formal pronoun (cf. whence, whereto, wherewith) as,
:
locus
which (whither) there was no access. erat, qu5 regna, unde genus dugis, the kingdom from which you derive your race. unde petitur. the defendant (he wherefrom something is demanded, cf.
aditus
non
a place
to
207. a).
g.
The
simply by AS
in English (
106. b)
as,
idem auod semper, the same as ahvays. talis dux qualem Jiannibalem novimus, such a chief as
[to have been]. tanta dTtniVStin quanta,
tot
ive
know Hannibal
mala quot
sidera, as
The
relative,
though invariable
in form.
201, 202.]
h.
Indefinite Pronouns.
rnnstriirtinn nf relatives
as.
is
191
found in clauses intrn.
cum.
and
NOTE. For the use of the Relative in idiomatic clauses of Characteristic Result (est qul, dignus quisquam qul, etc.). see 6 ^ao._ FoF'the use of Interrogatives, see $ 210.
6.
Indefinite Pronouns.
2O2. The Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is meant, without designating what
one.
NOTE.
a.
105.
meaning some or any (quis, qiiispiam, nescio quis, aliquis, quidam), the simple quis is least definite, quidam most definite as,
:
Of
dixerit
may say.
aliqui philosophi ita putant, some philosophers think so-, [quidam would mean certain particular persons defined to the speaker's mind, though not named.]
habitant hie
\i.e.
quaedam
women
live here
or nescio quae].
In a particular negative aliquis (aliqui) is regularly used, where in a universal negative quisquam (subst.) or ullus (adj.) would be
b.
required: as,
iustitia
[alicui would
mean
to
somebody who
possesses it.]
sine aliquo metu, [you cannot do this] without some fear. sine ullo metu, [you may do this] without any fear.
(Tusc.
i.
88),
when
there
is
not.
in like
manner
and other
as,
quisquam,
forces
dum
si
sapiens fuit (Lsel. 9), if any man was (ever) a sage, he was. praesidia ulla fuerunt (Rose. A. 126), while there were any armed
ille
(till
quid
peccavj (Alt. iii. 15, 4), if I [in any particular case (see a, above)].
in
te
c Of the general indefinites, qulvls and quHibet (any you wll), utervis (either you will, of two), are used chiefly in affirmative clauses, quisquam and ullus (any at all) in clauses where a nega.
tive is either
expressed or implied
as,
1 92
202.
cuiquam potest, -what can happen to any [one] can happen to any man [whatever], non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum, it is not every man's luck to go to Corinth, [non cuiquam would mean not any man's.] minus habeo virium quam vestrum utervis, I have less strength than either of you. [For the form utervis, see 83.]
cuivis potest accidere quod quidlibet
thing.
modo aliquid
(Cic.),
anything you
-will,
provided
it
be some-
cuiquam misl prius, why did I send to anybody before [you]? quisquam est timidus, is ego sum, if any man is timorous, I am he. cum haud cuiquam in dubio esset (Liv. ii. 3), when it was not a matter of doubt to any one. si tempus est ullum Sure hominis necandi (Milon. 9), if there is any
cur
si
-The use of these indefinites is very various, and must be learned from the Lexicon and from practice. The choice among them often depends merely on the point of view of the speaker, so that they are often practically interchangeable. The differences are (with few exceptions) those of logic, not of syntax.
NOTE.
d.
The
distributives
quisque (every
2): as, bonus
quisque (every), uterque (each), single one), are used in general assertions.
and unus
They
are
c.
equivalent to a plural,
205.
better
amb5
exercitus
the larger a good book is, the same measure] as it is larger). suas quisque abeunt domos, both armies go away, every
man
home.
erat exercitus in conspectu, each
uterque utrique
army was in
your
sight of the
unumquemque
regum,
set before
Quisque
is
if
there
is
one
quo quisque
keener-witted a
est sollertior,
is, is
man
hoc docet iracundius (Rose. Com. more impatiently he teaches (as each is so,
Thus,
31),
the
etc.).
to every
NOTE.
Quisque
generally post-positive.
suum
cuique,
man
1
his own.
f.
.
Nemo, no
As a
fit
one, is
:
used
as,
substantive
nemo
2.
vir
As an
adjective
pronoun
ii.
as,
nemo bonus
(Leg.
41),
no good man.
NOTE.
tion: as,
as a substantive,
nemo
scriptor,
nobody [who
is]
a writer.
203.]
193
alter, tJie
y
one
the
aliua
alius,
one
anotJier
may
be used in
reciprocity of
group or
action
as,
saeptorum (Sest.
79),
some make an
attack with sivords, others with fragments of the failings. arma ah aliis posita ab aliis erepta sunt (Marcel. 31), arms were laid
down by some and were snatched from others. duobus Rosciis Amerinis 'quorum alterum sedere in accusatorum subselliis video, alterum tria huiusce praedia possidere audio (Rose. Amer. 17), two Roscii of Ameria, one of whom I see sitting on the benches of the
prosecution; the other, I hear, is in possession, etc. alter! dimicant, alter! victorem timent (Fam. vi. 3), one party fights, the other fears the victor.
hi fratres alter
alterum amant,
one another.
we ask each
a. Alius means simply other, another (of an indefinite number) ; alter, the other (of two), often the second in a series; ceteri and reliqui, all the rest, the others; alteruter, one of the two. Thus,
quid aliud agis, what else are you doing (what other thing) ? cum etiam hi quibus ignovisti, nolint te esse in alios misericordem (Lig. 15), when even those whom you have pardoned are unwilling that you should be merciful to others.
iini epistulae respond!, venio ad alteram answered, I come to the other.
(Fam.
ii.
17, 6),
one
letter
I have
[Of an indefinite [likewise] another. only to the second.] alterum genus (Cat. ii. 19), the second class. iecissem ipse me potius in profundum ut ceteros conservarem (Sestius, 45),
strictly referring
alter, one
and then
/ should have
horum
utro
iitl
rather thrown myself into the deep to save the rest. nolumus, altero est utendum (Sestius, 92), whichever of the two we do not wish to have, we must take the other.
iii.
Servilius consul, reliqu!que magistratus (B. C. and the rest of the magistrates.
cum
sit
vi.
3),
when
it
must
be that one
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare (Cic.),
it
is
one thing
to
slander,
another
to accuse.
194
203, 204.
c. Alius repeated in another case, or with an adverb from the same stem, expresses shortly a double statement as,
:
alius aliud
petit,
one
man
seeks
another thing),
alius alia via civitatem
auxerunt (Liv.
in his
own way.
fodere (Liv. xliv. 33), he ordered different persons
dig in
various places.
definite
NOTE. Alter is often used, especially with negatives, in reference number where one is opposed to all the rest taken singly as,
:
to
an
in-
qui alterum incusat probri eum ipsum se intueri oportet (PI. True. 159), he who accuses his neighbor of wrong ought to look at himself (the other, there being at the moment only two concerned). dum ne sit te ditior alter (Hor. Sat. i. I. 40), so long as another is not
richer than you.
non
ut
i.
5.
other
more
so.
IV.-VERBS.
1.
Subject in
Number
dumb
in time of war.
NOTE.
subject in gender
and number
186)
as,
was
delivered.
bellum exortum
est,
a war arose.
a. having a relative as its subject takes the person of the exor implied antecedent as, pressed
:
A verb
adsum
b.
ix.
427), here
The verb sometimes agrees in number, a participle in the form in number and gender, with an appositive or predicate noun
amantium
lovers are the
non omnis
ii.
be called folly.
put
ottt.
205.]
Double Subject.
2.
195
Double Subject.
in the
2O5.
plural
:
Two
as,
or
pater et avus
mortui aunt,
and grandfather
:
are dead.
NOTE.
the subject
So
is
rarely (by a construction according to the sense, $ 182) attached an ablative with as,
when
to
cum
dux cum aliquot principibus capiuntur (Liv. eral chiefs are taken.
a.
and
sev-
When
is
in the first
:
person rather than the second, and in the second rather than the third
as,
si
tu et Tullia valetis
ego et Cicero valemus (Fam. xiv. 5), if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well. [Notice that the first person is zlsojirst in order, not last, as by courtesy in English.]
In case of different genders a participle in a verb-form follows the rule ; see 187. b, c.
NOTE.
b. If the subjects are connected by disjunctives, or if they are considered as a single whole, the verb is usually singular as,
:
quern neque fides neque iusiurandum neque ilium misericordia repress!! (Ter. Ad. 306), not faith, nor oath, nay, nor mercy, checked him. Senatus popul usque Romanus intellegit (Fam. v. 8), the Roman Senate
and people
understand.
xi.
mus (Fam.
c.
But, neque Caesar neque ego habiti esse20), neither C. nor I should have been considered.
collective
Senatus haec intelligit (Catil. i. 2), the Senate is aware of this. ad hiberna exercitus redit (Liv. xxi. 22), the army returns to winter-quarters.
1.
is
when
individ-
cum
pars praedas agebant (Jug. 32), a part brought in booty. tanta multitude lapides conicerent (B. G. ii. 6), when such a crowd
NOTE.
in the
course of a sentence:
as,
i.
quern habebat praemittit, qui videant (B. G. equitatum omnem he sent ahead all the cavalry he had, to see (who should see).
15),
2. Quisque has very often a plural verb, but may be considered as 202. </) as, in apposition with a plural subject implied (cf. his sibi quisque habeant quod suura est (Plaut. Cure.), let every one keep own (kt them keep every man his own).
:
196
d.
205-7.
it
may
a verb belongs to two or more subjects separately, with one and be understood with the others as, agree
:
When
intercedit M. Antonius et Cassius tribuni plebis (B. C. Cassius, tribunes of the people, interpose.
3.
i.
2),
Antony and
Incomplete Sentences.
Thus,
loquor,
b.
I that speak.
perhibent (they say) ; 93), one says (referring
An
This
but sometimes singular, as in inquit (Tusc. to a class of reasoners just spoken of).
c.
is often omitted. Thus, Dico, facio, ago and other verbs in familiar phrases: quorsum haec [spectant], what does this aim at? 1.
The verb
as,
ex ungue leonem [cognosces], you will knoiv a lion by his claw. quid multa, what need of many words? (why should I say much?) quid? quod, what of this, that, etc.? (what shall I say of this, that, etc.?) [A form of transition.] Aeolus haec contra (-$n. i. 76), sEolus thus [spoke] in reply.
turn Cotta [inquit], then said Cotta. di meliora [duint], Heaven forefend
unde [venis]
2.
et
(may the gods grant better things) quo [tendis], where are you from and where bound?
in the indicative
:
and
infinitive,
rarely
as,
tu coniunx (J&a. iv. \\$),you [are] his wife. omnia praeclara rara (Lsel. 79), all the best things are rare.
two honorable actions, as to any copula were expressed, it would be sit, but the direct question would be complete without any.] hear what is first to be accomaccipe quae peragenda prius (^En. vi. 136),
honestius (Of.
is the
i.
152), a comparison of
which
more honorable.
[Here,
if
plished.
Cf., for
[Direct:
omission of a Subjunctive,
i.
cum
ille
ferociter
ad haec [diceret]
(Liv.
V.- PARTICLES.
1.
Adverbs.
20 7. Adverbs
207.]
Adverbs.
i.
197
classification of adverbs, see $ 148, 149. functions of Adverbs, as petrified case-forms, is to modify Verbs: as, celeriter Ire, to go with speed. It is from this use that they derive their naiuo (adverbium, from ad, to, and verbum, verb; see 163.7).
2.
NOTE NOTE
The proper
also modify adjectives, showing in what manner or degree the quality described .is manifested: as, splendide mendax, gloriously false. More rarely they modify other adverbs as, nimis graviter, too severely.
They
adverbs, especially relative adverbs, serve as connectives, are hardly to be distinguished from conjunctions (see \ 25. h. note).
NOTE 3.
a.
Many
and
is
eo (= in ea) imponit vasa (Jug. 75), upon them (thither, thereon, on the beasts) he puts the camp-utensils. eo milites imponere (B. G. i. 42), on them (thereon) he puts the soldiers.
among those
to
whom
(whither) he resorted. qui eum necasset unde ipse natus esset (Rose.
Am.
have killed his own father (him whence he had his birth). 6 miseras condiciones administrandarum provinciarum ubi [= in quibus] severitas periculosa est (Place. 87), oh! wretched terms of managing
the provinces, -where strictness is dangerous.
The adverbs propius, near] proxime, next (like the adjectives pridie, the day before] postridie, the day propior, proximus)
b.
;
after, are
sometimes followed by the accusative (see 261. a}. The adverbs palam, openly ; procul, afar ; simul, at the same time, 261. b}. are sometimes followed by the ablative (see
NOTE.
Pridie and postridie are
of,
Clam,
itive
(<J
may
often used with the genitive ( 223. e.n. 2). take the accusative, the ablative, or the gen-
perfect participles used as nouns regularly retain the adverb which modified them as participles as,
c.
Many
d.
Very
idea(cf.
populus late rex (^En. i. 21), a people ruling far hinc abitio (Plaut.), a going away from here.
quid cogitem de meet [him].
e.
and wide.
I think about going to
obviam
[Perhaps
adjectives, see
188.
e.
In some cases one can hardly say whether the adverb is treated as an adjective modifying the noun (as in 188. e), or the noun modified is treated as an adjective (as in $ 188. d).
NOTE.
198
208.
Conjunctions.
NOTE.
For the
similar constructions,
2O8. Copulative and Disjunctive Conjunctions connect and are regularly followed by the
:
as,
scrlptum senatui et populo (Catil. iii. 10), written to the senate and people. ut eas [partis] sanares et confirmares.(Milon. 68), that you might cure and
strengthen those parts.
neque mea prudentia neque humanis consiliis fretus (Catil. ing neither on my own foresight nor on human wisdom.
a.
ii.
29), rely-
commonly connect
as,
his igitur quam physicis potius credendum existimas (Div. ii. 37), do you think these are more to be trusted than the natural philosophers ? hominem callidiorem vidi neminem quam Phormionem (Ter.), a shrewder man I never saw than Phormio (cf. 247. a). ut non omne vinum sic non omnis natura vetustate coacescit (Cato Major, 65), as every wine does not sour with age, so [does] not every nature. Cf. perge ut instituisti (Rep. ii. 22), go on as you have begun. in me quasi in tyrannum (Philip, xiv. 1 5), against me as against a tyrant.
b. Two or more co-ordinate words, phrases, or sentences are often put together without the use of conjunctions (Asyndeton, 346. c): as, omnes di, homines, all gods and men. summi, medii, infimi, the highest, the middle class, and the lowest.
liberi, servi,
1.
freemen and
slaves.
Where
there are
all,
tion, if
used at
more than two co-ordinate words, etc., a conjuncmust be used with all (or all except the first) as,
:
aut acre
vi.
alien5
iniuria
potentiorum (B. G.
part of
the
powerful.
summa
2.
et
iustitia,
ency,
andjustice.
But words are often so divided into groups that the members of the groups omit the conjunction (or express it), while the groups themselves express the conjunction (or omit it): as,
propudium
illud et
num
portentum, L. Antonius insigne odium omnium homiand monster, Lucius Antonius, the
utrumque
77),
non acerba
loss
(Lael.
he acted in both cases with dignity, without and with no bitterness of feeling.
of authority,
208,209.]
3.
199
The
series,
last
member
of a
is
no grouping apparent
as,
vulni iiultuque (Brut, no), by voice, expression, an-; curam cunsilium vigilautiamque (Phil. vii. 20), care, wisdom, and
vigi-
lance
much
fatigue,
toil,
and
quorum auctoritatem dignitatem voluntatemque defenderas (Fam. whose dignity, honor, and wishes you had defended.
i.
7, 2),
c. Two adjectives belonging to the same noun are regularly connected by a conjunction as,
:
many
weighty reasons.
cum
turn
turn, while
turn,
. .
so also (both
and}.
modo
simul
qua nunc
Thus,
now. now. simul, at the same time now. qua, now now. nunc, noiv
. . .
.
.
cum
difficile est,
is it
diffi-
cult,
erumpunt saepe
amicorum turn
in ipsos
ius76), the faults of friends sometimes break out, friends themselves, now against strangers. modo ait modo negat (Ter. Eun. 714), now he says yes,
now
against their
simul gratias agit, simul gratulatur (Q. C. same time congratulates him.
vi.
7), he thanks
the
and females.
conjunctions of similar meaning are often used together, for the sake of emphasis or to bind a sentence more closely to what precedes: as, at vgr5, but in truth, but surely, still, however; itaque
Two
for, you
see,
fir of
156. d).
clauses, see
Chap. V.
Negative Particles.
$
NOTE.
For the
list
149.
e.
2OO
a.
(
209.
Two
150): as,
1.
nemo non
ne
.
By a
following
quidem, not
even, or
non modo,
not only:
as,
numquam
quidem nisi nefarium conhave you never desired repose, but you have never desired any "war except one ^vh^ch was infamous.
tu
non modo
i.
cupisti (Catil.
eaque nesciebant nee ubi nee qualia essent (Tusc, where or of what kind these things were.
3.
iii.
4), they
knew
not
By neque
introducing a co-ordinate
member
as,
nequeo
satis mirari
neque
/ cannot wonder
expressions.
Thus,
.
.
neque (nee) (not et non), and not, biit not (neither nor). nee quisquam (not et nemo), and no one (nor any one). null! or neutrl credo (not non credo ulli), / do not believe
.
either
(I believe neither). nego haec esse vera (not dico that these things are true).
non
esse),
say this
is
cum
nullo), with no
danger (without
any danger),
nihil
unquam
audivi iucundius,
I
ever heard).
its
statement
is
often
contrary
{Litotes}-, as,
(^En. ii. 777), these things do not occur without the will of the gods. haec ndn nimis exquiro (Att. vii. 18, 3), not very much, i.e. very little.
NOTE.
d.
The
immo.
nay,
is
preceding statement or question, or its form; in the latter case, the same statement is often repeated in a stronger form, so that immo be-
to yes
as,
the cause then not
causa igitur non bona est? immo optima (Att. a good one ? on the contrary, the besf.
ix. 7), is
209,210.]
e.
Questions.
less
20
Minus,
minus
minime",
si
least, often
331.
r.~)
audacissimus ego ex omnibus? minime (Rose. of them all? by no means (not at all).
[For do not in Prohibitions, see
Am.
2),
am I
the boldest
269. a.]
VI.-QUESTIONS.
Indirect.
it?
Indirect Question gives the substance of the question, adapted It depends on a to the form of the sentence in which it is quoted.
An
as,
esset, he asked
what
it
was.
[Direct
[Direct
:
I know
not where
I am.
Questions in Latin are introduced by special interrogative words, and are not distinguished by the order of
words, as in English.
NOTE.
a.
For the
list
\ 149. d.
question of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word as,
:
is
104), shall'THIS
man
die
The
is
sometimes omitted
as,
patere tua consilia non sentis (Cat. i. i), do are manifest? (you do not see, eh?)
you not
see that
your schemes
NOTE.
tion,
and
it* is
In such cases no sign of interrogation appears except in the punctuaoften doubtful whether the sentence is a question or an ironical
statement.
c.
When
the
enclitic
-ne
is
added
is
to
a negative word,
as
in
nonne.
expected.
The
particle
num
sug-
iii.
no doubt,
is
Hurt?
2O2
210, 211.
d. The particle -ne often when added to the verb, less commonly when added to some other word, has the force of nonne as, meministine me in senatu dicere (Cat. 7), don't you remember my say:
i.
(Tuscul.
iii.
37),
do
not rightly
meaning?
;
This was evidently the original meaning of -ne but in most cases the and -ne was used merely to express a question. So the English interrogative no ? shades off into eh f REMARK. The enclitic -ne is sometimes added to other interrogative words: as, utrumne, whether; anne, or; quantane (Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 317), how big f quone malo (id. 290), by what curse ?
NOTE.
e.
question concerning some special circumstance is formed by an interrogative pronoun or adverb ( 106),
quod iam amplius exspectes (Cat. i. 6), what is there for you look for any more? quo igitur haec spectant (Fam. vi. 6), whither then is all this tending? Icare, ubi es (Ov. M. viii. 232), Icarus, where are you?
quid
est
to
REMARK.
mitates pass!
f.
question of this form becomes an exclamation by changing the qualis vir erat! what a man he was! quot cala-
The
particles
nam
(enclitic)
to inter-
rogative pronouns
and adverbs
as,
quisnam est, pray who is it? [quis tandem est? would be stronger.] ubinam gentium sumus (Cat. i. 9), where in the world are we? in qua tandem urbe h5c disputant (Milon. 7), in what city, pray, do they
maintain
this ?
NOTE.
ain
Tandem is
sometimes added
21),
to verbs: as,
don't say so! (say you so, pray?) itane tandem, quaeso, est (Ter. Heaut. 954), ifs so, is it then? itane tandem uxorem duxit Antipb.5 (Ter. Ph. 231), so then, eh ? Antipho's
ix.
tandem (Fam.
you
got married?
The form of Indirect Questions (in English introduced by whether, or by an interrogative pronoun or adverb) is in Latin the same as that of Direct ; the difference being only in the verb, which in indirect questions regularly takes the Subjunctive ( 334). loses its peculiar force ( 210. c). In indirect questions
REMARK.
num
Double Questions.
211.
one.
as to which of two or
211, 212.]
Questions.
203
or Alternative Questions, utrum or -ne, in the first member; an, anne, or; annon, stands whether, or in the second ; and usually an in the third, if necne, not, there be one as, -
In
Double
utrum
nescis,
titou'y
x.
26), is
it
quaero servosne an liberos (Rose. Am. 74), I ask whether slaves utrum hostem an v5s an fortunam utriusque populi ignoratis
10, 6), is it the
or free.
(Liv. xxi.
tfie
two peoples,
in indirect.
necne
a.
in
The
interrogative
particle is
first
member
:
which case an or -ne (anne, necne) may stand in the second as, Gabinio dicam anne Pompei5 an utrique (Manil. 57), shall I say
Gabinius, or to Pompey, or to both ? sunt haec tua verba necne (Tusc. iii. 41), are these your words or not?
b.
to
Sometimes the
tu miseros
first
member
an
c.
putas
illos
(Tusc.
i.
13),
those
men
wretched?
may ask a
utrum
d.
Sometimes the second member is omitted or implied, and utrum question to which there is no alternative as,
:
is,
quern
(Flacc. 45), is he
among the
noblest citizens,
whom,
etc. ?
The
:
questions
-ne
-ne -ne
-ne,
necne
iieciie
-ne
212. There
is
in
common
use mean',
ing simply yes or no. In answering a question affirmatively the verb or some other emphatic word is generally repeated ; in answering negatively, the verb, etc., with n5n or a similar negative : as,
2O4
212.
valetne, is he well? valet, yes (he is well), eratne tecum, was he with you ? non erat, no (he was not) numquidnam novi there is nothing new, is there ? nihil sane, oh ! nothing.
.
a. An intensive or negative particle, a phrase, or a clause times used to answer a direct question thus,
:
is
some-
For YES
ita vero,
etiam, even
ita, so,
true, etc.
etc.
factum, true
2.
(it
right, etc.
For NO:
nullo
modo, by no means.
cf.
209. e).
minime vero, no, not by any means ; oh ! no, etc. non quidem, why, no ; certainly not, etc. non hercle veto, why, gracious, no (certainly not, by Hercules)
Examples are
aut etiam aut
quidnam? an laudationes?
n5n
ita, why, what? is it eulogies? just so. respondere (Academ. ii. 104), to answer (categorically)
yes or no. estne ut fertur forma? sane (Ter. Eun. 361), is [she] as say she is (is her beauty as it is said) ? oh! yes.
handsome as
they
fugisne hinc? ego ver5 ac lubens (Ter. And. 337), will you clear out from here ? indeed I will, and be glad to.
miser ergo Archelaus? certe si iniustus (Tuscul. v. 35), was Archelaus wretched then ? certainly, if he was unjust. haec contemnitis? minime (De Orat. ii. 295), do you despise these things ? not at all.
volucribusne et feris?
beasts ?
minime vero
(Tuscul.
i.
104), to the
birds
and
ex
tui
why, of course not. animi sententia tu uxorem habes? non hercle, ex mei animi sen-
tentia
b.
(De Orat.
ii.
260),
Lord !
no, etc.
tive,
In answering a double question, one or some part of it, must be repeated : as,
it you
member
of the alterna-
ego [eram], it was I. be distinguished those must (alternative') questions which are in themselves single, but of which some detail only is alternative. These have the common disjunctive particles aut or vel (-ve). Thus,
tune an frater erat, was
or your brother?
REMARK.
From double
quaer5
num
iniuste
aut improbe
fecerit (Off.
iii.
54),
I ask
whether he acted
Here
there
either of the
The only inquiry is whether the is no double question. two things supposed, not which of the two he did.
man
did
Construction of Cases.
205
CHAPTER
II.
Construction of Cases.
NOTE. The Cases of nouns express their relations to other words in the sentence. The most primitive way of expressing such relations is by mere juxtaposition of roots or stems. From this arises in time composition, the growing together of stems
by means of which a complex expression arises with its parts mutually dependent. Thus such a complex as armo-gero- comes to mean arm-bearing; fldi-cen-, Later, Cases are formed by means of suffixes to express playing on the lyre. more definitely such relations, and Syntax begins. But the primitive method of composition still continues to hold an important place even in the most highly
developed languages.
Originally the family of languages to which Latin belongs had at least seven But in Latin the Locative and Instrumental were cases, besides the Vocative. lost except in a few words (where they remained without being recognized as
cases)
and
their functions
($
is
224, 242).
The Nominative,
Accusative,
relations {Direct Cases, 31. g. note). and the -S in which it generally ends
The Nominative
is
thought to be a demonstrative pronoun The Vocative, usually without a termination, or like the Nominative ( 32, n. 2). never had a suffix of its own. The Accusative, most frequently ( \ 33. a), perhaps formed by the suffix -m (doubtless another demonstrative), originally connected the noun loosely with the verb-idea, not necessarily expressed by a verb proper, but as well by a noun or adjective (see page 235, head-note). The other cases were formed by combination with various pronominal suffixes,
and
first probably expressed relations of place or direction (TO, FROM, AT, Indirect Cases, $ 31. g. note). But these original meanings have become confused with each other, and in many instances the cases are no longer distinguishable either in form or meaning. Thus the Locative was for the most part lost from
at
WITH:
its
and
its
freely
258. /).
To
indi-
more precisely, Prepositions (originally Adverbs) gradually became necessary. These by degrees rendered the case-endings useless, and so have finally superseded them in all modern languages derived from Latin. But in Latin a large and various body of relations was still expressed by case-forms. It is to be noticed that cases in their literal use tended to adopt the preposition, and
in their figurative uses to retain the old construction.
and Time, $ 254, 256.) The word casus, case, is a translation of the Greek irruxris, a falling away (from the erect position). The term irruxris was originally applied to the Oblique Cases ($ y.g), to mark them as variations from the Nominative, which was called opOr) (casus rectus). The later name Nominative (casus nominat'ivus) is from nomino, and means the naming case. The other case-names (except ablative) are of Greek origin. The name Genitive (casus genetlvus) is a translation of yeviKTj [TTTUHTIS], from ytvos (doss), and refers to the class to which a thing belongs. Dative (casus dativus, from do) is translated from Sort/cr;, and means the case of giving. Accusative
243; Ablative of Place
(accusativus, from accuse) is a mistranslation of amcm/cTJ (the case of causing), from alria, cause, and meant to the Romans the case of accusing. The name Vocative (yocat'ivus, from VOCO) is translated from ffXrjTi/cV; (the case of calling.
The name
Ablative (ablativus, from ablatus, aufero) case the Greek had lost.
This
206
213.
-GENITIVE.
noun
it
regularly used to express the relation of one it is sometimes called the another. adjective case, to distinguish the Dative and the Ablative, which may be called adverbial cases. Its uses classified as follows
NOTE.
The Hence
Genitive
is
to
from may be
1.
2.
I.
GENITIVE WITH
3. 4.
NOUNS
Of Possession ( 214). Of Source developed into Material ( 214. e). Of Quality (215). Of the Whole, after words designating a Part
$
(Partitive,
216).
5.
II.
GENITIVE WITH
ADJECTIVES:
f i.
j 2.
i.
III.
(2.
Of Specification (later use) ( 218. c}. Of Memory, Feeling, etc. ($ 219, 221-23). Of Accusing, etc. (Charge or Penalty) (220).
I.
noun used to limit or define another, and not the same person or thing, is put in the Genitive. meaning
213.
This relation
sition
is
in English
by the prepo-
OF:
as,
vir
summae virtu tis, a man of the greatest courage. pars militum, a part of the soldiers.
cultus deorum, worship of the gods. vacatio laboris, a respite from toil. victor omnium gentium, conqueror of all nations.
is
either Subjective
1. The Subjective genitive denotes that to which the noun limited belongs, or from which it is derived ( 214). 2. The Objective genitive denotes that toward which an action or
feeling
is
directed
(
is
217
ff.).
by the following example. The phrase patris, love of a father, may mean love felt by a father a fathers love (subjective genitive), or love towards a father (objective
This distinction
illustrated
amor
',
genitive).
belongs,
NOTE. The genitive seems to have denoted originally that to which something and hence it was originally subjective. The objective genitive is a later development, through such expressions as mei laudatores, my admirers, in which
first
me
(cf.
217. note).
conceived as belonging to me, and afterwards felt as admiring For this reason the distinction between the subjective and
is
(cf.
197. a).
214.]
Possessive Genitive.
207
214. The Subjective (lenitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the
Material, (3) the Quality.
1. a.
i.
:
Possessive Genitive,
The
as,
owner
lihri Ciceronis, the books of (written by) Cicero. Alexandri equus, Alexanders horse.
2.
is
For the genitive of possession a possessive or derivative adjective often used, regularly for the possessive genitive of the personal
(
pronouns
liber
meus,
my
book.
aliena pericula, other men's dangers. Sullana tempora, the times of Sulla.
b.
also aliorum.]
[Oftener Sullae.]
:
The noun
limited
is
as,
ad Castoris [aedes],
to the
Hectoris Andromache
Andromache.
The
possessive genitive
:
is
its
noun by a verb
haec domus
tion.
as,
est patris mei, this house is my fathers. tutelae nostrae [eos] cluximus (Liv.) , -we held them [to be] in our protec-
compendi
facere, to save
to
lucri facere,
(Fam.
ii.
i$},you know
I am now
examples
all for
Pompey
(all
Pompey's).
relation to the
184, 185). in $ 213
REMARK.
that a predicate
d.
An
infinitive or a clause,
:
when used
as a noun,
is
often limited
as,
neque sui iudici [erat] decernere (B. C. i. 35), nor was it for his judgment to decide (nor did it belong to his judgment). cuiusvls hominis est errare (Cic.), it is any man's [liability] to err. negavit moris esse Graecorum, ut in convivio virorum accumberent mulieres (Ver. ii. i. 66), he said it was not the custom of the Greeks for women to appear as guests (recline) at the banquets of men.
2o8
timidi
est
214, 215,
necem (Ov. M.
iv.
115), it is
death.
23), it
was folly
to
hope,
etc.).
pauca loqui,
it is
man)
say
little.
REMARK. This construction is regular with adjectives of the third declension instead of the neuter nominative (see the last two examples).
NOTE.
this construction,
derivative or possessive adjective maybe used for the genitive in and must be used for the genitive of a personal pronoun : as,
meum
(not mei),
it is
not for
me
to lie. to
liumanum
(for
hominis)
est errare, it is
man's nature
is
human).
2.
e.
Genitive of Material.
genitive may denote the Substance or Material of which a thing consists (compare 216, 244) : as,
talentum auri, a talent oj gold.
flumina
lactis,
The
rivers of milk.
is strictly
NOTE.
ofgold,
This
244. c).
a genitive of source
(cf.
[out]
the
word madness.
the regular form), the city
cf. c.~\
[A
For the genitive with the ablatives causa, gratia, for the sake of;
ergo, because of; and the indeclinable Instar, like; also with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far as, see
223. e. h. For the genitive of the
298.
3.
Genitive of Quality.
is
when the
vir
quality
virtutis,
is
modified by an adjective
as,
man
deliberationis, it is
laboris, the
iudici
an affair ofgreat deliberation. ant [a creature] ofgreat toil. (Nep. Att. 9), but he [a man] of independent (his
own) judgment.
215, 216.]
Partitive Genitive.
Ablative of Quality ($ 251).
209
NOTE.
Compare
may
dentift vir, a
man of
surpassing wisdom
hom5
the greatest courage. But in general the Genitive is thus used rather of The Genitive of essential, the Ablative of special or incidental characteristics.
man of
a.
The The
genitive of quality
is
to tails, such
pedum, a trench of three feet [in depth], murus sedecim pedum, a wall of sixteen feet [high],
c.
252. a.
4.
Partitive Genitive.
tive of the
a.
1.
216. Words denoting a Part are followed by the geniWhole to which the part belongs.
Partitive words, followed
by the
genitive, are
Nouns
or Pronouns
as,
was nothing
left.
Pronominal words
as,
alter consulum, one of the [two] consuls. unus tribunorum, one of the tribunes (cf.
c,
below).
plurimum
of all Gaul.
octavus sapientum (Hor.), the eighth wise
Hispanorum
alii
man (eighth of the wise men). of the Spaniards some arf on the
maior fratrum, the elder of the brothers. animalium fortiora, the stronger [of] animals.
3.
as,
tantum
aliquid id loci (or locorum), that spot ofground. id temporis, at that time ( 240. b}. plana urbis, the level parts of the town.
of coins).
2io
REMARK.
partitively.
216.
rarely used
Thus
;
nihil nihil
but
rabilis.]
4.
as,
satis
much
ease (too
little
of ease).
next in order (thence of place). turn temporis, at that point of time (then of time). eo miseriarum (Sail.), to that [pitch] of misery.
inde
loci,
the
The
poets and
adjectives, instead of a
noun
as,
sequimur te sancte deorum (^En. iv. 576), we follow thee, O holy deity. [For sancte deus.] nigrae lanarum (Plin. H. N.viii. \<y$))black wools. [For nigrae lanae.]
electi
iuvenum (Liv.
cunctos
hominum
e.~\
c. Cardinal numerals regularly take the Ablative with e (ex) or de instead of the Partitive Genitive. So also quidam commonly, and
as,
tribunis, one of the tribunes. [But also, unus tribunorum.] minumus ex illis (Jug. ir), the youngest of them. medius ex tribus (ib.), the middle one of the three.
unus ex
quidam ex
hominem de
d.
comitibus meis, a
man
of my companions.
and quisque, each, with Nouns Uterque, are used as adjectives in agreement, but with Pronouns always take a
both (properly each},
partitive genitive
:
as,
uterque consul, both the consuls ; but, uterque nostrum, both of us. unus quisque vostrum, each one of you.
e.
So
also
words
denoting a part
when
thought
of.
Thus,
nos omnes, all of us (we all). [Not omnes nostrum.] quot sunt hostes, how many of the enemy are there ? cave inimicos qui multi sunt, beware ofyour enemies, who are many. multi milites, many of the soldiers. nemo Romanus, not one Roman.
217,218.]
211
Objective Genitive.
is
The Objective
and Verbs. 217. Nouns
Genitive
of action, agency,
:
as,
opinio
virtutis,
NOTE. This usage is an extension of the idea of belonging to (Possessive GenThus in the phrase odium Caesaris, hate of Ccesar, the hate in a passive itive).
sense belongs to Caesar, as odium, though in its active sense he is the object of it, as hate (cf. $ 213. note). Hence the expression of such ideas often varies; see a and c below.
t
a.
The
objective genitive
is
as,
mea
my meus laudator, my
invidia,
which
am
the object).
1
(one
who
praises me).
).
metus
NOTE.
b.
These possessives
above).
Rarely the objective genitive is used with a noun already limited by another genitive as, animi multarum rerum percursio (Tusc. iv. 31), the mind's traversing of
:
many
c.
things.
is
genitive: as,
in Caesarem, hate of Ccesar. [Cf. odium Caesaris, note above.] merita erga me (Cic.), services to me. auxilium aclversus inimicos (id.), help against enemies. impetus in me (id.), attack on me.
odium
life.
NOTE.
So
226. b)
as,
As we
"
say,
212
These are
itive
218.
Adjectives,
Adjectives denoting desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, power, sharing, guilt, and their opposites as,
:
a.
fastidiosus litterarum, disdaining letters. in law. [So also the ablative, iiire, cf.
'.
253.]
i.
50),
devoid of sense
and speech.
military science.
vostri
plenus h&z\, full ofgoodfaith. egenus omnis spei, destitute of all hope. potens tempestatum, having sway over the storms. impotens irae, ungovernable in anger.
particeps coniurationis, sharing in the conspiracy. affinis rei capitalis, involved in a capital crime.
Verbals in -ax
i.e.
adjectives,
164. /) ; also participles in -ns when used as ( to denote a disposition and not a particular act: as,
iii.
3),
populi (Ov.), a circus big enough to hold the people. (Liv.), a very great eater and drinker (very able to contain food and wine). si quem tui amantiorem cognovisti (Q. Fr. i. i), if you have become acquainted 'with any one more fond ofyou. multitude insolens belli (B. C. ii. 36), a crowd unused to war.
circus capax
vmique capacissimus
sitiens
(i.e.
habitually bloodthirsty).
NOTE
governed by
Participles in -ns, when used as participles, take the case regularly the verb to which they belong as,
:
Tiberius sitiens
sanguinem
NOTE
note
i)
2. Occasionally participial forms in -ns are treated as participles (see even when they express a disposition or character: as,
virtus
quam
alii
esse, alii
obtemperantem temiv.
perantiae praeceptis et earn subsequentem (Tuscul. of the teachings of temperance and obedient to her.
c.
30), observant
The
adjective, to
poets and later writers use the genitive with almost any denote that with reference to which the quality exists
:
{Genitive of Specification}
callidus rei militaris (Tac.
as,
ii.
H.
pauper aquae (Hor. Od. iii. 30. n), scant of water. notus animi paterni (id. ii. 2. 6), famed'for a paternal spirit*
218,219.]
Genitive with
Verbs.
213
fessi rerum (/lui. i. 178), weary of foil. integer vitae scelerisque purus (Ilor.), upright in
lift,
and unstained by
$
guilt.
NOTE NOTE
I.
253.
2.
The
Genitive of Specification
tion with relative adjectives. Thus callidus denotes knowledge ; pauper, want ; purus, innocence ; and so these words in a manner belong to the classes under a.
RKMAKK.
(really locative,
animi
223. c)
as,
So by
imitation
et
sanus mentis
audax ingenii
d.
jective, see
Remembering and Forgetting. 219. Verbs of Remembering and Forgetting take the
Genitive of the object
act : as,
1.
when they
when used
of
a single
Genitive:
iv. 19),
i.
mentem
illius diei,
bethink
me of that day
i.
comes
my mind
slaughter
of that day).
incendiorum
(Cat.
6),
turn your
mind from
nee unquam
2.
and
101),
Accusative:
memoriam
est (Bru. 217), he forgot the whole case. recordarl (Arch, i), to recall the memory of childhood.
a. The Accusative is almost always used of a person or thing membered by an eye-witness as,
:
re-
memineram Paullum
b.
(Loci. 9),
I r-emembered Paulus.
is
denotes a single act and almost always followed by the Accusative as,
recollect, recall,
:
Recorder,
therefore
214
recordare
[219,220.
unanimous
agreement of the [audience in the] theatre. recordamini omnis civilis dissensiSnes (Cat.
wars.
c.
genitive of the thing except in the case of a neuter pronoun, which 238. b}. put in the accusative (cf.
Catilina
is
admonebat alium egestatis, alium cupiditatis suae (Sail. Cat. 21), Catiline reminded one of his poverty, another of his cupidity. unum illud monere te possum, / can remind you of this one thing.
But
moneo
note).
is
found only in
238. b.
NOTE.
de
of
as,
admoneo de syngrapha Sittiana (Fam. viii. 4, 5), / remind you again and again of the bond of Sittius. officium vestrum ut vos malo cogatis commonerier (Plaut. Ps. 150), to be
reminded of your duty.
2.
of Accusing, Condemning, and Acquitting, take the genitive of the charge or penalty : as,
22O. Verbs
me furti, he accuses me of theft. peculates damnatus (pecuniae publicae damnatus) (Flac. 43), condemned for embezzlement. video non te absolutum esse improbitatis, sed illos damnatos esse caedis (Ver. ii. i. 72), / see, not that you were acquitted of outrage, but that they were condemned for homicide.
arguit
a. Peculiar genitives,
capitis, as in
under
damnare
maiestatis [laesae], treason (crime against the dignity of the State). repetundarum [rerum], extortion (lit. of an action for claiming back money
voti, in
voti,
bound
[to the
i.e.
pecuniae (damnare,
b.
i.
Other constructions
The
ablative of price
regularly of a definite
(cf.
amount of
fine,
and
Frusinates tertia parte agri damnati (Liv. x. i), the people of Frusino condemned [to forfeit] a third part of their land.
220, 821.]
vitia
Gcnitire
with Verbs of
autem hominum atquc fraudcs damnis ignominiia vinculis verberibus exsiliis morte dainnantur (I )i: >.i. I'M)- but the vices and crimes of mot arc punished with fines, dishonor, chains, scourging, exile, death.
<
2.
The
an
assassin
(among
i,
the assassins).
21),
de
3.
vi et
convictedof assault
and treason.
The
accusative with
ad
ad mortem (Tac.),
to death.
ad (in) metalla,
to the
mines.
origin of these genitive constructions is pointed at by pecuniae (Aul. Cell. xx. I, 38), to condemn to pay money, in a case of injury to the person; quantae pecuniae iudicati essent (id. xx. 1,47), how much money
NOTE.
The
damnare
a mere suit for debt; confess! aeris ac debit! owe an admitted sum due. These expressions show that the genitive of the penalty comes from the use of the genitive of value to express a sum of money due either as a debt or as a fine. Since in early civilizations all offences could be compounded by the payment of fines, the genitive came to be
they were adjudged to pay, iudicati (ibid.), adjudged
in
to
actual crime
used of other punishments, not pecuniary. From this to the genitive of the is an easy transition, inasmuch as there is always a confusion between crime and penalty (cf. E.ng. guilty of death).
3.
Verbs of Peeling.
221. Many verbs of Feeling take the genitive of the Thus object which excites the feeling.
a.
Verbs of
pity, as
genitive: as,
miserescite regis (ALn. viii. 573),/*Vx the king. miserere animl non digna ferentis (id. ii. 144), pity a soul that endures un-
worthy things.
But miseror, commiseror, bewail, take the accusative as, communem condicionem miserari (Murena 55), bewail the common
:
lot.
The impersonals miseret, paenitet, piget, pudet, taedet pertaesum est), take the Genitive of the cause of the feeling and
b.
(or the
35), these
it
.
rcpcnteth
him of the
evil.~\
me
me
(Phil.
ii.
69),
for
morum
I am
and disgusted
tired of the
est
(Liv.
iii.
67),
you became
2l6
c.
[321,222.
An
infinitive,
a neuter pronoun may be used with these impersonal verbs (except miaeret) instead of the genitive of a noun as,
me
d.
nihil
quod
paenitere
etc.,
:
/ repent of having done this. possit (Cic.), nothing that may cause
repentance.
Miseret,
te
noun as subject
nonne
as,
these things
shame you?
222. The impersonals interest and refert take the genitive of the person (rarely of the thing) affected : as, Clodi intererat Milonem perire (Mil. 56), it -was the interest of Clodius that Milo should die.
faciundum esse aliquid quod illorum magis quam sua retulisse videretur (Jug. in), that something must be done which seemed to be more for their interest than his own. video enim quid mea intersit, quid utrmsque nostrum (Fam.vii.23),/0r 1
see
what
is for
both.
subject of the verb is a neuter pronoun or a substantive clause. a. Instead of the Genitive of a Personal Pronoun the corresponding Possessive is used in the ablative singular feminine after interest or
The
refert: as,
quid tua id refert? magni (Ter. Ph. 723), how does that concern you? much. [See also the last two examples above.] vehementer intererat vestra qui patres estis (Plin. Ep. iv. 13), it would be very much to your advantage, y oil who are fathers.
b.
The
accusative with
ad
is
interested
as,
interest
(Fam.
i.
xvi. i), it is
ofgreat consequence
difference as to
refert
16, 6) it
makes a
the crop.
NOTE. Very rarely the Person is expressed by ad and the Accusative, or (with refert) by the Dative (probably a popular corruption) : as,
quid id
ad me
aut
ad
meam rem
refert (Plautus,
ference does that make to me or to my interests ? quid referat intra naturae fines viventi (Hor. Sat. i. 1. 49), what difference does it make to me who live within the limits of natural desire? So, nil referre dedecori (Tac. Ann. xv. 65), that it makes no difference as
to the disgrace.
223.]
<
217
Verbs
of Plenty
and Want.
iiu;*.
Want govern
the geni-
tive
as,
quid est quod defensidnis indigeat? (Rose. Am. 34), "what is there that needs defence ? satagit rerum suarum, he has his hands full with his (nun affairs.
NOTE.
$
But verbs of plenty and want more commonly take the ablative (see
.),
243. a, 248.
except
Other Verbs.
genitive sometimes follows potior, get possession of; as always in the phrase potiri rgrum, to be master of affairs. Thus,
a.
illius
The
regni
potiri
(Fam.
i.
7,
kingdom.
126), Cleanthes
rerum potiri putat (Acad. ii. sway and is lord of the universe.
249).
:
Some By
no
other verbs rarely take the Genitive 221 analogy with those mentioned in
sis veritus
as,
neque huius
2.
feminae prlmariae
As
as,
[Cf. fastidiosus.] (Plaut. Aul. 245), he disdains me. studet till (quoted N. D. iii. 72), he is zealous for you. [Cf. studiosus.]
fastidit
mel
3.
as,
xi.
iustitiaene prius mlrer, belline laborum (^En. admire [his] justice or his toils in war ?
126), shall
rather
neque ille sepositi ciceris nee longae invldit avenae (Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 84), nor does he grudge his garnered peas, etc. [But cf. invidus, parcus.] abstineto irarum (Hor. Od. iii. 27. 69), refrain from wrath (but cf.
223,_2 43 ./ Rem.).
laborum
clecipitur (Hor. Od. ii. 13. 38), he is beguiled of his woes. nee sennonis fallebar (Plaut. Ep. 239), nor did I miss the conversation. me laborum levas (Plaut. Rud. 247), you relieve me of my troubles.
c. The apparent Genitive animi (really Locative) is used with a 218. c. Rem.) few verbs of feeling and the like (cf. as,
:
Antipho
my mind
animi pendeo (PI. Merc. 127), 7 am in suspense. me animi fallit CT,ucr. i- 022), my mind deceives me. So, by analogy, desipicbam mentis (PI. Epid. 138), I was out of my head.
218
["
22a
PECULIAR GENITIVES.
rarely in Exclamations, in
:
d.
genitive occurs
imitation of the
as,
mercimoni
often used with the ablatives causa, 1 gratia, for genitive the sake of ; ergo, because of; and the indeclinable instar, like; also
is
The
with pridie, the day before; postridie, the day after; tenus, as far
as: as,
honoris causa, with due respect (for the sake of honor). verbi gratia, for example. eius legis ergo, on account of this law.
equus instar mentis (yn. ii. 15), a horse like (the image of) a motmtain. laterum tenus (^En. x. 210), as far as the sides.
NOTE
($ 214.
i.
/).
2.
Of these the genitive with causa The others are of various origin.
is like
that in
no men insaniae
In prose of the Republican Period pridie and postridie are thus pridie (postridie) eius die!, the day before (after} that (cf. the eve, the morrow of that day}. Tacitus uses the construction with other words as, postridie insidiarum, the day after the plot. For the accusative, see 261. a. Tenus takes also the ablative ( 260. e).
NOTE
used only
:
in the expressions
II.
-DATIVE.
Dative seems to be closely akin to the Locative (cf. ofaoi, at home, with ofap, to a house) , and must have had the primary meaning of to or towards. But this local meaning appears in Latin only in the poets ( 225. b. 3) and in some adverbial forms (as eo, illo, thither, cf. 148. note, 7). In Latin the Dative has two classes of derived meanings I. The Dative denotes an object not as caused by the action, or directly affected by it (like the Accusative), but as reciprocally sharing in the action or receiving it consciously or actively. Thus in dedit puero librum, he gave the boy a book, or fecit mini iniuriam, he did me a wrong, there is an idea of the
NOTE.
The
boy receiving the book, and of my feeling the wrong. Hence expressions denoting persons or things with personal attributes are more likely to be in the dative than those denoting mere things.2 See examples under \ 224. This difference between the Accusative and the Dative (i.e. between the Direct and the Indirect Object) depends upon the point of view implied in the verb or Hence verbs of similar meaning (to an English existing in the mind of the writer. mind) often differ in the case of their object (see $ 227. a and b} 2. The Dative is used to express the purpose of an action or that for which it serves (see 233). This construction is especially used with abstract expressions, or those implying an action. the English for his sake, on my account. Spanish the dative is used whenever a person yo veo al hombre, I see [to] the man.
1
Compare
So
in
is
224, 225.]
Those two
219
some
:
classes of Datives
cases
and are
occasionally confounded, as in \ 234 (cf. especially \ 234. b). Tlu- uses of the Dative, arranged practically, are the following
i.
As iMMKKtT OBJECT
(general use)
:
f i.
(
2.
1.
2. 2.
Special or Idiomatic
With Transitives ($ 225). With Intransitivcs (<$ 226-28, 230). Of Possession (with esse) ( 231). Of Agency (with Gerundive) ($ 232).
Uses:
3.
4. 5.
Of Purpose or End (predicate use) Of Fitness, etc. (with Adjectives) ($ Of Reference (dat'ivus commodi) (
($ 233).
234).
235, 236).
is
This is called the Indirect Object ( 177). English by the Objective with to or for. Thus, dat librum puero, he gives a book to the boy.
It is
cedite temporl, yield to the occasion. provincia Ciceroni ohtigit, the province fell by lot to Cicero. inimicis non credimus, we do not trust [to] our enemies.
sic
clvitatis saluti consulite, consult for the safety mihi videtur, so it seems to me.
of the
to
State.
me.
hoc
tibi
225. The Dative of the Indirect Object with the Accusative of the Direct may be used with any transitive verb whose meaning allows (see as, 177)
:
do tibi librum, I give you a book. illud tibi affirmo (Fam. i. *]},this I assure you. commendo tibi eius omnia negotia (Fam. i. 3),
I put
your hands.
dabis profecto misericordiae quod iracundiae negavisti (Dei. 40), you will surely grant to mercy what y'ou refused to wrath. litteras a te mihi stator tuus reddidit (Fam.ii. 17), delivered to me a letter.
a.
Many
note).
verbs have both a transitive and an intransitive use ( 177. These take either the Accusative with the Dative, or the
:
Dative alone
as,
tibi
hanc pecuniam
in
b.
hac re
tibi
cred5,
credo, I trust this money to you. [Transitive.] I trust you in this. [Intransitive.]
Certain verbs implying motion vary in their construction between and the Accusative of the End of
(
Motion
258. b).
Thus
22O
1
.
225.
instead of the
verbs take the Accusative (with or without a preposition) Indirect Object, when the idea of Motion prevails
(258):
litteras
quas ad Pompeium scrips! (Att. iii. 8), the letter which I have written [and sent] to Pompey. [Cf. non quo haberem quod tibi scrlberem (Att. iv. 4), not that I had anything to write to you.~\
litterae
extemplo
KSmam scriptae
(Liv.
xli.
16),
letter
was immediately
[Cf. ut
written [and sent] to Rome. hostes in fugam dat (B. G. v. 51), he puts the enemy to flight. dem fugae (Att. vii. 23), to take to flight^
me
ad me
litteras dedisses
(Fam.
iv.
4),
7),
I have
given
to
letters
omnes rem ad Pompeium deferri volunt (id. i. i), all wish the matter to be put in the hands of Pompey. an iterum se reddat in arma (.^En. x. 684), or should throw himself again
into thejight (only poetic).
the other hand, many verbs usually followed by the Accusative or in, take the Dative when the idea of motion is merged in some other idea as,
2.
On
with
ad
nee quicquam quod non mini Caesar detulerit (Fam. which Ccesar did not communicate to me.
iv.
13),
and
nothing
mini
litteras mittere
(Fam.
vii.
eum
librum tibi
Catonem tuum mihi mitte (id. vii. 24), send me your Cato. cures ut mihi vehantur (id. viii. 4, 5), take care that they be conveyed to me. cum alius alii subsidium ferrent (B. G. ii. 26), while one lent aid to another. quibus (copiis rex Deiotarus) imperatSribus nostris auxilia mitteret (Deiot.
22),
with
to
our
generals.
3.
(see
End
of Motion
is
often expressed
by the dative
c. For the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing after verbs of threatening and the like, see 22j.f. d. Certain verbs may take either the Dative of the person and the Accusative of the thing, or (in a different sense) the Accusative of the
as,
donat coronas suls, he presents wreaths to his men; or, donat suos coronis, he presents his men with wreaths. vincula exuere sibi (Ov. M. vii. 772), to shake off the leash (from himself). omnes armis exuit (B. G. v. 51), he stripped them all of their arms. aram sanguine adspergere (N. D. iii. 88), to sprinkle the altar with blood.
to
225, 226.]
221
Such arc dono, impertio, induo, exuo, adspergo, inspergo, circumdo, circumfundo, prohibeS, intercludo, and in poetry accingo, implico, and similar verbs.
NOTE i. luterdlco./orttid, takes either (i) the dative of the person and the accusative of the thing, or (2) the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing :
as,
interdixit
histrionibus scaenam (Suet. Dom. 7), he forbade the actors [to appear on] the stage (he prohibited the stage to the actors). [Cf. interdictum est mare Antiati populo (Liv.viii. 14), the sea was forbidden
people of Antium.~\
7), shall
to the
feminis (dat.) purpurae usu interdicemus (Liv. xxxiv. women the wearing of purple ? aqua et igni alicui interdicere, to forbid the use offire
we forbid
and water.
NOTE 2. The Dative with the Accusative is used in poetry with many verbs oi preventing, protecting, and the like, which usually take the Accusative and AblaIntercludo and arceo sometimes take the Dative and Accusative, even in tive.
prose:
as,
hisce omnis aditus ad Sullam intercludere (Rose. Amer. no), to shut these men offfrom all access to Sulla (close to them every approach).
[Cf. uti
tc
intercluderet (B. G.
i.
48).
and supplies^
hunc (oestrum) arcebis pecori (Georg. iii. 154), you shall keep this away from the flock. [Cf. ilium arcuit Gallia (Phil. v. 37), he excluded him from Gaul.~\ solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the summer heat from the
flock.
e.
Verbs which
and dative
when used
as,
:
haec nSbis nuntiantur, these things are told us. [Active haec [quidam] nobis nuntiat.] Crasso divitiae non invidentur, Crassus is not enviedfor his wealth. [Active : CrassS divitias non invidet.] decem talenta oppidanis imperantur, ten talents are exacted of the townspeople.
[Active
2.
as,
20), let
to
the
gown.
credimus nuntio,
we
222
226, 227.
the heaviest
36), so
/ have answered
turn
oitt to
it
may
each.
Indirect Object,
NOTE
NOTE
i.
Intransitive verbs
The
225. a).
Ced6
t< y*Wd?,
:
as,
75),
give
tip
to
one the
a.
Many
phrases consisting of a noun with the copula sum or to an intransitive verb and take a kind
235)
:
as,
(cf.
persuadeo).
witness) to this fact?
the raids.
testifies (is
populationibus
dative
is
(Liv.
ii.
an end to
b.
The
in a sense
as,
(i.e. a man assigned to Caesar), heres fratri suo, his brother's heir (heir to his brother), ministri sceleribus, agents of crime.
The
cases in a
and b differ from the constructions of more closely connected in idea with some
227. note 2,
single
word
which
it
Many
Thus
227. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries also to believe, persuade, command, 1 obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take
;
the dative
cur
as.
mini invides, why do you envy me ? mihi parcit atque ignoscit, he spares and pardons me.
ignosce patrio dolori (Liv.
iii.
13),
I was
non omnibus servio (Att. xiii. 49), I am not a servant cum ceteris turn mihi ipsi displiceo (Fam. iv. 13),
people
1
every man.
dissatisfy other
These include, among others, the following: adversor, credo, faveS, ignosco, impero, invideS, irascor, suscenseo, resisto, noceo, parco, pareo, placed, servio, studeo, suadeo (persuadeo), tempers, (obtempero), dicto audiens sum.
fldo,
227.
1
Dative
witli
Special Verbs.
22$
sic
non parcam operae (id. xiii. 27), I will spare no pains. mihi persunsl (Cat. M. 78), so I kav* persuaded mytelf. mihi Fnhius I^MOSCITO dchchit si niitius eius famae parccre videbor cjuam ante consului (Tull. 3), l:abius will have to pardon me if I scent to
spare
//is
reputation
less
than, etc.
i.
In these verbs the Latin retains an original intransitive meaning. to emy, was originally to look askance at one ; servire is to be a slave to ; suadere is to make a thing pleasant (sweet) to one. NOTE 2. Some common phrases regularly take the dative precisely like verbs of similar meaning. Such are
i.
NOTE
:
Thus
invidere,
praesto esse, be on
morem
gratum
clicto
gerere,
facere,
do a favor
gratificari).
(cf. confidebat). Such are
audiens esse, be obedient (cf. oboedire). cui fidem habebat (E.G. i. 19), in whom he had confidence
also
So
many
exists.
bene (male, pulchre, aegre, etc.) esse, to be well iniuriam facere, do injustice to.
diem
(name a day
for, etc.).
opus
a favor.
injury.
to.
damnum
dare, inflict
to
an
acceptum (expensum)
honorem habere,
a.
pay honor
Some
Such
are
iuvo,
dfificio./tf//;
hie pulvis
delecto, please.
oculum meum
my
eye.
nocent,
b.
many
eyes.~\
Some
meaning.
dative),
Such are adulor (generally accusative), aemulor (rarely comitor, despero, praestolor, medeor, medicor. Thus,
adulatus est
adulari
c.
Antdnio (Nep.
Neronem
Att. 8), he flattered Antony. (Tac. Ann. xvi. 19), to flatter Nero.
Some
meaning.
i See Lexicon under convenio, cuplo. Insists, recipid, renxintio, solvo, succedo, caved.
maneo, praeverto,
224
227.
cum
parti civium consulunt (Off. i. 85), they consult for a part of the citizens, te consuluissem (Fam. xi. 29), when I had consulted you. metuens pueris (Plaut. Am. 1113), anxious for the children. nee metuunt deos (Ter. Hec. 772), they fear not even the gods. [So also
timeo.]
prospicite patriae (Cat. iv. 3), have regardfor the State. prospicere sedem senectuti (Liv.iv.49), to provide a habitation
NOTE.
legionis
trust,
as,
decimae cui quam maxima confidebat (B. G. legion, in which he had the utmost confidence.
multum natura
the strength
loci confidebant (E.G. i. 9), they had great confidence in of their position (the nature of the place).
d.
Some
verbal nouns
as insidiae,
take the dative like the verbs from which they are derived
as,
invidia consuli (Sail.), ill-will against the consul (cf. invide5). obtemperati5 legibus (Leg. i. 42), obedience to the laws (cf. obtempero).
responsio (De Or. iii. 54), an answer to himself'(cf. responded). NOTE. In these cases the dative depends immediately upon the verbal force 226. a and b} of the noun and not on any complex idea (cf.
sibi ipsi
.
e. 1.
libet (lubet),
it
pleases]
licet,
it
is
allowed : as
quasi tibi
2.
quod mihi maxime lubet (Fam. i. 8, 3), what most pleases me. non liceret (Fam. vi. 8), as if you were not permitted.
satis,
as,
mihi ipse numquam satisfacio (Fam. i. i), I'never satisfy myself. optimo viro maledicere (Deiot. 28), to speak ill of a most excellent man. pulchrum est benefacere reipublicae (Sail. Cat. 3), it is a glorious thing to
benejit the State.
NOTE.
as such by the
These are not real compounds, but phrases, and were apparently Romans. Thus
:
felt
satis officio meo, satis illorum voluntati qui a me hoc petiverunt factum esse arbitrabor (Verres v. 130), that enough has been done for, etc.
the following gratificor, gratulor, haereo probS, studeS, supplied, excello plaudo, permitto,
3.
With
(rarely),
:
nubo,
as,
haerentem capiti coronam (Hor. S. i. 10), a wreath clinging to the head. PompeiS se gratificari putant (Fam. i. i), they suppose they are doing Pompey a service. tibi permitto responclere (N. D. iii. 4), I give you leave to answer. gratulor tibi, mi Balbe (Fam. vi. 12), I congratulate you, my dear Balbus. mihi plaudo ipse domi (Hor. S. i. i. 66), I applaud myself at home.
227,228.]
22$
you
cur tibi hoc nun gratificcr ncscio (Kam. in this I don't know.
10),
why
cum
inimici
/-<>i-
Roman
\K r
-
people
ii-
too,
make
NOTE.
tS),
when
\ 248. a.
Rem.).
Haereo
f. Many verbs ordinarily intransitive often have an Accusative of the direct object along with the Dative of the indirect (cf. 225. a) : as,
cum rex crucem minitaretur (Tus. i. 102), when the king threatened him -dnth the cross. imperat oppidanis decem talenta, he exacts of the townspeople ten talents.
cui
omnia
sibi ignoscere (Veil. ii. 30), to pardon one's self everything. Crasso divitias non invideo, / do not envy Crassus his wealth.
4.
228. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum,
are followed
by the dative
as,
neque enim adsentior eis (Lael. \$)ifor I do not agree with them. tempestati obsequi artis est (Fam. i. 9), it is a point of skill to yield to the
weather.
omnibus negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit (id. i. 6), he not only had a hand in all matters, but took the lead in them. quantum natura hominis pecudibus antecedit (Of.i. 105), so far as man's
nature is superior to brutes. nee unquam succumbet inimicis (Dei. 36), he will never yield to his foes. illis libellis nomen suum inscribunt (Arch. 26), they put their own name
to those
papers.
cur
meis commodia officis et obstas (Rose. A. 112), why do you offer yourself to me, and then hinder and withstand my advantage ?
mihi
te offers, ac
the
In these cases the dative depends not on the preposition, but on in its acquired meaning. Hence if the acquired meaning is not suited to an indirect object, the original construction of the simple verb remains or some different construction arises. Thus in convocat suos, he calls his men together, the idea of calling is not so modified as to make an indirect object appropriate. So hominem interflcere, to make way with a man But in praeflcere imperatorem bell6, to put a man as commander(kill him). in-chief in charge of a war, the idea resulting from the composition is suited to an
i.
NOTE
compound verb
a and c, and
237. d).
226
NOTE
object
:
228, 229.
as,
Some of these verbs being originally transitive take also a direct ne offeramus nos perlculis (Off. 83), that we may not expose ouri.
selves to perils.
NOTE 3. The construction of 228 is not different in its nature from that of 225 and 226; but the compound verbs make a convenient group.
a. Some compounds of ad, ante, ob, with a few others, have acquired a transitive meaning, and take the accusative (cf. 237. d) :* as, nos oppugnat (Fam. i. i), he opposes us. quis audeat bene comitatum aggredi (Phil. xii. 25), ivho would dare encounter a man well attended?
munus
b.
The
ille
adjective
:
the dative
si
as,
get
in his way.
mihi obviam
c.
(Fam.
ii.
16),
you came
to
meet me.
in
distinctly thought of, the verbs mentioned 228 regularly take a noun with a preposition, instead of the dative as, in visceribus inhaerere (Tuscul. iv. 24), it remains fixed in the vitals. homini coniunctS mecum (Tullius 4), to a man iinited to me. convenit mihi cum adversario (Tullius 23), my adversary and I agree (it
:
Eum. 4, i), with him Eumenes himself engages in combat (runs together). quae a ceterarum gentium more dissentiunt (Fonteius 30), which differ from the custom of all other nations. inserite oculos in curiam (Fonteius 43), fix your eyes on the senate-hotise.
ignis qui est ob 5s offusus (Univ. 49), thefire which is diffused before the sight. obicitur contra istorutn impetus Macedonia (Fonteius 44), Macedonia is
set to
5),
cum h5c
[Cf. si quis
se iniecturos vobis causam if any mistake has been caused you. deliberandi (Caecina 4), that they would give you occasion for con-
sidering^ in segetem flamma incidit (^n. ii. 304), the fire falls upon the standing corn. NOTE. But the usage varies in different authors, in different words, and often in the same word in the same sense. The dictionary must be consulted for each verb.
of taking away* and the like take the Dative (especially of a person} instead of the Ablative of 3 as, Separation ( 243)
:
Such verbs are aggredior, adeo, antecedo, anteeo, antegredior, convenio, ineo, obeo, offendo, oppugno, subeo, praecedo.
1
The
is
and
8
dative in these constructions represents the action as done to the object, thus more vivid than the ablative.
of
ad.
<;
229-31.]
mulieri anulum
bi'iia
22J
milii
vitain
he took a ring from (he woman. yon have robbed me of my gains. adulescentibus vis aufert (C. M. 71), violence deprives young men of
;ilistulisii,
i.
life.
5, b),/or age has robbed you, etc. nee mihi hunc errorem extorquerl volo (C. M. 85), nor do I wish this error wrested from me.
a.
The
258. a)
as,
ex periculS
eripuit (B. G.
iv.
12), he
b. Sometimes the dative of the person and the ablative of the thing with a preposition are both used with the same verb as,
:
hands
c.
(cf.
243. 6).
is
The
dative
often used
would
in prose require a
(
verbs of contending
contendis
248. b)
(Prop.
i.
as, 3),
Homero
7,
you
vie with
Homer.
[In prose:
cum
Homero.]
placitone etiam pugnabis amori (J&&. a love that pleases you?
tibi certat (Eel.
differt
iv.
v. 8), vies with you. [tecum.] serraoni (Hor. S. i. 4. 48), differs from prose, [a sennone, 243.] solstitium pecori defendite (Eel. vii. 47), keep the noontide heat from the
Jlock.
[a pecore.]
later! abdidit
260.
a.~]
ensem (/En.
ii.
sword in his
side,
[in latere,
ad
225. b. 3.]
230. The passive of intransitive verbs that govern the dative can be used only impersonally ( Such 146. d}. verbs retain the dative in this use (cf. 225. e).
cui parcl potuit (Liv.
xxi. 12),
illi
who could
be spared ?
aetati verum etiam favetur (Off. ii. 45), that age (youth) is not only not envied, but is even favored. tempori serviendum est (Fam. ix. 7), we must serve the exigency of the occainvidetur
Dative of Possession.
is
as,
228
231, 232.
man
has a likeness
to
God
(there
is
who have no
at home.
wealth.
(Eel.
iii.
33),
I have a father
REMARK. The Genitive or a Possessive with esse emphasizes the possessor; the Dative, the fact of possession : as, liber est meus, the book is mine (and no one's else) est mihi liber, I have a book (among other things). The latter is the usual form to denote simple possession, since habeo, have, generally signifies hold, often with some secondary meaning as,
;
:
legionem quam secum habebat (B. G. i. 8), the legion which he kept with him. domitas habere libi dines (De Or.), to keep the passions under control.
a.
as,
Compounds of esse
deest mihi pecunia, / lack money. quid mihi proderit? in what will
b.
After
nomen
fuit
est,
it help me (what will it profit me) ? and similar expressions, the name is usually
:
as,
Africano
cognomen
Affieanus.
puero ab inopia Egeri5 inditum nomen (Liv. given the boy from his poverty.
c.
34), the
nomen
or in later
2i4./):
as,
nomen Arethusa (Ver. iv. 118), [a fount] called Arethusa (to which the name Arethusa). puero nomen est Marcus (Marci), the boy's name is Marcus (to the
boy, etc.).
i.
n),
to
Q. Metellus
232. The Dative of the Agent is used with the gerundive, to denote the person on whom the necessity rests
:
as,
haec vSbis provincia est defendenda (Man. 14), this province is for you to defend (to be defended by you). mihi est pugnandum, I have to Jight (i.e. the need of fighting is to me; compare mihi est liber, I have a book, 231. Rem.).
NOTE. This is the regular way of expressing the agent with the Second or Passive Periphrastic Conjugation ( 113. d. i). But when a dative is expressed governed by the verb itself, and rarely at other times, the agent is denoted by the Ablative with ab ( 246) to avoid ambiguity; as,
232, 233.]
229
whom you must
that the matter
con-
quibus
est
sult (for
must
Romanl
rendum
Man.
both by them and by everybody else the authority of the .Roman people as a whole must be obeyed. [Mere there was no danger of ambiguity.]
a.
The
is
common
when used
:
in
as,
et
constitutum est (Leg. Ag. i. 25), / have deliberated has been deliberated by me). mihi res tota pr5visa est (Verres iv. 91), the matter has been fully provided for by me.
mihi dellberatum
and
resolved
(it
ii.
123), so
after
The dative of the agent is used by the poets and later writers almost any passive verb as,
:
neque cernitur
tilll
(^n.
i. 440), nor is seen by any. (Ov. Fast, iii.), she was called happy by her
sister.
The
who
used
after
videor, seem:
it seems (or seems good) to me. visum [est] (yn. ii. 428), it seemed otherwise to the gods. videor mihi perspicere ipsius animum (Fam. iv. 13), I seem (to myself) see the soul of the man himself.
videtur mihi,
dls
aliter
to
The verb probare, approve (originally a mercantile word), takes a NOTE. Dative of Reference ( 235), which has become so firmly attached that it is retained with the passive, seemingly as Dative of Agent as,
:
haec sententia
et illl et
i.
7, 5), this
acceptable both to him and to me). mihi egregie probata est oratio tua (Tuscul. iv. &),your discourse was very
his approval
satisfactory to me.
7.
its use,
in only
Thus
23
a.
233,
234
noun
is
thing serves or which it accomplishes (Dative of Service), often with another dative of the person or thing affected 1 as,
rei publicae
cladi sunt (Jug. 85), they are ruin to the State (for a disaster),
nostris fuit (B. G. iv. 25), it
magno usui
to
our men
a
(for great use), tertiara actem nostris subsidio misit (id.i. 52), he sent the third line as relief to oiir men.
omnia deerant quae ad reficiendas naves erant usui (id. iv. 29), all things were wanting which were of use for repairing the ships. evenit facile quod dis cordi esset (Liv. i. 39), that came to pass easily which was desired by the gods (was for a pleasure [lit. heart] to the gods).
NOTE.
cogis me
as an adjective
is
a dative of
this
kind
as,
homines
plane frugl
(Verr.
iii.
67),
tfioroughly honest.
(Cf. ero frugl
b.
concrete nouns
used in prose in a
as,
sound a
retreat.
locum castris capere, to select a site for a camp. optavit locum regno (^En. iii. 109), he chose a place for a kingdom.
NOTE.
Gerundive
(
The
is
299. b}
and
8.
after Adjectives (
234).
denote that
it
234. The dative is used after adjectives or adverbs, to to which the given quality is directed, for which towards or which it tends. exists,
1 The following characteristics have been observed in the use of the Predicate Dative (dative of Service) : I. the noun is semi-abstract ; 2. it is so used only in the " " singular 3. it is used predicatively ; 4. generally with esse 5. rarely qualified a phrase 7. but few nouns are used in this or a or 6. an adjective by genitive by way 8. the use and its limitations appear to be governed by custom, not by any Of It is common with about 40 nouns, and is found with 185 in all. principle. these dono, munerl, vitio, are not used with esse. The verbs with which it exists are habeo, do, dico, duc5, pono, verto, with esse and its equivalents, as fieri, etc. The nouns most commonly found in this construction are, aditi; ; ; ;
;
mento, auxiliS, cordi, crlmini, curae, darano, decorl, dedecorl, don6, exemplo, exitio.fraudl (damage), honori, indicio, invidiae, impediments, laudi, ludibriS, malo, morae, odi5, oneri, ornamento, praedae, praesidio, probro, pudori, receptui, remedio, saluti, subsidio, terror!
VitiS,
voluptatl,
iisui.
Roby's
L,atin
Grammar,
ii.
xxxvii. seq.
234.]
a.
Dative
dative
is
ivith Adjectives.
231
The
naturae aptum
(Lael. 17),
fitted to nature.
amanti puto (Or. 33), / think nothing hard to a lover. pompae quam pugnae aptius (id. 42), fitter for a procession than for
battle.
r5bus
ipsls
(id. 123),
a speech equal
and
level with
the subject.
locum deligit (B. G. i. 49), a suitable place for a camp. tribuni nobis sunt amlcl (Q. Fr. i. 2), the tribunes are friendly to us. cupidis rerum talium odiosum fortasse et molestum est carere (Cat.
castris idoneum
Major 47), to those who are desirous of such things, it is perhaps hateful and disagreeable to do without them. aut invisum deo aut neglectum a de5 iudicemus (Nat. D. nee eum ii. 167), and let us not deem him either hateful to God or disregarded
. .
.
nemini (Nat. D.
prosperus
i.
24),
he can be gracious
to
nobody.
(Repub. vi. \y),that radiance is favorable and beneficial to the race of men. ceterae res quae expetuntur opportunae sunt slngulae rebus singulls
(Lael. 22), all other things that are sought after are suitable each to some particular thing. magnls autem viiis prosperae semper omnes res (Nat. D. ii. 167), but to great men everything is always favorable. sedes huic nostro non importuna sermon! (De Orat. iii. 18), a place not unsuitable for this conversation of ours. adversissimi navigantibus ventl (13. C. iii. 107), winds most adverse for
hominum generi
those
who
sail.
sed non quicquid tibi audlre utile est, id mihi dlcere necesse est (Offic. iii. 52), but not everything that is useful for you to hear is necessary
for me
to say.
to
cui fundo erat afflnis M. Tullius (Tullius 14), was next neighbor.
which
estate
M.
Tullius
iii.
13), to live in
accordance with
congruenter naturae (Finib. iii. 26), in harmony with nature'. NOTE i. So, also, in poetic and colloquial use, with idem as,
:
invitum qul servat idem facit Occident! (Hor. Ars. P. 467), he a man against his icill docs the same as one who kills hint.
who
sares
NOTE
2.
atque
(ac), as.
So
also
the adverbs
etc.
The pronoun
idem
has regularly
atque
si
or a relative.
parem sententiam
hie habet ac formam (Plant. Mil. 1251) if he has sense equal to his beautv (like as his beauty).
te suspicor
eisdem rebus quibus me ipsum commoveri (Cato Maj. same things by which / am.
i),
232
234.
b. Adjectives of fitness or use take oftener the Accusative with ad to denote the purpose or end but regularly the Dative si persons : as,
;
aptus ad rem militarem,y?//0r a soldier's duty. locus ad insidias aptior (Mil. 53), a place Jitter for lying in wait. nobis utile est ad hanc rem, it is of use to us for this thing.
c. Adjectives and nouns of inclination and the like Accusative with in or erga as,
:
may
take the
comis in ux5rem (Hor. Ep. ii. 2), kind to his wife. dlvma bonitas erga homines (N. D. ii. 60), the divine goodness towards men. de benevolentia quam quisque habeat erga nos (Offic. i. 47), in regard
to
us.
gratiorem
me
esse in te
(Fam.
xi.
10), that
d. Some adjectives of likeness, nearness, belonging, and a few others, 1 ordinarily requiring the Dative, often take the Possessive Genitive.
Thus,
ut illi proprium ac perpetuum sit ... optare debetis (Leg. Man. 48), which you ought to pray may be secure (his own) and lasting to him. fuit hoc quondam proprium populi Roman! (Manil. 32), this was once
quod
which
is espe-
cum utrique
cially
maxime necessarius
to both.
you are
espe-
bound
procurator aeque utriusque necessarius (Quinctius 86), an agent equally closely connected with both.
NOTE.
possessive
The
(cf.
is
214. a).
1. The Genitive is especially used with these adjectives are used wholly or approximately as nouns. Thus,
when they
amicus Ciceroni, friendly to Cicero. But, Ciceronis amicus, a friend of Cicero ; and even, Ciceronis amlcissimus, a very great friend of Cicero.
Creticus et eius aequalis
the
its
equivalent
Paeon.
hi erant affines
2.
istms (Verr.
36), these
were
this
marts fellows.
After similis, like, the genitive is more common in early writers. Cicero uses the genitive of living objects, and either the genitive or dative of things : as,
domini
similis es (Ter.)
i Such are aequalis, af finis, amicus, cog-natus, communis, consanguineus, dispar, familiar-is, finitimus, inimicus, necessarius, par, peculiaris, propinquus, proprius (regularly genitive), similis, superstes, Vicinus, alienus, contrarius, sacer.
234, 235.]
ut
Dative of Reference.
233
>nnia
I), i. f)\},that we might be like the gods. quam similis turpissima licstia nobis (Nat. I>. '17, (juoted from Enn.), how like us is that wretched beast the ape!
i.
si
enim h5c
ill!
simile
sit,
est illud
huic (Nat.
I),
i.
v. 12),
est similis
e.
maiorum su5m
a son like his father. (Ter. Ad. 411), he^s like his ancestors.
The
propius,
adjectives propior, proximus sometimes, and the adverbs proxime more commonly, take the accusative, as if preposi-
tions, like
prope (see
261. a).
i),
nearer
to
danger.
59), Clodius
has come
-very
near
proximus Pompeium sedebam (Cic.), / was sitting next to Pompey. proximus mare oceanum (B. G. iii. 7), nearest the ocean. NOTE. These words take also the ablative with ab* (cf. 260. ).
9.
Dative of Reference.
is
often required not by any particular the but word, general meaning of the sentence as, by
:
tibi aras (PI. Merc. 71), you plottgh for yourself res tuas tibi habe (formula of divorce), keep your goods to yourself. laudavit mihi fratrem, he praised my brother (out of regard for me;
.
laudawould imply no such motive). meritos mactavit honores, taurum NeptunS, taurum tibi, pulcher Apollo (^En. iii. 1 1 8), he offered tJie sacrifices due, a bull to Neptune; a bull to
vit fratrem
meum
thee,
beautiful Apollo.
viii.
6),
is
frozen
up
for Curio).
NOTE.
The
or Disadvantage (datlvus commodi aut incommodi), as denoting the person or The thing for whose benefit or to whose prejudice the action is performed. meaning of the sentence is complete without the dative, which is not, as in the preceding constructions, closely connected with any single word. Thus the Dative of Reference is easily distinguishable in most instances even when the sentence consists of only two words, as in the first example.
a.
The Dative
of Reference
is
word
as,
iterPoenis vel corporibus suis obstruere (Cat. Maj. 75), to block the march of the Carthaginians even with their own bodies (to block, etc., for the disadvantage of, etc.). se in conspectum nautis dedit (Verr. v. 86), he put himself in sight of tht sailors (he put himself to the sailors into sight).
i
234
-[
235, 236.
versatur milii ante oculos(id. 123), it comes before before the eyes).
b.
eyes (it
comes
to
me
The
dative
is is
ation or direction
situ-
The person
plural: as,
This construction answers to the English as you go in, and the like. is commonly denoted indefinitely by a participle in the
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibus ab Eplro (B. C. iii. 80), the first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (to those coming, etc.). laeva parte sinum intrantibus (Liv. xxvi. 26), on the left as you sail up the
gulf(\.o those entering).
est urbe egressis
is,
city,
a mound
come
out).
c. The dative of reference is (by a Greek idiom) rarely modified by nolens, volens, participles of nolo, volo, or by some similar word as, ut quibusque bellum invitis aut cupientibus erat (Tac. An. i. 59), as each
:
war
reluctantly or gladly.
assume
d.
The
dative of reference
colloquial questions
and exclamations
i.
as,
quo mihi fortunam (Hor. Ep. unde mihi lapidem (Hor. Sat. quo
e.
5.
7.
me
is
fortune?
tibi, Tilli
(Hor. Sat.
i.
116), where can I get a stone? 6. 24), what use for you, Tillius?
ii.
The
dative of reference
is
sometimes used
after Interjections:
as,
vae
victis,
woe
em
tibi, there,
[Cf.
236.]
me !
10. Ethical Dative.
236. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is used to show a certain interest felt by the person indicated * as, :
quid mihi Celsus agit (Hor.), /ray/ what is Cclsus doing? suo sibi servit patri (Plaut. Capt. Prol.), he serves his oivn father. at tibi repente venit mihi Cominius (Fam. ix. 2), but, look you, of a sudden
comes
to
me Cominius.
hark ye, a talent of silver. do you wish for yourself) ?
It is
hem
tibi talentum argent! (PI. True. 60), quid tibi vis, what would you have (what
This construction
"
I'll
is
Compare
rhyme you so
236, 237.]
RF.MARK.
the ablative with
235
of,
To
instead of in defence
t
In behalf
of
pro patria niori (I lor. Od. iii. 2), to die for one's country. pro re.^e, lei^e, ijre^e (prov.),y^r king, law, people. ego ibo pro te (Plaut. Most.), I will go instead of you.
III.-ACCUSATIVE.
noun loosely with the by a verb proper or by a verbal noun or adjective. Probably its earliest use was to repeat the verb-idea as in the Cognate Accusative From this it would be a short step to' the (run a race, fight a battle, see 238). Factitative Accusative (denoting the result of an act, as in make a table, drill a
originally served to connect the
NOTE.
The Accusative
hole,
cf.
From
this last
common
accusative
(of Affecting, break a table, plug a hole, see $ 237). Traces of all these uses appear in the language, and the loose connection of noun with verb-idea is seen in the use
of stems in composition
(cfc p.
205, head-note).
The
i.
may be
classified as follows
(
PRIMARY OBJECT:
237).
2.
( i.
2.
Two
ACCUSATIVES
\ [
2.
3.
1.
n S Produced ( 237). Cognate Accusative ( 238). Predicate Accusative (of Naming, etc.) ( 239. a). Of Asking or Teaching ( 239. c). Of Concealing ( 239. d).
Adverbial
240. a, b).
(
2.
3.
IDIOMATIC USES:
3.
4. 5.
Of Specification (Greek Accusative) Of Extent and Duration ( 240. e). Of Exclamation ( 240. d).
Subject of Infinitive
(
240. c).
240. /).
1.
Direct Object.
is
put in
177).
accusative of the Direct Object denotes (a) that which is directly affected, or () that which is caused or produced by the action of the
The
:
verb
as,
(a) Brutus
(/>)
Caesarem
facere, to
interfecit,
aedem
make a
temple.
to
fight a battle,
238].
is no definite line by which transitive verbs can be distinguished Verbs which usually take a direct object (expressed or implied) are called transitive, but many of these are often used intransitively or absolutely.
NOTE.
There
from
intransitive.
Compare anniger,
lyt r-/>/<mv,
cen,
hanc
armor-bearer, with arrna g-erere, to bear arms; fldiwith fldibus canere, to (play on) sing to the lyre. Compare also tactio (IMaut.), the [act of] touching her, with hanc taugere, to touch her.
236
237.
is transitive in the sentence inimlcum timeo, I fear my enemy, but intransitive (absolute) in noil timere, don't be afraid. Again, many verbs are transitive in one sense and intransitive in another: as, Helvetica superaverunt Roman!, the Romans overcame the Helvetians; but nihil superabat, nothing remained (was left over). So also many verbs usually intransitive may be used transitively with a slight change in their meaning as, rides, you're laughing at me. rides, you are laughing; but
me
a. The object of a transitive verb in the active voice becomes as, subject in the passive, and is put in the nominative ( 177. a)
:
its
Brutus
Caesarem
aedificat,
interfecit,
Caesar a Bruto
interfectus est,
domum
domus
b.
he builds a house.
Many verbs apparently intransitive, expressing feeling, take an accusative, and may be used in the passive as,
:
my calamity
non Acrisium risissent luppiter et Venus (Hor. O. iii. 16. 5), if Jupiter and Venus had not laughed [at] Acrisius. ridetur ab omni conventu (Hor. S. i. 7. 22), he is laughed [at] by the whole
assembly.
c.
Verbs of
:
taste, smell,
and the
like
quality
as,
vinum redolens (Cic.), smelling [of] wine. herbam mella sapiunt (Plin.), the honey tastes
NOTE.
d.
[of] grass.
($ 238).
Verbs of motion, compounds of circum and trans, and a few others, 228. d) as, frequently become transitive, and take the accusative (cf.
:
mortem
die (to meet death). consulatum ineunt (Liv. ii. 28), they enter
obire, to
upon
one.
the consulship.
ix.
14),
I met no
iv. 20), if he should go to the island. 239. ). 23), to cross the river (cf. cives qui circumstant senatum (Cat. i. 21), the citizens %vho stand about the
senate.
e.
The
accusative
is
as,
te non praeterit (Fam. i. 8), it does not escape your notice. ita ut vos decet (Plaut. Most. 729), so as befits you. me pedibus delectat claudere verba (Hor. Sat. ii. i. 28),
(it
my
delight is
pleases
me)
fallit
to
nee
me me
animi
my
attention (elude
in mind).
237.]
nisi
iuvit
237
me fallit, me tihi
So
and
post-classical prose
it is
as,
plerosque (Plin.
i.
ii.
82),
unknown
to
most persons.
signifi-
NOTE
cation.
Hence most of them are also used personally (cf. NOTE 2, Decet and latet sometimes take the dative:
hostique propinquo
Roma
614),
and Rome
lies
hidden
from
ita
befits
us.
NOTE 3.
a
similarity of
Many
verbs usually intransitive are sometimes used transitively from that regularly take the accusative as,
:
iii.
226), groaning
much
at the dis-
[Cf. doled,
iv.
237.
b.~]
fugam (^n.
arsit
575),
to
comptos
13), she
burned with
f. In early and popular usage some nouns and adjectives derived from transitive verbs retain verbal force sufficient to govern the accusative
:
as,
tibi
quid
hanc
to
touch her ?
4, 16), full
[Cf.
to
[Cf. vito.]
g. In early usage the impersonal gerundive with ease governs the accusative ( 294. c) as,
:
quam
upon.
nobis ingrediendum sit (Cat. Major 6), which (road) we must enter [Here Cicero purposely uses an archaic construction.]
in
poenas
i.
in), we have
to fear
punishment in
death.
h. Many verbs ordinarily transitive may be used absolutely (p. 234, note), having their natural object in the ablative with dg as,
:
priusquam Pomponius de eius adventu cognosceret (B. C. iii. 101), befor Pomponius could learn of his coming. [Cf. eius adventu cognitd
his arrival being discovered^
i.
221. b.
238
238.
Cognate Accusative.
238. A neuter verb often takes the accusative of a noun of kindred meaning, usually modified by an adjective or in some other manner.
This construction
is
Kindred Signification.
Thus,
vltam tutiorem vivere (Hor.), to live a safer life. tertiam iam aetatem hominum vivebat (Cato M. 31), he was
now
living the
third generation of men. coire societatem, to [go together and] form an alliance. servitutem servire, to be in slavery.
a.
as,
is
by the
poets:
huic error! similem [errorem] insanire (Hor. Sat. sion like this.
saltare
ii.
3.
Cyclopa (Hor. Sat. i. 5. 63), to dance the Cyclops (represent in dancing). Bacchanalia vivere (Juv. ii. 3), to live in revellings. Amaryllida resonare (Eel. i. 5), to re-echo [the name of] Amaryllis.
(yn. ii. 693), it thundered on the left. dulce ridentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 23), sweetly smiling. acerba tuens (Lucr. v. 34), lookingfiercely. [Cf. Eng. "to look daggers"]
intonuit laevum
NOTE.
signification.
b.
In the hist three examples the cognate accusative has an adverbial See Adverbial Accusative, 240. a.
is
very
common
as cognate accusative
148.
d?and 240.
a).
i.
Thus,
Empedocles commits
29),
many
(De Or.
ii.
i.
184), in this
I agree
with Theodeceived in
phrastus.
multum
88),
do those things do me ? uredo aut grando quippiam nocuit (N. D. iii. 86), if drought or hail has done any injury (has harmed at all). hoc te moneo, I give you this warning (cf. note below).
si
this expectation (this expectation deceived quid me ista laedunt (Agr. ii. 32), what harm
id laetor,
I rejoice
at this
(cf.
note).
quae homines
So
in
si
many common
quid
ille
phrases
as,
(if
he
238, 239.]
Triv
vis,
i-;
\ccnsnfir-
239
numquid me
\v;int
of me,
there?).
can I Jo anything mor? for you? (there is nothing you [A common form of leave-taking.]
quid
So,
est
quod,
erat
etc.,
why
is it that,
ii.
etc.?
hoc
quod
(.Kn.
664),
was
it for
In these cases substantives with a definite meaning would be in other construction: as,
NOTE.
some
in
this
same point.
: :
bonis rebus lactari, to rejoice at prosperity. [Also in, de, or ex.] de testamento monere, to remind one of the will. [Later genitive, 219.
offici
c.
c.~\
admonere,
to
duty.
[Also
de
officid.]
a treaty
vincere iudicium (sponsionem, rem, hoc), to prevail on a trial, etc. [As if the case were a difficulty to overcome; cf. vincere iter, yEn. vi. 688.] terram navigare (Finib. ii. 112), to sail over the land. [Perhaps quoted
from a poet.] 237. d.~] aequor navigare, to sail the sea. [As if it were transire, maria aspera iuro (yfcn. vi. 351), I swear by the rough seas. [The accusative with verbs of s^vearing is chiefly poetic.]
to sleep [whole] nights (to spend in sleep). These accusatives are of various kinds. The last example approaches the cognate construction, cf. the second example under 238.
noctes dormlre,
NOTE.
3.
Two
Accusatives.
239. Some
(i)
a Predicate Ac-
a Secondary Object.
a.
Predicate Accusative.
i.
An
same
person or thing as the Direct Object, but not in apposition with it, is called a Predicate Accusative (cf. 185, headnote).
a.
ing,
Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showand the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
Spartace, quern enim te potius appellem (Phil. for what else shall I call you (than Spartacus)?
xiii.
object: as,
22),
Spartacus%
Ciceronem consulem creare, to elect Cicero consul. dictatorem dicere, to name [a man] dictator (eg. Quintus Fabius).
240
me augurem
gratias agebat
239.
quod
se
consulem
ii. 4), they nominated me for augur. fecisset (Cic.), he thanked him because he
hominem
ducem
omnes
had made him consul (supported his candidacy). prae se neminem putavit (Cic.), he thought nobody a man
se militibus tuis praebuit (Vat. 33), he a leader.
in com-
your
soldiers as
Catilinas
made
all the
NOTE
i.
The
may be an
adjective: as,
et
homines ex
feris et
mansuetos
and barbarous
[creatures] gentle
and mild.
NOTE
accusative
2.
185)
as,
rex ab
b.
2.
Secondary Object.
of the Secondary Object is used direct with the object) to denote something more (along the action of the verb. affected by remotely
The Accusative
b.
Transitive verbs
compounded with
:
as,
traicit
(B. C.
i.
Germans
NOTE i. But with these verbs the preposition or sometimes the ablative is used as,
:
is
more commonly
repeated,
donee res suas trans Halyn flumen traicerent (Liv. should get their possessions across the river Halys.
xxi. 56), the army (exercitus) Padd traiectus Cremonam (Liv. across the Po to Cremona (by way of the Po, 258. g).
was conveyed
NOTE
2.
The secondary
Rhine.
object
may be
as,
Belgae
the
Rhenum
Sometimes the Secondary Object appears to passive verb ; but this comes from a change of meaning, Direct. See the Remark.
3.
NOTE
REMARK. The double construction indicated in b is possible only when the force of the preposition and the force of the verb are each distinctly felt in the compound, the verb governing the Direct, and the preposition the Secondary
object.
239.]
Two
Accusdtir
241
But often the two parts of the compound become closely united to form a transiverb of simple moaning. In this case the verb-element loses its power to govern the accusative, and the compound verb is transitive solely by virtue of its the prepositional part. Thus used the compound can have but one accusative, same which was formerly the secondary >l>j< rt, but which now becomes the direct. So traiciS comes to mean either (i) to pierce (anybody) [by hurling] or (2) to
tive
as,
man ivith a sword. [Here iacio and serves simply to give the force of a verb to the meaning of trans, and to tell the manner of the act.] [Here iacio has become simply (2) Rhodanum traiecit, he crossed the Rhone. a verb of motion, and traicio is hardly distinguishable from transeo.]
(1) gladio has lost
hominem
all
traiecit,
he pierced the
transitive force,
In these examples
objects
if
hominem
in
and
its
Bhodanum,
primary
signification,
become
homo
The
(1)
Rhodanus
poetical
-was pierced with traiectus est gladio, the traiectus est, the Rhone was crossed.
man
a sword.
ii.
comes from a
(2)
eum eum
traiecit lora,
traiecit loris,
In putting the sentence into a passive form, the direct object of the former (15ra)
is
irregularly kept,
c.
and the
(eum)
is
made
the subject.
Person (direct
Verbs of asking and teaching may take two accusatives, one of the object}, and the other of the Thing (secondary object): as,
me
sententiam rogavit, he asked me my opinion. otium divos rogat (Hor. Od. ii. 16. i), he prays the gods for rest. haec cum praetorem postulabos (Tull. 39), when you demanded
this
of the
prcetor. aedilis populum rogare (Liv. vi. 42), to ask the people [to elect] adiles. docere pueros elementa, to teach children their Os.
AB
verbs of asking take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, always, peto (ab), quaero (ex, ab, de"),
i.
NOTE
Some
often
postulo (ab), and occasionally others: as, pacem ab Rdmanis petierunt (B. G. ii. 13), Romans. quod quaesivit ex me P. Appuleius (Phil. vi.
asked of me.
from
the
i),
NOTE
thing
2.
may be used
d,
note)
as,
est,
i.
71), this
active,
v. 488).
242
REMARK.
rogo, and
fuerant
239, 240.
may be
of verbs of teaching,
as,
hoc
poscor meum Laelapa (Ov. Met. vii. 771), I am askedfor my Lcelaps. Cicero per legatos cuncta edoctus (Sail. Cat. 45), Cicero being informed of
everything through the ambassadors.
But with most verbs of asking in prose the accusative of the thing becomes the subject-nominative, and the person is put in the ablative with a preposition as,
:
ne postulantur quidem vires a senectute (Cat. M. 34), strength expected of an old man (asked from old age).
d.
is
not even
The verb
celavi
celo, conceal,
may
non te
sermonem
Ampi (Fam.
i.
ii.
16),
the talk
of T. Ampius.
130), nor did the
nee latuere doll fratrem lunonis (yn. escape the notice of her brother.
of
Juno
All the double constructions indicated in c and d arise from the waverNOTE. ing meaning of the verbs. Thus doceo means both to show a thing, and to instruct a person celo, to keep a person in the dark, and to hide a thing rogo, to question a person, and to ask a question or a thing. Thus either accusative may be regarded as the direct object, and so become the subject of the passive (cf. c, note 2, above), but for convenience the accusative of the thing is usually called second; ;
ary.
4.
Idiomatic Uses.
:
neuter pronoun or adjective is used as cognate accusative with an adverbial force (Adverbial Accusative, cf. 238. b} as,
:
quid moror, why do I delay ? dulce loquentem (Hor. Od. i. 22. 24), sweetly speaking. acerba tuens (/En. ix. 794), looking cruelly.
torvum clamat
NOTE.
(id. vii.
This use does not differ from the cognate accusative except that in some cases the connection of the accusative with the verb has faded out so that the words are real adverbs. But no fixed line can be drawn between these two constructions.
b.
The
accusative
is
as,
id temporis, at that time. id (istuc) aetatis, at that age. id (quod) genus, of that (what} sort (perhaps originally nominative).
meam vicem,
on
my part.
maximam partem, for the most part. bonam partem, in a great measure.
virile secus,
240.]
.
Idiomatic
I 'ses
of the Accusative.
-live
is
243
used by the
The
as,
their
head
shall be
bound (they
shall
be
(id.
ii.
nuda genu
(id.
NOTE.
In
many
garded as the
direct object of
apparently similar expressions the accusative a verb in the middle voice ( in. a): as,
may be
re-
inutile ferrum cingitur (/En. ii. 510), he girds on the useless steel. nodo sinus collecta fluentis (id. i. 320), having her flowing folds gathered
in a knot.
umeros
ii.
722),
cover
my
shoulders with a
lion's skin.
and garb
ii.
425), forthwith
The
accusative
is
used in exclamations:
oh,
fortunatam rempublicam,
(Philip,
xiv. 31), oh,
fortunate republic!
(
[Cf.
fortunata mors
happy death!
241.
c}.~\
me miserum, ah, "wretched me ! en quatuor aras (Eel. v. 65), lo,four altars ! en ilium), there he is ! ellum ( eccos (= ecce eos), there they are, look at them ! pro deum ridem, good heavens (oh, protection of the gods) hocine saeclum (Ter. Ad. 304), oh, this generation ! huncine hominem (Verr. v. 62), this man, good heavens !
O me
NOTE
of-ne
in
infelicem (Milon.
i.
102), oh,
unhappy I !
Such expressions depend upon some long-forgotten verb. The use some cases suggests an original question, as in quid ? what? why? tell me.
2.
NOTE
cusatives.
The omission
Such
are:
some other
idiomatic ac-
salutem
quo mihi fortunam, of what use is fortune? [Here no verb unde mihi lapidem, where can I get a stone?
thought
of.]
me
e.
me heaven
(the
god of
faith).
tive (see
f.
The
mood
is
in the accusative.
telling,
This
is
and per-
272). ceiving (verba senticndi et declarandi, see is sometimes used in apposition g. The accusative in later writers
with a clause
as,
244
240-42.
deserunt tribunal
their fists,
mantis intentantes,
i.
causam
discordiae et initium
27), finally they abandon the tribunal shaking a cause of dissension and the beginning of war.
influence) of a usage
NOTE. This construction is an extension (under Greek more nearly within the ordinary rules, such as,
Eumenem
prodidere Antiocho, pads mercedem (Sail. Ep. Mith.), they betrayed Eumenes to Antiochus, the price of peace. [Here Eumenes may be considered the price, although the real price is the betrayal.]
h.
258
for that
after postridie,
see
261. a.
152. a,
c."\
-VOCATIVE.
the case of direct address
ii.
:
is
as,
10),
father Tiber,
thee, holy
noun
imperative
audi
mood
as,
tu, populus Albanus (Liv. i. 24), hear, thou people of Alba. b. The vocative of an adjective is sometimes used instead of the nominative, where the verb is in the second person as,
:
iii.
in exclamations (cf.
the faith
240. d}
as,
597),
lo,
The
vocative
macte
is
macte
NOTE.
As
in
macte
est,
not determinable,
like.
it
may
bene
and the
(See American
V.-ABLATIVE.
is
relations
IN,
AT,
caecus avaritia, blind with avarice. occisus gladio, slain by the sword.
excultus doctrina, trained in learning.
this
very time.
242, 243.]
Ablative of Separation.
24$
NOTK.
The
'
relation
ablative form contains three distinct cases, the Ablative proper, FK<>M the Locative. \ and thr Instrumental, WITH
;
I
This confusion has arisen partly from phonetic decay (\ 8), by im-ans of which the three cases have become identical in form, and partly from the development by which they have approached one another in meaning. Compare, for the first, the
:ns of the dative and ablative plural, the old dative in -6 of the fifth declension ($ 74. a), and the loss of the original -d in the ablative ( and, 36. f, 62. a) ob causam, for the second, the phrases a parte dextra, ON the rig/it; i-'K< >M which cause ; ad famam, AT (in consequence of) the report.
;
quam
FROM includes separation, source, cause, agent, and comparison ; or HY, accompaniment, instrument, means, manner, quality, and price ; It is probable that, originally, the idea that of IN or AT, place, time, circumstance. of accompaniment had a separate case, which became confounded with the instrumental before Latin was separated from the kindred tongues. The following are the uses of the Latin Ablative, classed according to the origiThe
relation of
that of
WITH
combined
1.
in
it
2.
t.
ABLATIVE (from)
3.
4.
5.
1.
2. 2.
3.
4. 5.
6.
7.
2.
3.
Of Separation, Privation, and Want ( 243). Of Source (participles of origin, etc.) ( 244). Of Cause (g-auded, dignus, etc.) ($ 245). Of Agent (with ab after Passives) ( 246). Of Comparison (THAN) ( 247). Of Manner, Means, and Instrument ($ 248). Of Accompaniment (with cum) ($ 248. a). Of Object of the Deponents utor, etc. ($ 249). Of Degree of Difference ( 250). Of Quality (with Adjectives) ( 251). Of Price and Exchange ( 252). Of Specification ( 253). Of Place where (commonly with in) ( 254). Of Idiomatic Expressions (\ 254. a). Of Time and Circumstance ( 256).
(
255).
Ablative of Separation.
fol-
243. Words signifying Separation or Privation are lowed by the ablative, with or without a preposition.
a.
',
set free
',
be absent, deprive,
and want,
as,
oculis se privavit (Fin. v. 87), he deprived himself of eyes. legilms solutus, relievedfrom the obligation of laws. omni Gallia interdicit Romams (B. G. i. 46), he (Ariovistus) bars the Romans from the whole of Gaul.
ei
aqua
ii.
and water.
voluptatibus carere (Cat. Maj.
7), to
lack enjoyments.
non egeo mediclna (Lcel. 10), I want no physic. magno nu- mctu llberabis (Cat. i. 10), you will relieve me of great fear: Ephorus calcaribus eget (Quint.), Ephorus needs the spur.
246
243.
levamur superstitione, liberamur mortis metu (Fin. i. 63), we are relieved from superstition, we are freedfrom fear of death. consilio et auctoritate orbari (Cato M. 17), to be bereft of counsel and
authority.
b. Verbs compounded with a, ab, de, ex, take the simple ablative when used figuratively ; but when used literally to denote separation
258).
Thus,
conatu desistere (B. G. i. 8), to desist from the attempt. desine communibus locis (Acad. ii. 80), quit commonplaces.
abire magistrate, to leave one's office. abstinere iniuria, to refrain from wrong.
aberrare a proposito (Cic.), to wander from the point. de provincia decedere (Verr. ii. 48), to withdraw from one's province. ab iure abire (id.), to go outside of the law. ex civitate excessere (B. G. vi. 8), they departed from the state. [But
But,
cf.
finibus suis excesserant (id. iv. 1 8), they had left their own territory^ a magno demissum nomen lulo (^n. i. 288), a name descended (sent down)
from great
NOTE.
c.
lulus.
229.
For the ablative of the actual place whence in idiomatic expressions, see 258. a, and note 2. d. Adjectives denoting freedom and want are followed by the ablative
:
as,
vii. 13), the city naked of defence. militia (Liv. i. 43}, free of military service. plebs orba tribunis (Leg. iii. 9), the people deprived of tribunes.
immunis
NOTE.
e.
Some
adjectives of
218. a).
1
:
as,
magistratibus opus est (Leg. iii. 5), there is need of magistrates. nunc viribus usus (yn. viii. 441), now there is need of strength.
NOTE.
out a noun,
With
is
often found
292. ^)
as,
exprompta memoria atque astutia (Ter. And. 723), I must have your good memory and cleverness set to work. properato opus erat (Mil. 49), there was need of haste. facto usus est, it is desirable to do (there is need of the thing's being done).
opus
est tua
opus
is
needed in the
properly an instrumental one, in which opus and tisua ablative expresses that with which the work is performed or the service rendered.
This construction
is
service,
and the
243, 244.]
Abhithc
i-st
<>f
247
dux
M
(Fain,
ry for us).
iji opu-i essd (J'>. '. i. ].\ ), if hf himself wanted anything (if anything should be mvr>s:iry for liiin). quae opus sunt (C'ato K. R. 14, 3), things which are required.
ijiiid
f.
as,
Egeo and
]>y
the genitive
223):
ne quis auxili cgcat (B. G. vi. ll), lest any require aid. quae ad oonsolandum nuiidris ingeni et ad fcrendum singular!* virtutis indigent (Fain. vi. 4), [sorrows] which for their comforting need more ability, and for endurance unusual courage.
k
r.M ARK.
The
all
Genitive is by a Greek idiom often used words of separation and want ($ 223. b. 3)
iii.
in poetry instead of
:
as,
operum
6),
free from
ii.
9. 17),
244. The Ablative with or without a preposition is used to denote the Source from which anything is derived, or the Material of which it consists.
These
1.
ablatives
:
commonly
take a preposition
as,
Source
Rhenus
oritur
ex Lepontiis
Rhine
rises in
(from) the
ab
5),
the conversation
is
begun by (arises
ex
volumine
i.
43), of this reasoning we have learned the power tJiat dii'ine book of Epicurus.
59), the sweet-
suavitatem odorum qul afflarentur e floribus (Cato Major ness of the odors whi:h breathed from the flowers.
2.
Material
ex fraucle et mendacio factus (( 'lu. 72), he was entirely made up of fraud and falsehood. valvas magnificentiorC-s, ex auro atque ebore perfectiorcs (Verr. iv. 124), more splendid doors, more finely wrought ofgold and ivory. factum de cautibus nntrum (Ov. Met. i. 575), a cave formed of rocks. templum de marmore ponam (C.eorg. iii. i.O. Fll t>n ild a temple marble.
erat totus
of
NOTE NOTE
(cf. $ 214).
i.
2.
is is
often omitted.
248
a.
244.
by the Ablative
as,
Maia (N. D.
iii.
56), son
I. i),
ii.
is usually expressed with the the mother, and often with that of other ancestors as,
REMARK.
A preposition
name
of
[uxore] filius natus esset (De Orat. i. 183), each wife son (when a son had been born of each wife).
generatus
ab
illo
ex
me
but
hie natus
non
est sed
(Ov. Fast. iv. 33), Tros was sprung from him. ex fratre meo (Ter. Ad. 40), this is not my son,
.
my
Belus
b.
et
brothers (not born from me, etc.) i. 730), Belus and all his descendants.
is
as,
desideravit C.
he
lost C.
iii.
71),
NOTE.
The Roman
as,
23),
Quintus Verres of
Some
verbs
may
Such are constare, consistere, and contineri. 2 cSnstare, ex is more common. Thus
tion.
:
But with
domus amoenitas non aedificio sed silva constabat (Nep. Att. 13), the charm of the house consisted not in the buildings but in the woods. ex animo constamus et corpore (Fin. iv. 19), we consist of soul and body.
vita corpore
d.
fieri,
et spiritu.
<
and spirit.
Ablative of Material without a preposition is used with facere, and similar words, in the sense of do with, become of: as,
faciatis (Ver.
ii. i.
The
42),
this
man ?
quid Tulliola mea fiet (Fam. xiv. 4), what will become of my dear Tttllia ? quid te futurum est (Ver. ii. 155), what will become of you ?
e.
The
Ablative of
on a noun:
as,
non pauca pocula ex aur5 (Verr. iv. scopulis pendentibus antrum (^n.
62), not
i.
1 Such are natus, satus, editus, genitus, ortus, prognatus, generatus, cretus, creatus, oriundus. 2 The ablative with consistere and contineri is locative in origin (cf. $
254. *)
244,245.]
f.
249
For '.rnitive of Material, sec 214. e. g. For Ablative of Source instead of Partitive Genitive, see
(
216.
c.
3.
Ablative of Canse.
is
9),
I "was
much
joy.
is
neglegentia plectimur (Lsel. 85), we are chastisedfor negligence. gubernatdris ars utilitate non arte laudatur (Fam. i. 13), the pilot's skill praisedfor its service, not its skill.
certis
ex vulnere aeger (Rep. ii. 38), disabled by (from) a wound. mare a sole lucet (Ac. ii. 105), the sea gleams in the sun (from the sun). ex opportunitate loci (Jug. 48, 2), from the advantage ofposition.
a.
without a preposition.
1
.
Certain verbs and adjectives regularly take the ablative of cause These are
:
The
adjectives dignus,
indignus
as,
iii.
vir
siiis
dignissimus (Phil.
25),
te
of his father, grandfather, and ancestors. omnl honore indignissimum iudicat (Vatinius
entirely
39),
baud equidem tali me dignor honSre (JEn. i. 335), I do not deem myself worthy of such an honor. doleo te aliis malls laborare (Fam. iv. 3), I am sorry that you suffer with
other
ills.
ex aere alieno
laborare (B. C. iii. 22), to labor under debt (lit., from another's money), exsultare laetitia ac triumphare gaudio coepit(Clu. 14),^^ began to exult in
and triumph in joy. gaudio (Fam. xvi. 16), Ijumpedfor joy. lacrimo gaudio (Ter. Ad. 409), I weep for joy.
gladness,
exsilui
delicto dolere (Lid, 90), to grieve for the fault. ardere dolore et Ira (Att. ii. 19), to be onjire with
NOTE
1
i.
For
gaudeS
\ 254. b.
The cause, in the ablative, is originally source, as is shown by the use of ab, de, ex; but when the accusative with ad, ob is used, the idea of cause arises from nearness. Occasionally, however, it is difficult to distinguish between cause and means (which is the old Instrumental Case) or circumstance (which is either the
Locative or the Instrumental).
250
NOTE
2.
245, 246.
as,
curam dignissimam tuae virtutis (Balbus in Att. worthy ofyour noble character. dignus salutis (Plaut. Trin. 1153), worthy of safety. magnorum baud umquam indignus avorum (^En.
worthy
15),
care most
xii.
my great ancestors.
For the construction of dignus and indignus with verbs, see
influences the mind of the person acting is the ablative of cause; the object exciting the emotion or propter with the accusative as,
:
NOTE
320.
3.
/
The motive which
by ob
1
b.
expressed by
often
i.
ii.
83), friendship
must
be
NOTE.
as,
metum (Parad. 34), to obey the laws on account of " [Here metum is almost equivalent to the terrors of the law,"
is
used,
though
the
ablative
would be more
causa and gratia, for the sake of, are used with a with a pronoun in agreement as, or genitive preceding,
c.
The
ablatives
ea causa, on account of this ; qua gratia (Ter. Eun. 99), for what purpose?
mea causa, for my sake ; mea gratia (Plaut.), for my sake. ex mea et relpublicae causa, for my own sake and the republic's. praedictionis causa (Nat. D. iii. 5), by way of prophecy.
sui
exempli gratia (verb! gratia), for example. purgandi gratia, for the sake of clearing themselves.
NOTE.
this
use
is
rare.
Ablative of Agent.
after a passive verb is put in
as,
ab
his, culpatur
those.
ab
illis
(Hor.
Sat.
i.
2.
n), he
i.
is
praised by
these,
blamed by
ab animS tuo quidquid agitur id agitur a te (Tusc. by your soul is done by yourself.
i This use of ob was originally mercantile often mince (see p. 131).
cf.
246,247.]
251
to trial
filiis in iudiciuiu
Major
22),
he was brought
by his sons.
plausus esset multiplex datus (Cat. Major when great applause had been given by the whole aiiiii ne virtus ab audacia vincerctur (Sest. 92), that valor might not be
<>.\),
over-
is developed from the Ablative of Source. 1 he conceived as the source or author of the action. RKMARK. The ablative of the agent (which requires & or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of instrument, which has no preposition ($
agent
248. f.i).
Thus
sword ;
but, occisus
ab hoste,
slain by
an enemy.
The
ab
is
sometimes used
after neuter
as,
ab hoste,
to be slain
by an enemy.
The agent, when considered as instrument or means, is expressed by per with the accusative, or by opera with a genitive or
possessive.
Thus,
est
legatis, Cccsar
was informed by
the
ambassadors
per legates, Casar was informed by ambassadors by means of ambassadors), elautae opera Neptiini (Plaut. Rud. 699), washed clean by the services of
(i.e.
Neptune.
mea opera evenit (Ter. Hec. 228), it hasn't happened through me (by my exertions). NOTE I. An animal is usually regarded not as the agent, but as the means or Hence the simple ablative is used. But ab sometimes occurs. instrument.
non
Thus.
equo vehi, to ride on horseback (be conveyed by means of a horse). [Not ab equo.] But,
Lucano cum
sic
lacereris
8), since
you are
\
thus
mangled by a Lucanian
NOTE
2.
232.
Ablative of Comparison.
is
tive
Cato
est Cicerone eloquentior, Cato is more eloquent than Cicero. quid nobis duobus labonosius est (Mil. 5), what more burdened with than we two ?
1
toil
This
is
is
thing
compared
;
eloquent"
a branch of the Ablative of Separation. The object with which any" is the starting-point from which we reckon. Cicero is Thus, " but starting from him we come to Cato, who is more so than he"
252
vilius
247.
I.
52), silver
is less
a.
is
quam,
than.
When quam
used, the two things compared are put in the same case (cf. 208. a). The construction with quam is required when the first of the things
is
compared
in
With
those cases
any other case than the nominative or accusative. its use is optional. Thus,
contionibus accommodatior est quam iudiciis (Clu. 2), Jitter for popular assemblies than for courts. misericordia dlgnior quam contumelia (Piso 32), more worthy of pity than of disgrace. non callidior es quam hie (Rose. Am. ^),you are not more cunning than he.
REMARK.
quam
as,
i.
qu5
whom no
other
was more
righteous, etc.
The poets sometimes use the ablative of comparison where the prose NOTE. construction requires as,
quam
pane egeo iam mellitis potiore plaeentis (Hor. Ep. better than honey-cakes.
i.
10),
I want
bread
b. The idiomatic ablatives opinione, spe, solito, dicto, aequo, crdibili, and iusto are used after comparatives instead of a clause as, gravius aequo (Sail.), more seriously than was right. celetius opinione (Fam. xiv. 23), faster than one would think. amnis solit5 citatior (Liv. xxiii. 19), a stream swifter than its wont.
:
serius spe
omnium
hope
of
c.
all).
quam, a word
its
After the comparatives plus, minus, amplius, longius without of measure or number is often used with no change in
:
case
as,
plus septingenti capti (Liv. xli. 12), more than 700 were taken. plus tertia parte interfecta (Cses.), more than a third part being slain.
pedum
(id.),
600 feet.
NOTE.
[and]
d.
The noun
is
takes the case required by the context, without reference to " really in a sort of apposition, seven hundred were taken
more"
Alius
;
is
use 1
in formal prose
sometimes followed by the ablative in poetic and colloquial it is followed by ac (atque), nisi, quam. Thus,
is
i This has been thought to be an imitation of the Greek, but the construction found also in Sanskrit, and is probably original.
247,248.]
Ablative of
Mm:
(l-'am. xi. 2),
253
nothing the than the
alius Lysippo (Hor.), another than I.ysippus. nlium sapicntc Ixmoquc (Hor. Ep. i. 16. 20), other than the wise and good. alid ingenio ac tu (Plaut.), of a different disposition from you. crat historia nihil aliucl nisi annalium cdnfcctio (De Or. ii. 52), history
nil
was nothing else but a compiling of records. aliut nisi quod sibi placet (Plant. Trin. 395), nothing else than what
pleases him.
e. The comparative of an adverb is usually followed by quam, rarely by the ablative except in poetry. Thus, tempus te citius quam oratio deficeret (Rose. Am. 89), time wouldfail you
sooner than words. But, cur Sybaris olivum sanguine viperinS cautius vital (Hor. Od. does Sybaris shun oil more carefully than viper's blood?
6.
i.
8.
9),
why
Ablative of Manner.
Accompaniment, Manner, Means, and Instrument are denoted by the instrumental ablative (see p. 245), but some of these more commonly take a preposition. As they all come from one source (the old Instrumental Case) no sharp line can be drawn between them, and indeed the Romans themselves never thought of any distinction. Thus in omnibus precibus orabant, they entreated with every [kind of] prayer, the ablative is properly that of means, but cannot be dis-
NOTE.
of
an action
is
usually with cum, unless a limiting adjective with the noun. Thus, cum celeritate venit, he came with speed. But,
summa celeritate venit, he came with the greatest speed. quid refert qua me ratione cogatis (Laelius 26), what difference does make in what way you compel me ?
NOTE.
tive
:
it
But
as,
quanto cum periculo id fecerit (B. G. i. 17), at what risk he did this. non minore cum taedio recubant (Plin. Ep. ix. 17, 3), they recline with no
less
weariness.
With such words of manner as mod5, pacts, ratione, rltu, Via. and with stock expressions which have become virtually adverbs (as silentiO is very rare. Thus, Iniuria),
REMARK.
cum
apis Matinae
style
more modoque carmina fingo (Hor. Od. and manner of a Afatinian bee Ifashion songs.
manner
often omits
i.
iv. 2.
28), in the
So
cum
'*
as,
mons aquae
a mass.
sequitur
[Cf.
cumulo
(/En.
(id.
105).
murmure
124); rimis
123).]
254
248.
Ablative of Accompaniment.
is
cum coniugibus ac Ifberis vestris, with your wives and children. cum funditoribus sagittariisque flumen transgress! (B. G. 19),
ii.
having
and s lingers.
quae supplicatio si cum ceteris conferatur (Catil. iii. 1 5), if this thanksgiving be compared with others. quae [lex] esse cum teld vetat (Milon. n), the law which forbids [one] to go armed (be with a weapon). si secum suos eduxerit (Catil. i. 30), if he leads out with him his associates.
99.
<?.]
NOTE.
The
cum
ii.
in military phrases,
as,
est (Ver.
ii. i.
with their compounds, and confundo may take either (i) the Ablative of Accompaniment with or without cum, or (2) sometimes the Dative as,
REMARK.
mixta dolore voluptas (B. Al. $6),flteasure mingled with pain. cuius animum cum sud misceat (Laelius 81), whose soul he may mingle with his own. fletumque cruori miscuit (Ov. Met. iv. 140), and mingled tears with blood. Caesar eas cohortes cum suo exercitu coniunxit (B. C. i. 18), Cccsar united those cohorts with his own army. air coniunctus terris (Lucr. v. 562), air imitedwith earth. humano capiti cervicem equinam iungere (Hor. A. P. i), to join to a human head a horse's neck.
b.
hoste certare, to fight with the enemy in arms. llbenter haec cum Q. Catulo disputarem (Leg. Man. 66), I should gladly discuss these matters with Quintus Catuhis.
armis
Words cum
cum
as,
NOTE.
Ablative of Means.
is
:
c.
i.
The
Ablative
in-
strument of an action
fighting with
as,
v.
77),
nails,
and even
teeth.
iii.
cum pugnis
et
56),
pummelled with
and heels.
248, 249.]
Abl.itirt'
of Menus.
2$$
meis labdribus
:
intcritu
my
toih
I have
nuiltae istarum
those trees
2.
arhorum mea manu sunt satac (Cat. Major were set out with tny own hands.
of
59),
/;/..
The Ablative
Means
:
is
ofy?/////r,
mundum (Univ. 9), God has filled the -world unlh all gt'i'J things. aggere et cratibus fossas explent (B. G. vii. 86), they fill up the ditches with earth ami fascines.
totum niontem horainibus complevit mountain with men.
(id.
i.
24),
he filled
the
whole
ii.
i.
voluptatibus
life filled
and crowded
with
delights.
Forum Appi
Ri idiom.
i.
5.
4),
with bargemen.
In poetry the Genitive is often used with these words by a Greek MARK. But compleo, impleo, plenus and refertus often take the genitive in
(cf. $
prose
223).
Thus,
omnia plena luctus et maeroris fuerunt (Sest. 128), everything was full of grief a nd /no urn ing. 611am denariorum implere (Fam. ix. 18), to fill a pot with money. [Here
evidently colloquial, otherwise rare in Cicero.]
convivium vicinorum compleo (Cato Major 46, in the mouth of Cato), Ifill up the banquet with my neighbors.
potior,
vescor,
as,
utar vestra bemgnitate (Arch. 18), / will avail myself of your kindness. sagacitate canum ad utilitatem nostram abutimur (N. D. ii. \$\},wetake advantage of the sagacity of dogs for our own benefit. ita mihi salva republica vobiscum perfrui liceat (Catil. iv. 1 1), so may I
enjoy with you the state secure and prosperous. auro heros potitur (Ov. Met. vii. 155), the hero takes the gold. Numidae plerumque lacte et ferina carne vescebantur (Jug. 88), Numidians fed mostly on milk and ginne. fungi inani munere (^in. vi. 885), to perform an idle se>
.
the
NOTE. This is really an Ablative of Means and the verbs are really in the middle voice ($ in. a). Thus titor signifies / employ myself, or avail myself by means of, etc. But these earlier meanings disappeared from the language, leaving
the construction as
we
find
it.
256
[249,250.
a. Potior sometimes takes the Genitive, as always in the phrase potiri rerum, to get control or be master of affairs ( 223. a) as,
:
totius Galliae sese potiri posse sperant (B. G. get possession of the whole of Gaul.
b.
i.
can
In early Latin, these verbs are often transitive, and take the ac:
cusative
ille
as,
estate.
commoda (Ter. Ad. 871), he enjoys his ancestral functus est officium (Ter. Ph. 281), he performed the part, etc.
patria potitur
NOTE.
The Gerundive
of these verbs
cf.
is
used personally
in the passive as
if
294. c)
as,
Heraclio omnia utenda ac possidenda tradiderat (Verr. ii. 46), he hadgiven over everything to Heraclius for his use and possession (to be used and
possessed).
9.
25O. With comparatives and words implying comparison the ablative is used to denote the Degree of Difference
:
as,
plures, two thousand more (more by two thousand), quinque milibus passuum distat, it is Jive miles distant (it stands off by
duobus milibus
miles).
five
multo
me
4), several years before. 9), a while after he looked up. vigilare acrius (Cat. i. 8), that I watch much more sharply
i.
vi.
(more
sharply by much),
nihilo erat ipse Cyclops
quam aries prudentior (Tuscul. Cyclops himself was not a whit wiser than the ram.
. .
v.
(hoc)
quo
. .
eo
106. c)
as,
less
quo minus
cupiditatis,
greed, the
more weight (by what the less, by that the more). quanto erat gravior oppugnatio, tanto crebriores litterae mittebantur (E.G. v. 45), the severer the siege was, the more frequently letters were sent.
To this construction are doubtless to be referred all cases of quo and with a comparative even when they have ceased to be felt as degree of difference and approach the Ablative of Cause: as,
NOTE.
eo
eoque
me minus
paenitet (Nat.
D.
i.
8),
and for
that reason
regret
less, etc.
less I regret).
a. The Ablative of Comparison ( 247) and the Ablative of Degree of Difference are often used together with the same adjective as,
:
multo
divitior Crasso,
much
251,252.]
257
Ablative of Quality.
251. The quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a Modifier (either an adjective or limiting genitive).
This
is
of Quality.
are of a
mind.
civitas aequissimo iure ac foedere (Arch. witk perfectly equal constitutional rights.
ii. i.
6),
as this
was
(^},awoman of extraordinary
Hortensius memoria tanta fuit ut, etc. (Brutus, 301), Hortensius had so good a memory that, etc. (was of so great memory), quam elato animo est (Theramenes) (Tuscul. i. 96), how lofty a spirit
Theramenes
Aristoteles, vir
displays.
summo
i.
7), Aristotle,
man of the greatest genius, learning, and gift of expression. quam tenui aut nulla potius valetudine (Cato Major 35), what feeble
a
health he had, or rather none at all ! de Domitio dixit versum Graecum eadem sententia (Deiot. ing Domitius he recited a Greek line of the same tenor.
25), concern-
stantive
Ablative of Quality (like the Genitive of Quality) modifies a subIt is therefore equivalent to an adjective, and may be it. In this it differs from other ablatives, which are either attributive or predicate. equivalent to adverbs. Compare,
NOTE.
The
by describing
mulier
magna
pulchritudine, a
woman
mulier pulchritudine Tr5iam delevit, by her beauty a woman destroyed Troy. mulier excellens pulchritudine ( 253), a woman preeminent in beauty.
a. In expressions of quality the Genitive or the Ablative may often be used indifferently; but physical qualities are oftener denoted by the
Ablative (cf.
have long hair. capill5 sunt promisso (B. G. v. 14), they ut capite opertS sit (Cato Major 34), /<? have his head covered (to be of
covered head).
11.
Ablative of Price.
:
of a thing is put in the ablative sestcrtium sex milibua, he sold the landfor 6000
vii.
as,
sesterces.
15),
Antony
logos ridicu*los: qui cena poscit (PI. Stich. 221), jokes: who wants them for (at the price of) a dinner? magnd illi ea cunctatio stctit (Liv. ii. 36), that hesitation cost him dear.
NOTE.
To
this
head
is
to
220. 6.
1.
258
252.
a. Certain adjectives of
indefinite
value.
as,
quanti, pluris,
minoris
est
mea magni
illud
ii. 15), it is worth the price (it is of so interest, it is ofgreat consequence to me.
much).
parvi
Verresne
tibi
refert (Manil. 18), this is of small accottnt. tanti fuit (Ver. ii. i. 77), was Verres of so
much account
to
you ?
tantone minoris decumae venierunt (Verr. so much less ?
ut te redimas
:
iii.
captum quam queas minimo si nequeas paululo, at quanti to ransom yourself, when captured, at the cheapest rate you can; if you can't for a small sum, then at any rate for what you can.
queas (Ter. Eun. 74),
NOTE.
b.
These are
The
Such are
straw.
Thus,
flocci facio (Att.
xiii.
non
50),
I care
not a straw.
utinam ego istuc abs te factum nihili penderem (Ter. Eun. 94), oh! that I cared nothing for this being done by you! ego non flocci pendere (Ter. Eun. 411), I did not care a straw.
c.
With verbs
in
of exchanging, either the thing taken or the thing given Such are: mutare,
fidem suam et religionem pecunia commutare (Cluentius his faith and conscience for money.
vertere funeribus triumphos (Hor. Od.
the funeral-train
129), to barter
i. 35. 4), to change the triumph to (exchange triumphs for funerals), exsilium patria sede mutavit (Q, C. iii. 7), he exchanged his native land for exile (he took exile in exchange for his native land), velox amoenum saepe Lucretilem mutat Lycaeo Faunus (Hor. Od. i. 17. i), nimble Faunus often changes Lycccus for Lucretilis. [He takes Lucretilis at the price ^/"Lycaeus, i.e. he goes from Lycseus to Lucretilis.]
cum
is
different
aries
cum
croceo mutabit vellera luto (Eel. iv. 44), the dyed with] the yellow saffron.
ram
shall change
selling the simple ablative of price in the case of tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris
:
quanti earn emit? vili quot minis? quadraginta minis (PI. Epid. 51), what did he buy her for ? Cheap. For how many mince ? Forty.
. . .
253.]
Ablative of Specification.
12.
259
Ablative of Specification.
of
is
The Ablative
to
which anything
i.
that
/;/
lame of one foot. lingua haesitantes, voce absuni (De Orat. i. 115), hesitating in
Aj^-s. 8),
speech,
harsh in voice.
cam non sensu nostro sed salute ipsius tuciianmr (Tusc. i. 90), such is our love of country that we measure it nut by our own feeling, but by her cnvn -welfare. sunt enim homines non re sed nomine (Offic. i. 105), .for they are met. not in fact, but in name.
tanta caritas patriac est, ut
maior natu, older ; minor natu, younger (of. 91. c). TnfTrmus mollisque natura (Laslius 75), weak and yielding by nature. paulum aetate progress! (Cat. Major 33), somewhat advanced i* age.
corpore senex esse potuit animo nunquam erit (Cat. Major 38), he may have been an old man in body, he never will be [old] at heart. non solum re et sententia sed verbis quoque hoc interdictum ita esse
compositum
substance
and effect,
was
man, in my opinion,
equitatu pulsi erant (B. G. vii. 68), they had been beaten in the cavalryJight. To this head are to be referred many expressions where the ablative NOTE. expresses that in accordance with which anything is or is done. But as the Romans had no such categories as we make, it is impossible to classify all uses of the abHence the ablative of specification is closely akin to that of manner, and to lative. many ablatives which have been developed from other fundamental ideas. Thus,
meo iure, with perfect right; but, meo modo, in my fashion. mea sententia, /;/ my opinion; but also more formally, ex mea
[Here the sense
second, source. ~\
is
sententia.
first
ablative
is
specification; the
propinquitate coniunctos atque natura (Laelius 50), closely allied by kindred and nature. [Here the ablative is not different in sense from those above, but no doubt is a development of means.'] qui vincit viribus (I.xlius 55), who surpasses in strength. [Here it is impossible to tell whether viribus is the means of the superiority or that in respect to which one is superior.] neque enim ulla alia condicione bella gesserunt (B. G. vii. ^^),for on no other terms did thcv carry on wars.
a.
The Supine
in
-ii,
is
equivalent to an
14.
303)
and
as,
tell.
N<>TF.
no
260
254, 255.
Ablative of Place.
Locative Case was originally used (literally) to denote the place (figuratively) to denote the time when (a development from the idea of place). But this case was preserved only in names of towns and a few other words, and the place where is usually denoted by the Ablative. In this construction the Ablative was, no doubt, used at first without a preposition, but afterwards it became associated with in in most cases.
The
is
(usually with the preposition in, a. The ablative of the place where
expressions
(cf.
c).
retained in
many
:
idiomatic
259. a)
which have
as,
pendemus animis (Tusc. i. 96), we are in suspense of'mind'(in our minds), socius periculis vobiscum adero (Jug. 85), / will present -with you> a
companion in dangers. premit altum corde dolorem (^En. L 209), he keeps down
his heart.
b.
I.
These are:
acquiescS, delector, laetor, gaudeo, glorior, nltor, sto, maiieo, fido (confido), consists, contineor. For dat.with (con)fido, see 227.
nominibus veterum
ancients.
gloriantur (Orat. 169), they glory in the names of the [Also, de divitiis (in virtute, circa rem, aliquid, haec) gloriari.]
9), to rely
i.
spe
niti (Att.
iii.
The
ablative: as,
fretus gratia Bruti (Att. v. 21), relying laetus praeda, rejoicing in the booty.
contentus sorte, content with his lot. [Possibly abl. of cause.] The ablative with the above verbs sometimes takes the preposition in (but fido in is late) : as.-
REMARK.
on whom
With
often found.
14.
Ablative Absolute.
1
255.
A
:
participle,
may be
an action
1
In this construction the noun was originally in the Locative Case^and denoted circumstance considered as place or time. Afterwards a participle was added to modify the noun, and the two words became fused in a single idea equivalent to that contained in a subordinate clause (cf. ab urbe condita, from the founding of the city, lit. from the founded city). After the construction was established, other ablatives not locative no doubt became confounded with the real ablatives absolute.
255.]
Ablative Absolute.
261
vocatis ad se undique mercatSribus (P.. G. iv. 20), having called to him the traders from all quarters (traders having been called;. quibus rebus cognitis Caesar apud militcs rontionatur (B. C. i. 7), having learned this, ( \csar makes a speech to the soldiers.
ac
si illo
sublato depelli a vobis omne periculum iudicarem (Catil. ii. 3), his removal (her being removed) all danger,
(B. G. vi. 3), the winter not yet over. compressi conatus nullo tumultu publice concitato (Catil. i. attempts were put doii.ni without exciting any general alarm.
ii), the
ne vobis quidem omnibus re etiam turn probata( Catil. ii. 4), since at that time the facts were not yet proved even to all ofyou. imprudentibus nostris atque occupatis in mumtione castrorum (B.C. v. in the fortification 15), while our men were off their guard and busy
of the camp.
fugato omni equitatii (B. G.
vii.
68), all the cavalry being put to flight. upon the death of Indutiomarus.
a. An adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the particil as, ple in the Ablative Absolute construction :
exigua parte aestatis reliqua (B. G. iv. 20), when but a small part of the summer was left (a small part of the summer remaining). M. Messala et M. Pisone consulibus (id. i. 2), in the consulship of Messala
and
b.
regular
Piso (Marcus Messala and Marcus Piso being consuls). way of expressing dates, see 259. e.~\
[The
incerto quid peterent (Liv. xxviii. 36), as aim at (it being uncertain, etc.).
the
it
they should
66),
when
it
NOTE.
c.
or an adjective is sometimes used adverbially in the ablative absolute without a substantive as,
:
A participle
consulto et cogitato (Off. 27), on purpose and with reflection (the matter having been deliberated and thought on),
i.
(it
[being] clear),
litato
(Liv.
v.
38), with
no auspices or favorable
Ep. 85, 29), in good
tranquillo, ut
aiunt,
any man's a
pilot.
The
participle of
in English.
ease, wanting
in Latin
{\ 119. a), is
used
in Sanskrit
and
Greek as
262
d.
255,
In such cases the noun is equivalent place of a Subordinate Clause. to a subject, and the other word to the predicate. So may be replaced
1.
:
Temporal clauses
patre interfecto,
322.
ff.)
as,
killed,
[his] father
having been
[This corresponds to
killed.'}
cum
[Cf.
:
dum
Causal clauses
321)
as,
taverant,
consumpto omni frumento, concilio coacto consultabant (B. G. vii. 77), but those who were under siege at Alesia since the time, etc., had expired, and their grain had been exhausted, calling a
[Cf.
cum
dies praeteriisset,
Alexander, desperata pace, ad reparandas vires intendit animum (Q. C. iv. 6, i), Alexander, since he despaired of peace, devoted his energies to
recruiting his forces.
3.
[Cf.
cum pacem
as,
desperaret.]
Concessive clauses
at
313):
eo repugnante fiebat (consul), immo vero eo fiebat magis (Milon. 34), but though he (Clodius) opposed, he (Milo) was likely to be elected
consul ; nay, rather,
etc.
4.
Conditional clauses
occurrebat
304)
et
as,
debilem praeturam futuram suam, consule ei, Milone (Milon. 25), it occurred to him that his praetorship would be maimed andfeeble, if Milo were consul, [si Milo cdnsul esset.]
(regione) subacta licebit decurrere in illud mare (Q. C. ix. 3), if we shall be free to run down into that sea.
28), if this be taken away.
:
mancam
qua
as,
ego haec a Chrysogono mea sponte, remoto Sex. RosciS, quaero (Rose. A. 130), of my own accord, without reference to Sextus Roscius (S. R.
being put aside), I ask these questions of Chrysogonus. nee imperante nee sciente nee praesente domino (Milon. 29), without their master's giving orders, or knowing it, or being present.
NOTE. As the English case absolute (the nominative) is far less common than the ablative absolute in Latin, a change of form is generally required in translation. Thus the present participle is oftenest to be rendered by a relative
clause with
active participle in English.
when or while; and the perfect passive participle by the perfect These changes may be seen in the following ex-
ample
255-57.]
"At
dentil':
ill!,
Time
sf<i/i,~>.
,nt,/
/Y^r.
"lint they, having
263
paused a
space,
////V/w/rv.'i
iwprut
nmiiit;
:nt;
aUjur
erant
acritcr
iti
.busied in 1m tilyini; the camp, suddenly threw tlu-mselvrs out of the woods then making an a/tack upon those who \v
;
pugnaverunt; ditabusijue
uc,
loci
subsidio
cum
spatio
hue
inter
(pfrf. \ijini
interims.
so)
cun.stitissi-nt,
novo
genere
piignat' perterrit'is nostris, per medios audacissime perruperunt, seque inde incolumes receperunt." C/ESAR, B. G.
v. 15.
camp, tlit-y fought and, though two cohorts had been sent reinforcements, afterthesehad taken their position (leaving very little space of ground between them), as our men were alarmed by the
guard
fiercely;
1
in front of the
strange kind of fighting, they dashed most daringly through the midst of
them, and got off safe." [For the Ablative with Prepositions, see
152.]
Time.
is
how
long in the
:
Accusative
as,
Ablative
constituta die, on the appointed day ; prima luce, at daybreak. quota hora, at what o'clock ? tertia vigilia, in the third watch.
tribus 2.
Accusative
dies continues triginta,/<?r thirty days together. cum triduum iter fecisset (B. G. ii. 16), when he
days.
;
NOTE.
accusative
is
The
the
ablative of time
is
locative in
its
the
same as
of space
a.
The
Accusative of time
how
long,
per
as,
in diebus proximis
in brevi spatio
decem
(Ov. Met.
dies (Cat.
is
ludi per
b.
decem
iii.
games for
ten days.
Duration of time
occasionally expressed
milites
NOTE.
act
is
In this use the period of time is regarded as that within which the done, and it is only implied that the act lasted through the period.
2.
Space.
257. Extent
of space
is
pur
in
the Accusative
as,
264
fossas
257, 258.
in
omm vita
latas (B. G. vii. 72), trenches fifteen feet broad. sua quemque a recta consckntia transversum unguem non oportet discedere (quoted in Att. xiii. 20), in all one's life, one should not depart a naiVs breadth from straightforward conscience.
NOTE.
a.
as,
vallo
This Accusative denotes the object through or over which the action is kindred with the Accusative of the End of Motion (cf. 258).
is
Measure
215. b)
pedum duodecim
ii.
rampart of twelve
feet (in
height).
b.
Distance
;
cusative
(
when considered as extent of space is put in when considered as degree of difference, in the
the Ac-
Ablative
250): as,
quinque clierum iter abest (Liv. xxx. 29), it is distant five days' march, triginta milibus passuum infra eum locum (B. G. vi. 35), thirty miles below
Place from
of Motion.
the place
to
in
as,
a septentrione, from the north. a vobis discessero (Cat. Maj. 79), when I leave you. de provincia decedere, to come away from one's province.
cum
I. 14),
Graecia rivulus (Rep. ii. 34), there Jloived in a rill from Greece. ex Britannia obsides miserunt (B. G. iv. 38), they sent hostages from Britain. Mosa profluit ex monte Vosego (id. iv. 10), the Meuse (flows from) rises in the Vosges mountains. quas (navis) ex Pictonibus et Santonls reliquisque pacatis regionibus convenire iusserat (id. iii. n), the ships which he had given orders should
collect
from
and
the
the other
conquered regions.
1 Originally all these relations were expressed with all these words by the cases alone. The accusative denoted the end of motion as in a certain sense the object of the action (cf. petiit), and the ablative in its proper meaning of sepa-
Romam
ration denoted the place from which. The prepositions, originally adverbs, were added to define more exactly the direction of motion, as in to us -ward, toward us,
as indicated above.
258.]
2.
265
Place to which
ad fines Hyrcaniae penetrat (Q. C. vi. 4), he penetrates to the borders of Hyrcania. acliham ad istuin fuiuluni (Caec. 82), I -was going to that estate (cf. 237. d). in Africam navigavit, he sailed to Africa.
in Italian) profectus,
gone
to Italy.
legatum in Treveros inittit (15. G. iii. n), he sends his lieutenant into the [country of the] Treveri. in Piraea cum exissem (Att. vi. 9, i), taken I had landed at the Piraus. [Admitted by Cicero himself to be wrong, the Piraeus being a town
(see
b,
below).
The passage
is
discussed by
is
him
in Att.
vii.
3.]
NOTE
it
I.
often expressed
by the Dative
(225.^.3):
v.
to the sky.
to the borders ; in, into denotes away from the outside; ex, out cf the interior. Thus ad Italiam pervenit would mean, he came to the frontier, regardin Italiam, he went to Italy, i.e. to a place within it, to less of the destination Rome, for instance. So ab Italia profectus est would mean, he came away from the frontier, regardless of the original starting-point ex Italia, he came
NOTE
With
the
name
ad
denotes
the country
itself.
Similarly
ab
from
Italy\
for instance.
a. The names of towns or small islands from 'which, as also and rus, are put in the Ablative without a preposition as,
:
domus
Roma profectus, having set out from Rome. rure reversus, having returned from the country. Roma abesse, to be absent from Rome.
domo
abire, to leave home.
i.
NOTE
from
ut a
With names
of towns,
etc.,
ab
is
often used,
commonly
to denote
Mutina discederet
(Phil.
xiv.
4),
from
Mutin-.i
(which he was besieging), erat a Gergovia despectus in castra (B. G. a vino into the camp.
profecti a
vii.
45), there
domo
to
(Liv.
xl.
from home.
viii.
nearer
NOTE
which
2.
The
is
in certain
idiomatic expressions
as,
cessisset patria (Mil. 68), he -would have left his country. patria pellcre, to drive out of the country.
maim
NOTE
prose:
The
would be required
in
as,
266
258.
b. The names of towns or small islands to which as and rus, are put in the Accusative without a preposition
:
domus
Romam
Delo
rediit,
he returned to Rome.
Rhodum navigare, to sailfrom Delos to Rhodes. rus ibo, I shall go into the country. domum iit, he went home. [So, suas domos abire, to go
In this use genitive. When otherwise modified,
i.
to their
homes.]
NOTE
domum maybe modified by a possessive pronoun or a domum requires the preposition in. Thus,
to the king's house.
domum
in
regis
(Dei.
i.
17),
domum
NOTE
2.
(Cat.
8), to
M.
domum magnam
With
the
venire, to
M. Laecae
names
of towns, etc.,
ad may
be used
in the sense of
ad Alesiam proficiscuntur (B. G. vii. 76), they set out for Alesia. ad Alesiam perveniunt (id. vii. 79), they arrive at Alesia (come through ad Athenas navigare, to set sail for Athens (landing in the harbor).
to).
NOTE 3.
NOTE
NOTE
The
general words, urbs, oppidum, insula require a preposition which or from which) : as, ad urbem, ab urbe, ad
or
Two
The
more nouns
of motion (see
5.
259.
<&).
(^n.
i.
2), he
came
to Italy
ian shores.
finis Italos mittere (id.
iii.
440),
ii.
you
boundaries.
(id.
to the
Hesperian land.
($ 302)
REMARK.
exsequias
The
ire, to
preposition
is
-um
and
in
pessum
ire, to
pessum dare,
to
ruin
(cf.
perdS).
venum venum
dare, to sell (give to sale). [Hence vendere.j ire, to be sold (go to sale). [Hence venire.] foras (used as adverb), out: as, foras egredi, to go out of doors.
4.
I. The place where is denoted by the Ablative with c. the preposition in (Locative Ablative] as,
:
in
si
dum
(id.
8), if they should stay in Gaul. iii. 17), -while this was going on
among
the Veneti.
oppidum
positum
258.]
2.
The /Ymr
\\licre.
267
in
the
Locative Case.
This has in the first and the second declension singular the same form as the Genitive, in the plural and in the third declension the same form as the Dative or Ablative as,
:
Kluxli, at l\hodes
Ri'.MARK. Large islands, and all places when thought of as a territory and not as a locality are treated like names of countries: as,
in Sicilia, in Sicily. in
Ithaca lepores illati moriuntur (Plin. H. N., cf. 256. rt), in Ithaca hares "when carried there die. [ Ulysses lived at Ithaca, would require
Ithacae.]
ad
NOTE i. With all names of places AT, meaning near (not in), is expressed or apud with the Accusative. In the neighborhood of may be expressed circa with the Accusative among, by apud with the Accusative. Thus,
;
by by
piigna ad Cannas, the fight at Cannae. conchas ad Caietam legunt (De Or. ii. 22), at Caieta (along the shore), ad (apud) inferos, in the world below (near or among those below), ad fores, at the doors. ad ianuam, at the door.
.
apud Graecos, among the Greeks. apud Solos (Leg. ii. 41), at Soli.
NOTE
ioork t iu.
2.
In citing an author,
apud
Thus,
in
The
Locative Case
is
common
domi
belli,
(rarely
domui), at home.
ruri,
;'//
hum!, on
foris, out-of-doors.
like
preposition.
So
vesper!
i.
268
258, 259.
e. The locative domi may be modified by a possessive adjective or a limiting genitive but, when it would be otherwise modified some other construction is used instead of the Locative. Thus,
;
domi domi
own
domo
Regularly in
many
quibus loco positls (De Or. iii. qua parte victi erant (Att. ix. 1
53),
1),
on
these are set in position. the side where they were beaten.
when
But,
is
army
in camp.
larly
when totus
is
used)
as,
city.
i.
tota Sicilia (Verr. iv. 51), throughout Sicily (in the whole of Sicily). tota Tarracina (De Or. ii. 240), in all Tarracina (cf. c. 2. Rem.).
3.
So,
Freely in poetry
as,
Htore curvo (^En. iii. 16), on the winding shore. antro seclusa relinquit (id. iii. 446), she leaves them shut up in the cave. Epiro, Hesperia (id. iii. 503), in Epirus, in Hesperia.
g.
as,
is
(Fam.
x. 9),
sent
forward
the cavalry by
Aegaeo man
NOTE.
he crossed by
Sea.
506),
we
is
way
by -which
5.
259. The
served
:
following
special
a. Many expressions have in Latin the construction of time when, where in English the main idea is rather of place: as,
the Jight at ludls Romanis, at the Roman games. omnibus Gallicis bellis, in all the Gallic wars.
Canna.
259.1
b.
ami Place.
269
In
many
used.
or
sub
is
idiomatic express'ons of time, the accusative with ad, in, Such are the following
:
convenerunt ad diem, they assembled at the [appointed] day. ad vesperum, //'// evening; sub vesperum, towards evening. sub idem tempus, about the same time. sub noctem, at night-fall.
c.
or within which
ace. or abl. of a
quinto die, within [justf/our days (lit., on the counted both ends, see 376. d.~\
fifth
day).
[The Romans
is
regnat iam sextum annum, he has reigned going on six years (he now the sixth year).
reigning
But
d.
as,
also,
variously expressed
post (ante) tres annos, post tertium annum, tres post annos, tertium post annum, tribus post annis, tertio post anno ( 250), three years after. tribus annis (tertio anno) post exsilium (postquam eiectus est), three years
after his exile.
his tribus proximis annis, within the last three years.
a few years hence. abhinc annos tres (tribus annis), ante hos tres annos, three years ago. triennium est cum (tres anni sunt cum), it is three years since.
paucis annis,
octavo mense
e.
quam
(see
month
after.
ordinal alone,
In Dates the phrase ante diem (a. d.) with an ordinal, or the is followed by an accusative, like a preposition ; and the
itself
phrase
may
is
also be governed
by a preposition.
:
expressed by the names of the consuls in the ablative absolute, often without a conjunction ( 255. d) as,
is
The year
dies erat a. d.
qulntum Kalendas
(B. G. i. 6), that day was the $th before the calends of April (March 28), in the consulship ofPiso and Gabinius. in a. d. v. Kal. Nov. (Cat. i. 7), to the $th day before the calends of November (Oct. 28).
xv.
Kal. Sextilis, the i$th day before the calends of [Full form: quinto decimo die ante Kalendas.]
///),
August (July
1 8).
see
258.
c.
note
258.
i.
NOTE.
270
259, 260.
g. When motion to a place is implied in English, though not expressed* the accusative with or without a preposition must be used in Latin as,
:
coniurati in curiam. convenerunt, the conspirators (came together into the Senate-house),
met in
the Senate-house,
concilium
h.
domum
suam convocavit, he
own
house.
two or more names of place follow a verb of motion, each must be under its own construction. Thus,
quadriduo quo haec gesta sunt res ad Chrysogonum in castra L. Sullae Volaterras defertur (Rose. A. 20), within four days after this was done, the matter was reported TO Chrysogonus IN Sulla's camp AT
Volaterra.
When
VII.
-USE OF PREPOSITIONS.
26O. Some Prepositions are used with the Accusative, some with the Ablative, 1 and a few with both.
NOTE.
a.
For the
list
of Prepositions, see
\ 152.
Such are:
pono and
its
compounds
etc.
(except
impono), loco,
place
statuitur
domo collocavit (Paradox. 25), -who put [one] into his and home. eques Romanus in Aproni conviviS (Verr. iii. 62), a Roman
is
insula Delos in
brought into a banquet of Apronius. AegaeS marl posita (Leg. Man. 55), the island of Ddost situated in the Aegean Sea.
knight
(id.
si
59), if
b.
ab
(rarely
as,
a parte Pompeiana, on the side of Pompey. a sinistra, on the left hand. [Cf. hinc, on this side.] ex altera parte, on the other side.
magna ex
1
parte, in
i.e.
The
260. 261.]
c.
Use of Prepositions.
in the sense of concerning takes the Ablative
;
2f I
in all other
Super
it
senses
hac super re (Cic.), concerning this thing. super tali causa missi (Ncp. Pans. 4), sent on stick an errand. sed hac re super nimis (Alt. x. 8), but more than enough on that point. super culmina tecti (/Kn. ii. 695), above the house-top. super vallum praecipitari (Jug. 58), to be hurled over the rampart. super lateres curia inducuntur (B.C. ii. 10), hides are drawn over the bricks.
super Numidiam (Jug. 19), beyond Numidia. super terrae tumulum (Legg. ii. 66), on the mound of earth. super vinum (Q. C. viii. 4), over [his] wine.
NOTE.
The
ablative
is
used
in poetry with
super
i.
9. 5),
ix.
Subter
togam
Thus,
subter
But,
36), as far as
Taurus.
capu!5 tenus (yn. ii. 553), up to the hilt. Corcyrae tenus (Liv. xxv. 24), as far as Corcyra.
NOTE. Tenus is frequently connected with the feminine of an adjective pronoun, making an adverbial phrase: as,
hactenus, hitherto
;
matter so far).
261.
tions or as
a.
thus,
postridie", propius,
(cf.
207. b, 234. e)
as,
(Cic.), the day before the Nones of June (June 4). pridie postridie ludos (Att. xvi. 4), the day after the games. ipse propior montem suos collocat (Jug. 49), he stations his men nearer
Nonas lunias
the hill.
(Att.
i.
14)
[Cf. proxi-
prope,
152. a.
272
261.
pars Insulae quae est propius sdlis occasum (B. G. island which is nearer the west (sunset),
terminos usque Libyae (Just.), to the bounds of Libya. NOTE. Pridie and postridie take also the Genitive ( 223. e. note 2). Propior, propius, proximus, and proxime, take also the Dative, or the Ablative with at). Usque is commonly followed by ad. Thus,
propius Tiber! (Nep.), nearer the Tiber. propius ab urbe (Plin.), nearer the city.
usque ad mare,
to
the sea.
b. The adverbs palam, procul, simul, may be used as prepositions and take the ablative (so perhaps intus, 1 as, 53, note) rem creditor! palam populo solvit (Liv. vi. 14), he paid the debt in the
:
modum
H.
iv. 22),
not
close
among
us dwells
NOTE.
Thus,
in classic use;
But simul regularly takes cum procul is usually followed by ab and the use of palam as a preposition is comparatively late.
;
from
the
the sea.
ourselves.
nobiscum simul, at
c.
found with the Accusative or Ablative, with the Genitive or Dative as, rarely clam matrem suam (Plaut), unknown to his mother.
:
clam mihi (id.), in secret from me. clam patris (id.), without his father's knowledge. clam vobis (B. C. ii. 32), without your knowledge.
d.
Prepositions often
retain
their
original
meaning as adverbs.
So
1
.
especially
in relations of time
as,
etc.
quae pauld ante praecepta dedimus (Cic.), a little while ago, post tribus diebus, three days after (cf. 259. d}.
2.
Adversus, contra,
circiter,
prope
as,
adversus resistere, to hold out in opposition. Aeolus haec contra, thus ALolus in reply.
circiter pars quarta, about the foitrth part.
3.
as,
to be
mound close
170.]
by.
NOTE.
list "of
prepositions.
262, 263.]
273
12<2.
Some
Com-
parison arc
may
neque ante dimisit eum quam fulem declit (Liv. xxxix. 10), nor did h: let him go until he gave a pledge. post diem tertium quam dixerat (Mil. 44), the third day after he said it.
NOTE i. Such words are ante, magis and prae in compounds: as,
also
Cato ipse iam servire quam pugnare mavult (Alt. this time would rather be a slave than fight.
si
vii.
possint, Gallorum quam Romanorum imperia praeferre (13. G. i. 17), if they can no longer hold the chief rank in Gaul, [they] prefer the rule of Gauls to that of Romans.
2.
:
NOTE
same way
The
ablative of time
256)
is
in the
as,
octavo mense
quam
months
after, etc.
of
Agent, see
NOTE. The following prepositions sometimes follow their nouns ad, citra, circa, contra, de, e (ex), inter, iuxta, penes, propter, ultra, tenus
:
(regularly),
as,
[usus] quern penes arbitrium est et ius et norma loquendl (Hor. A. P. 72), custom, under ivhose control is the choice, right, and rule of speech. cuius a me corpus est crematum, quod contra decuit ab illo meum (C. M.
84),
(lit.
whose body I burned [on the funeral pile], while on the contrary contrary to which} mine should have been burned by him.
274
CHAPTER
L
III.
Syntax of
the
Verb.
The Syntax of the Verb relates chiefly to the use of the Moods NOTE. (expressing the manner in which the action is conceived) and the Tenses (expressing the time of the action). There is no difference in origin between mood and tense. The moods, except the infinitive, are only specialized tenses ; and hence the uses of mood and tense frequently cross each other. Thus the tenses sometimes
have modal
significations (compare indicative in apodosis, 311. c\ future for imperative, $ 269. /) ; and the moods sometimes express time (compare subjunctive in future conditions, 307. , and notice the want of a future subjunctive
no.
a).
parent language, besides the imperative mood, had two distinct forms with the Subjunctive, expressing an action as willed or vividly conceived; and the Optative, expressing an action as wished for or vaguely conceived. Of these, the Subjunctive was developed from a Present Tense, by which an action continued in present time was represented as future : compare in English, the army marches to-morrow. Such an action came to be conceived on the one hand as command: compare the military order, the regiment will advance; and on the other as a possibility or a mere conception : compare anybody will under-
The
modal
signification
stand that.
The Optative has had a similar development. It was originally a tense-form compounded with YA, and probably denoted past time (cf. Eng. should and would) but like the subjunctive, it has acquired the two meanings of conception and command.
\
It must not be supposed, however, that in any given construction either the subjunctive or the optative was deliberately used because it denoted conception or possibility. On the contrary, each construction has had its own line of development from more tangible and literal forms of thought to more vague and ideal; and by
mood
in
is
in that construction.
expression I would do this has become equivalent to it is seen to be the apodosis of a present condition contrary to fact ( 308) if I were you, etc. By further analysis, I would go is seen to have meant, originally, / should have wished (or / did wish} to go. In Latin., the original subjunctive and the optative became confounded in form and meaning, and were merged in the present subjunctive. Then new tense-forms of the subjunctive were formed by composition 1 and to these the original as well as the derived meanings of both moods became attached (see 265). All the
:
;
independent uses of the Latin subjunctive are thus to be accounted for. The dependent uses of the subjunctive have arisen in every case from the employment of some independent subjunctive construction in co-ordination'with a main statement. In time the two clauses have so grown together as to form a single
l
For the
264.]
The Indicative
J,
to have assumed subordinate meaning peared, and a new meaning has arisen by implication. Thus, mi3it legates qul 1 dlcerent, he sent ambassadors to say (i.f. who would .\,iy in case). Similar processes may be seen in the growth of Apodosis. Thus, tolle hanc oplniSnem, IQctum sustuleris (remove this notion, you will have doi!'
is felt
The
origin. il
<
..
with grief:
i.e.
a verbal noun, modifying a verb like other nouns wish for-seeing": compare English what went ye out for to But in Latin it lias been surprisingly developed, so as to have forms for iid some proper modal characteristics, and to be used as a substitute for
originally
:
"
other moods. The other noun and adjective forms of the verb have been developed in various ways, which are treated under their respective heads below. The proper verbal constructions may be thus classified
:
i.
($
($ 317).
2.
SUBJUNCTIVE:
non) ($319).
Dependent
"{L"nap.v.J~:
4.
5. 6. 7.
Time
Conditions f (.
Future
(le"ss
vivid}
($307^^).
Contrary to fr'actj j 308). Intermediate (indirect Discourse) (341). Indirect Questions or Commands ($$ 334,
339)(often subjunctive) (J 269).
I.
Direct
Commands
IMPERATIVE:
\ 2.
{ 3.
Statutes.
a.
b.
Laws, and Wills ($ 269. d). Prohibitions (early or poetic use) ($ 269. note). Subject of 6886 and Impersonal verbs ($ 270).
INFINITIVE:
Objective Constructions:
Complementary
2.
Infinitive ($ 271).
Indirect
{i.
1.
jBve) ($ 272).
($
Idjornatic
Uses
275).
I.
-MOODS.
!
I.
Tin:
is
^^
mood
the
of direct assertions or
a. The Tenses of the Indicative generally denote time, as/; past, orfitturt-, with reference to the speaker ( 276 ff.).
Compare
276
NOTE.
clauses,
[264,265.
See uses of temporal
thus denoted
is
b.
The
Indicative
is
longum
est, it
satius erat, it
would be tedious [if, etc.], would have been better [if, etc.],
persequi possum,
c.
I might follow up
Indicative
is
[in detail].
sometimes used
for
the
Imperative
306,
269.7).
d.
indicative
is
308).
e. The place of the indicative in narration the Historical Infinitive ( 275).
sometimes supplied by
its
verb in the
Infini-
272, 336).
II.
THE
SUBTUNCTIVE.
265. The Subjunctive in general expresses the verbal idea with some modification 1 such as is expressed in English
by
(
auxiliaries,
by the
infinitive, or
tive
112. b).
The
ent
(cf.
a. Tr^e
1.
An
Exhortation, Concession, or
Command
(Hortatory,
266).
2.
3.
(Deliberative^
268).
These constructions (with the exception of some forms of Deliberative Subjunctive) are merely different phases of the same use.
NOTE.
tive is
In the conclusion (apodosis) of Conditional Sentences, the subjuncgrammatically independent, though logically it depends on some condition expressed or implied ($ 304). The so-called Potential Subjunctive comes under
REMARK.
this
head (see
311. a).
is
b.
The
subjunctive
own
special development (compare introductory note, p. 274). The subjunctive in Latin has also many idiomatic uses (see clauses of Result and Time), where the
English does not modify the verbal idea at all, but expresses it directly ; but in these cases the Latin merely takes a different view of the action, and has developed its construction differently from the English.
265, 266.]
1.
Hortatory Subjunctive.
277
2.
3.
320).
4.
Time (Temporal,
307.
c,
308).
(
c.
The
subjunctive
is
Comparison
336).
312),
and
l.\
Hortatory Subjunctive.
is
used to express
ai
command, a
concession, or a condition.
The
the Perfect, to past time or completed future time ; th Imperfect, to present or past time ; the Pluperfect, to completed past time
:
as,
vii.
122), let
them
19), let
Epicurus look
to this.
subjunctive of exhortation and command takes the presthe perfect. The Perfect represents an action as coment tense, pleted in future time ; but in most cases is hardly to be distinguished from the Other tenses are used in some varieties of this construction (see c. Present.
NOTE.
note
and
e).
REMARK.
The
is
n.
&
and
used only of an indefinite subject, except In in poetry (cf. Thus, 269. b).
quas ferre nequeas, defugiendo relinquas (Tus. v. 118) wrongs offortune, which you cannot bear, leave behind by Jlight. exoriare aliquis ultor (/En. iv. 625), rise, some avenger. isto bono utare clum adsit, cum absit no requiras (Cat. Maj. 33), use this
the
blessing while it is present ; when it is wanting, do not regret it. ne conferas culpam in me (Ter. Eun. 388), don't lay the blame on me. nihil ignoveris (Mur. 65), pardon nothing. doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas (/En. vi. 109), show us the way and lay open the sacred portals.
(X
common
In Prohibitions addressed to a definite person, the perfect than the present (cf. 269. a) : as,
is
more
278
hoc
facitS:
266.
do this; thou
shall not
do that.
tu ne quaesieris (Hor.), do not inquire. nee mihi illud dixeris (Fin. i. 25), and do not say that
tew
to
me.
The
SION,
hortatory subjunctive is especially used to express a CONCESsometimes with ut, ne, quamvis, quamlibet, or similar words
fuerit
aliis
others,
coepit (Ver.
be to you ?
ii. i.
37), suppose he
was [so]
to
i.
adduced no
nemo
ne
is
unquam
:
fuit
ne fuerit
(let there
granted
summum malum
is
dolor,
evil,
malum
at least
14),
granted that
pain
an
evil.
scelerati illi fuissent (De Or. i. 230), however guilty they might have been. quamvis comis in amicitiis tuendis fuerit (Fin. ii. So), amiable as he may have been in keeping his friendships (let him have been as amiable as
quamvis
you
please).
In this use the Present refers to future or indefinite time, the Imperpresent or past time (the concession being impliedly untrue), the Perfect to fast or completed future time, the Pluperfect to completed action in past time (the concession being usually untrue). NOTE 2. The Indicative is often used in concessions (see $313).
i.
NOTE
fect to
REMARK.
ft
313. c)
'Of.
Concessions with si and its compounds belong to Protasis (see those with licet, to Substantive Clauses (see 313. b).
The
hortatory subjunctive
may be used
to denote a
PROVISO (see
3H).
\g.
The
an
as,
moreretur, inquies (Rab. Post. 29), he should have died, you will say. potius diceret (Off. iii. 88), he should rather have said. ne poposcisses (Att. ii. \),you should not have asked. saltern aliquid de pondere detraxisset (Fin. iv. 57), at least he should have
taken something from the
zveight.
REMARK. This use of the subjunctive is carefully to be distinguished from its use in apodosis (potential, 311. a). The difference is indicated by the translation, should or ought (not would or might).
NOTE.
clearly representing the time for action as
In this use the Pluperfect differs from the Imperfect only in more momentary or as/aj/.
267.]
^
I
Optative Subjunctive.
2\
279
Optative Subjunctive.
is
'
used to express a Wish. The / as possible, the knpc. rfprt ns tense denotes the wish preSeTTt in ttnaccomplishcd present time, the pluperfect as unaccom- jjCu^c^ in time. Thus, past plished
ita
ne
vlvam vivam
si
(Alt. v. 15), J0 may I live (as true as I live). scio (id. iv. 16), I wish I may not live if I know.
perduint (Dei. 21), the gods confound thee ! valeant, valeant, cives mei; valeant, sint incolumes (Mil. 93), farewell
di te
di
[he says], my fellow-citizens ; may they be sec tire from harm. facerent sine patre forem (Ov. Met. viii. 72), would that the gods allowed me to be without a father (but they do not)
!
a.
The
is
antiquated
as,
male
faxint (Plaut. Cure. 131), may the gods do thee a mischief. quod omen di averterint (Philip, xii. 14, in a religious formula), and may the gods avert this omen.
di tibi
b.
is
often preceded
by the
particles uti
(ut),
as,
ut pereat positum robigine telum (Hor. Sat. ii. i), may the weapon unused perish with rust. falsus utinam vates sim (Liv. xxi.), I wish 7 may be a false prophet. utinam. P. CISclius viveret (Mil. 103), would that Clodius were now alive.
Fr.
Sat.
i.
3),
dead.
accedat (Hor.
ii.
6. 8),
only be added.
NOTE
how may
note)
si
;
i.
I,
The
(
etc.,
was
originally deliberative,
meaning
etc.
si alone
is
subjunctive with 6 si (poetical} is a protasis ($ 312. sometimes used to express a wish in the same way: as,
268).
The
nunc se nobis ille aureus ramus ostendat (/En. golden branch ~uould only shcnu itself to us !
vi.
187), if
now
that
NOTE 2. The subjunctive of Wish without a particle is rarely found in the imperfect or pluperfect except by sequence of tenses in Indirect Discourse ( 286):
as,
ac venerata Ceres
rect
c.
ita culmo surgeret alto (Hor. Sat. ii. 2. 124), and Ceres worshipped [with libations] that so she might rise with tall stalk. [Di:
ita surgas.]
their
dc Mcneilemi" vellem verum fuisset, <le regina velim verum sit (Att. xv. MtiU&mm I wish it had been true ; about the queen 1 4), iihout
hope
it
may
br.
280
267-69.
nollem accidisset tempus (Fam. iii. 10), I wish the time never had come. mallem Cerberum metueres (Tus. i. 12), I had rather have had you afraid
of Cerberus (I should have preferred that you feared C.). NOTE. Velim, etc., in this use, are strictly apodoses with the protasis omitted 311. b). The thing wished is really a substantive clause used as object of the
(
verb of wishing
331. b).
311.]
|j3.\
Deliberative
is
indignation, or (2)
:
being done
as,
quid hoc homine facias? quod supplicium dignum libidini eius invenias (Verr. ii. 40), what are you to do with this man ? whatfit penalty can
you devise for his wantonness? an ego non venirem (Phil. ii. 3), what, should I not have come? quid dicerem (Att. vi. 3), what was I to say? mihi umquam bonorum praesidium defuturum putarem (Mil. 94), could 1
quis
think that the defence ofgood men would everfail me ? enim celaverit ignem (Ov. Her. xv. 7), who could conceal the flame ?
REMARK. This use is apparently derived from the Hortatory Subjunctive: quid faciamus? = faciamus laliquid], quid? let us do what? Once estabquid f aciam? what AM / to do ? lished, it was readily transferred to the past quid f acerem? what WAS / to do ? Questions implying impossibility, however,
:
(cf.
311. a).
is
NOTE.
tenses, see
The
266.
Deliberative Subjunctive
For
III.
THE
is
IMPERATIVE.
used
c5nsulite vobis, prospicite patriae, conservate vos (Cat. iv. 3), have a care for yourselves, guard the country, preserve yourselves. die Marce Tulli sententiam, Marcus Tutfijts, state your opinion.
te
K^^F
ii.
5.
no), farewell,
ferentis (^En.
bless you (live and be well) ! 144), pity a soul bearing un-
NOTE.
ne
is
In Negative Commands {prohibitions) the Present Imperative with used by early writers and the poets as,
:
ne time (Plaut. Cure. 520), don't be afraid. nimium ne crede color! (Eel. ii. 1 7), trust not too much equo ne credite (,/En. ii. 48), trust not the horse.
to
complexion.
[For the Future Imperative with ne in laws and formal precepts, see
d. 3, below.]
269.1 J
fa
Prohibition
V
ne
1.
i.
id),
</<>//'/ /;
alarmed.
Y\JZ.
i.
ne vos quidem iudices ei qui me absolvistis mortem timueritis (Tusc. 98), nor must you fear death, you judges that, etc.
2.
\iSv*A>-V
By noli
as,
rWV ^J)^
noli putare (Fam. xiv. 2), do not suppose (be unwilling to suppose), nolite cogere socios (Ver. ii. 1.82), do not compel the allies.
NOTE.
ing
(cf. $
The
:
273. c)
parce
manus (^n. iii. 42), forbear to defile your pious hands. cetera mitte loqui (Hor. Epod. 13. 7), forbear to say the rest.
pias scelerare
i.
9. 13),
do not inquire.
(colloquially fac
:
nBVwith
or Perfect Subjunctive 1
th e Prej^nf^
266. b}
as.
1
9 j&* <*
cave putes (Att. vii. 20), don't think. cave dixeris, don't say so.
\~**\
else.
^ JL.
{^
cave faxis (Ter. Heaut. 187), don't do, it. fac ne quidaliud cures (Fam. xvi. n), see that you attend to nothing
NOTE.
as,
Q. N. i. 3, 3), you mitst not doubt. (Mur. 65) grant no pardon (pardon nothing).
,
Prohibitions addressed to no definite person are regularly expressed by the Present Subjunctive with ne (cf. c, below) as,
:
(0\ General
denique isto bono utare dum adsit cum absit ne requiras (Cat. Maj. ^3). in short, ttse this good while present ; when wanting, do not regret it.
:
NOTE.
with
The
ne
as,
molestus ne
ne
sis
3.
88), don't be a
is
\ harsh]
uncle to me.
:
antiquated or poetic
popull suprema lex esto, the safety of the people shall be their first law. iusta imperia sunto, eisque elves modeste parents (Leg. iii. 6), let there be lawful authorities, and let the citizens strictly obey them.
^NOTE.
is
(Lsel. 40),
1 In prohibitions the Subjunctive with ne is hortatory; that with object clause (originally hortatory, cf. $ 33i./,~ Kcm.).
cave
is
an
282
faL
269.
used in commands,
etc.,
where there
is
futurejinm: viz., 1. In connection with some form that marks a condition precedent (as a future, a future-perfect, or an imperative}. Thus,
Phyllida mitte mihi, meus est natalis, lolla;
ipse venito (Eel.
iii.
(uJtinct reference to
cum
my
birthday, lollas
[shall] sacrifice a heifer for the harvest, come^ourself. die quibus in terris, etc., et Phyllida solus habeto (id. m. 107), tell in
when I
what
lands, etc.,
and hdve
2.
With adverbs
or other expressions of
Time
as,
it
shall be given.
and Wills:
as,
cum
valetudini c5nsulueris, turn cSnsulito navigati5ni (Fam xvi. 4), to your health, then look to your sailing.
when
iii.
8), let
him
of civil right. Borea flante, ne arato, semen ne iacito (Plin. H. N. north wind blows, plough not nor sow your seed.
77),
when
the
\k The verbs scio, memini, and habeo (in the sense of consider), Present : as, regularly use the Future Imperative instead of the
filiol5
me auctum
scitS (Att.
i.
I am
it,
blessed with
little
boy.
sic
habeto, mi Tiro""(Tam.
xvi. 4), so
understand
my good
Tiro.
(PI. Asin.),
gown.
r
The Future
as,
Indicative
is
sometimes used
Indicative
and
quM
si
may have
the force of a
command:
quid accident novi, facies ut sciam (Fam. xiv. 8),^<? will let if anything new happens. ? here, take it (why not take it?). quin accipis (Ter. Heaut. 832)
-.
me know
Instead of the simple Imperative^cura, factor yelim. followed he subjunctive with or without ut ( 331. /. R.) is often used, as, especially in colloquial language
:
2), take care to be at Rome. (Att. fac cures ut ores (Ter. Eun. 500), do try to induce [him]. fac ut valetudinem cures (Fam. xiv. 17), see that you take care of your health. fac, amabo (Ter. Eun. 533), going into the [Cf. rus e5.
cura ut Romae
sis
i.
Pm
country.
Do,
please.
domi
home, do.
mittas (Att.
viii.
269, 270.]
V/.
The
Injlniti
all
283
(see
IV.
THE
INFINITIVE.
properly a noun denoting the action of the verb abIt differs, however, from other abstract nouns in the following points stractly. (i) it admits in many cases of the distinction of tense; (2) it is modified by adverbs, not by adjectives; (3) it governs the same case as its verb; (4) it is limited
NOTE.
The
Infinitive
is
to special constructions.
The
Latin Infinitive
is
originally used to denote Purpose ; but it has in many constructions developed into a substitute for a finite verb. Hence the variety of its use.
In
its
may
on which the
te valere
substantive clauses,
Tjifinitive, as.
Subject, etc.
Infinitive, with or without a subject-accusaused with est and similar verbs (i) as the be tive, may in Apposition with the subject, or (3) as a Subject, (2)
27O. The
Predicate Nominative.
1.
Thus,
Subject: as,
dolere
malum
est (Finib.
v.
bellum
nosse (Att.
rei
84), to suffer pain is an evil. ii. 17), iCs a fine thing to know one's
3), it is
own
to
faults.
pulchrum
est
benefacere
a noble thing
to
135),
ii.
it is better
calm the
hoc facere ilium mihi quam prosit nescio (Att. his doing this benefits me.
2.
6),
as,
proinde quasi iniuriam facere id demum esset imperio uti (Sail. Cat. 12), to commit injustice, were to use power. [Here facere just as if this t
is
in apposition
with id.]
:
3. Predicate Nominative
as,
iv.
vivere (Finib.
41), that
is to lire
in con-
NOTE i. An infinitive may also be used as Direct Object in connection with Predicate Accusative, or as Appositivc with such Direct Object as,
:
284
istuc
270.
fueris miserrimum puto (Tus. i. 12), for I think very thing most wretched, not to be when one has been. miserari, invidere, gestire, laetari, haec omnia morbos Graeci appellant
this
(Tuscul.
iii.
7),
to
NOTE
2.
An
these constructions
Appositive or Predicate noun used with an infinitive in any of is put in the Accusative, whether the infinitive has a subject ex-
pressed or not.
Thus,
(Parad. 51), to be free from desires (not to be
non
esse
cupidum pecunia
is
desirous)
a.
I.
money in hand.
not
The
infinitive as subject is
common
similar verbs.
NOTE.
represented
quos omnis eadem cupere, eadem odisse, eadem metuere in unum coegit 3 1 )* all of whom the fact of desiring, hating, and fearing the (J u same things has united into one.
-
ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores (Ov. ex P. ik fully to have learned liberal arts softens the manners.
9.
48), faith-
posse loqui eripitur (Ov. M. ii. 483), the power of speech is taken away. non cadit invidere in sapientem (Tuscul. iii. 21), the sage is not liable to envy (to envy does not fall upon the sage). istuc nihil dolere non sine magna mercede contingit (Tuscul. iii. 12-), that apathy is not to be had except at great cost (does not fall to one's
lot).
b. The infinitive is used with many impersonal verbs and expressions, partly as subject and partly as complementary infinitive ( 271). Such are libet, licet, oportet, decet, placet, visum est, pudet,
opus
est, etc.
primum
poets.
(De Or.
iii.
27), this
may
what needed to
i.
licet
92),
one who
may
live nobly.
Cato negat ius esse qui miles non sit pugnare cum hoste (Off. i. 37), Cato says it is not right that one who is not a soldier should fight with
the
enemy.
necesse est
mori (Tusc.
ii.
2), it is
necessary
to die.
270, 27i.]
Complementary
Infinitive.
285
quid attinet gloriose loqui nisi constanter loquare (Kinib. ii. S<)), -nhat good docs it do to talk boastfully unless you speak consistently ? non lubct cniin niihi deplorare vitam (Cato Major 84), for it does not
please me to lament my life. neque me vixisse paenitet (id. 84), / do not feel sorry to have lived. lain pridem gubernare me taedebat (Alt. ii. 7, 4), I had long been tired of
being pilot.
i. These are not generally real cases of the infinitive used as subject, but approach that construction. NOTE 2. For the subject of such infinitives, and for predicate nouns or adjectives agreeing with the subject, see 271. c, 272. a.
NOTE
c.
Rarely the
as,
alii
infinitive
is
used exactly
like
the accusative of a
noun:
beate vivere
life different
quam multa
etc.
in alio, vos in voluptate ponitis (Finib. ii. 86), a happy [philosophers] base on different things, you on pleasure. facimus causa amicorum, precari ab indigno, supplicare
(Laslius
57) ,
how many
favors from an unworthy person, resort to entreaty, etc. nihil exploratum habeas, ne amare quidem aut amari (Laelius <)i},you have nothing assttred, not even loving and being loved. NOTE. Many complementary and other constructions approach a proper accusative use of the infinitive, but their development has been different from that of the examples under c. Thus,
avaritia
superbiam, crudelitatem, deos neglegere, omnia venalia habere edocuit (Sail. Cat. 10), avarice taught pride, cruelty, to neglect the gods, and to hold everything at a price.
. . .
2.
Complementary
Infinitive.
271. Verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning take the infinitive without
a subject-accusative: as,
hoc queo dicere (Cat. Maj. 32), this I can say. mitto quaerere (Rose. Am.), I omit to ask. vereor laudare praesentem (N. D. i. 58), I fear
face (one who is present). oro ut matures venire (Alt. iv. i), oblivisci non possum quae volo
to
praise a
man
to his
I beg you
(Finib.
will
ii.
make
haste to come.
104),
/ cannot forget
that
which I wish.
desine
me
id docere (Tuscul.
to say.
ii.
29),
cease to teach
me
that.
I began
to be able to speak.
fegr,
and the
286
NOTE.
objects
Syntax: The
The mark
of this construction
Verb.
271.
is that no Subject of these infinitives is But some infinitives usually regarded as can hardly be distinguished from this construction when they have no
subject expressed.
thing,
me
dicere mean
the
same
is
not apparently different in origin and construction from que5 dicere {complementary dicere, / wish him to speak, is essentially difinfinitive) and again volo
to
,
I wish
former
eum
a.
Many
infinitive,
verbs take either a subjunctive clause or a complementary without difference of meaning. Such are verbs signifying
willingness, necessity, propriety, resolve, and the like (cf. as, 331)
:
command,
prohibition^ effort*
student excellere (Of. i. 116), they aim to excel. cum statuissem scribere ad te aliquid (Off. i. 4), address something to you.
when I had
he
resolved to
Am.
52),
had
it
in
mind to
NOTE
subject of
i.
With some
be used as
of these verbs an infinitive with subject-accusative may a complementary infinitive. In this use the
Thus,
cupio
me
2.
4)
desire to be
merciful
331.
b,
note).
NOTE
Some
identical in
whom
they should
non
away,
Pm
pugnare
to
(Att.
ii.
18, 3),
/ have no
desire to
run
anxious
Jight.
b. Some verbs nf tppgp rfapsps JlfoeQ and veto regularly may take (as object) the infinitive with a subject 1 different from that of the main verb (see 331. a) as,
:
Pompeius
rem
anxioiis to
c.
xlii. 59), he orders the standards to be advanced. ad arma deduci studebat (B. C. i. 4), Pompey was have matters come to open war.
Predicate Noun or Adjective after a complementary infinitive takes the case of the subject of the main verb as,
:
fierique studebam eius prudentia doctior (Laelius more ^vise through his wisdom.
i),
I was eager
to
become
l This construction, though in many cases different from the two preceding shades off imperceptibly into them. In none of the uses under 271 is the infinitive strictly Subject or Object but its meaning is developed from the original one
;
of purpose
(cf.
273. a).
271, 272.]
scio
287
busy you
quam
solcas cssc
21),
7 know how
I struggle
usually are (are wont to be). brevis cssc laboro obscurus fio (I lor. A. P. 25), become obscure.
to be brief,
NOTE.
or adjective
If the
is
is
Thus,
(Of.
i.
minime
curiosum
125),
state.
duty of a stranger
Qiihcfniiiiirft
rHii^p O f
see
331.^.
3.
Infinitive
272. The Infinitive, with Subject- Accusative, is used with verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinking,
telling,
dicit
336)
J
:
as,
as,
Subject of the same verb in the passive as, Caesarem adesse nuntiatum est, it was reported that Ccesar -was present ;^^,. the Predicate Nominative (or Appositive) with words like fama, rumor, etc.N-ks, rumor erat Caesarem
:
ab hostibus tenerl (B. G. i. 22), he says that the hill is held [Direct mons ab hostibus tenetur.] by the enemy. Infinitive The Clause maybe fiNhe Direct Object of the verb: fiF.M^RK. Caesarem adesse nuntiavit, he reporte$~4hat Ccesar was present ;)^i\\z
montem
adesse,
<T^
action
1.
there
was a
was
treseiiTtd.*
JE n.
iii.
2cjjT!\
i.
With
infinitive as
2.
may By a dative, depending on the verb or verbal phrase or, By an accusative expressed as the subject of the infinitive. Thus,
:
270.
i.
them
vivere
eum quem
man
to live
Sex. Naevius non volt (Quinct. 94), if it is allowed against the will of Sextus Nicvius (whom S. N. does not
wish).
what
is
so
much
in
<7<ro/v/(/;/<v
quam senibus emori (Cato Major with nature as for olii men to
</.
71),
exstingul horaini suo tempore optabile est man to die at the appointed time.
(id.
85),
/'/
is
desirable for
</
2. With licet regularly, and other verbs occasionally, a predicate noun or adjective following the infinitive may be in the dative as,
:
1 The Infinitive may thus represent, in indirect discourse, a finite verb in direct discourse, admitting all the variations of the verb except number and person.
288
licuit esse
272, 273.
(Tuscul. i. 33), Themistocles might have was allowed to T. to be inactive), mihi neglegenti esse non licet (Att. i. 17), / must not be negligent. [But also neglegentem.] cur his esse liberos non licet (Flacc. 71), why is it not alloived these men
been inactive
to be
non
est
for all
Heaut.
388), it is
to
to be poets.
NOTE.
not expressed, as being indefinite (one, anybody) , in the accusative (cf. as, 271. c. note)
:
vel pace vel bello clarum fieri licet (Sail. Cat. 3), one either in peace or in war.
can become
illustrious
In poetry, by a Greek idiom, a Predicate Noun or Adjective in (fy the indirect discourse sometimes agrees with the subject of the main
verb
as,
vir
bonus
et
sapiens
ait
esse
i.
7),
a good
[In prose: ait se esse paratum.] sensit medios delapsus in hostes (^En. ii. 377), he found himself fallen among the foe. [In prose se esse delapsum.]
says he
is prepared, etc.
;
P.
4.
Infinitive of
Purpose^
its
Lg73.j
Iq^Jew cases
of Purpose.
infinitive is
original
meaning
>&.
The
used
after
habeo. 46,
:
Tflinjstrn^ in
isolated
as,
i. [Here 5), so much IJjaveto promise. more formal construction would be quod pollicear.] bibere ministraret (Tusc. i. 65), towrvj Jove with wine (to drink).
their
compounds (used
:
as adjectives) take
as,
quod parati sunt facere (Quin. 8), that which they are ready to do. adsuefacti superari (B. G. vi. 24), used to being conquered.
curru succedere sueti (yEn.
chariot.
iii.
to
the
273.]
Infinitive of Purpose.
Th<".'-
NOTK.
Thus,
in prose takrMlir
(
construction ($ 296
li-nitivc,
Ann.
iii.
78), bodies
unaccustomed to carry
and
later writers
may have
the infiniit
meaning
to
that take
in
prose:
as,
i.
furit te reperire
15. -27),
he rages
Jind
thee.
[A
forcible
way
of saying cupit
271. a}.]
i. 200), he rages to blot out the name. 269. a. 2. note), 13) forbear to ask (cf.
saevit exstinguere
nomen (Ov. M.
i.
9.
parce scelerare
wf.
(yn.
iii.
Many
as,
Greek
idiom:
i. 4. 8), harsh in composing verse. cantari dignus (Eel. v. 54), worthy to be sung. [In prose: qui cantetur.] fortis tractare serpentis (Hor. Od. i. 37. 26), brave to handle serpents. periti cantare (Eel. x. 32), skilled in song.
faciles aurem praebere (Prop. ii. 21. 15), ready to lend an ear. nescia vinci pectora (^En. xii. 527), hearts not knowing how to yield. te videre aegrSti (Plaut. Trin. 75), sick of seeing you.
The
poets and early writers often use the infinitive to express is no analogy with any prose construction as,
:
v.
to
[In prose
what,
habendam.]
:
videre quid agat (Ter. Hecyra 345), the son then went etc. [In prose the supine visum.] n5n ferr5 Libycos populate Penates venimus (^n. i. 527), we have not
filius turn introiit
come
to
NOTE.
So
^C
For the
infinitive
tempus
298, note.
fingit equum tencra docilem cervice ma^ister ire viam, 2. 64) , makes the horse gentle so as I
(Hor. Ep.
ii.
i.
hie levare
audit (Hor.
Od.
18.
38), he
when
called, hears, so
290
273-75.
NOTE. These poetic constructions (c-g) were no doubt originally regular and belong to the Infinitive as a noun in the Dative or Locative case (p. 283, head-note). They had been supplanted, however, by other more formal constructions, and were
afterwards restored through Greek influence.
^.
as,
9),
our
tuum
(id. 27),
your knowledge
(to
know).
Infinitive.
5.
Exclamatory
The
Infinitive,
with subject-accusative, 1
240. d)
:
may be
you
used in Exclamations
(cf.
as,
te in tantas aerumnas propter me incidisse (Fam. xiv. i), alas ! that should have fallen into such grieffor me.
mene
i.
37),
what ! I beaten
desist from
my
6.
gistpricaLInfinitive.
is
2757/The
:
Infinitive
j
the nomi-
turn Catilina polliceri novas tabulas (Sail. Cat. 21), then Catiline promised abolition of debts (clean ledgers).
ii.
188),
kept urging
him
to
insequi;
ubi
ceperat, ibi resistere ac propulsare; arma, tela, equi, viri, hostes atque elves permixti; nihil consilio neque imperio agi; fors omnia regere (Jug. 51), a part give way, others press on ;
quemque periculum
weapons, horses, men, foe and friend, mingled in confusion; nothing went by counsel or command ; chance ruled all.
each would stand
is
NOTE. This construction is not strictly historical, but rather descriptive, and never used to state a mere historical fact.
1
This construction
is elliptical
that
is,
the thought
is
course, though no verb of saying, etc., appears, or perhaps the French dire que). Passages like hancine ego ad
me memorabo
(Plaut.
276.]
Tenses.
igi
II.-JENSES.
of possible Tenses is very great For' in each of the three times, Present, l';ist, ami Future, an action may be represented as going on, completed, or beginning; as habitual or isolated as defined in time or indefinite as determined with reference to the time of the speaker, or as not itself .v) so determined but as relative to some time which is determined; and the past and
;
.
NOTE.
The number
future times
of thirty or
more
tenses might
be devised.
But, in the development of forms, which always takes place gradually, no language finds occasion for more than a small part of these. The most obvious distinctions, according to our habits of thought, appear in the following scheme :
i.
DEFINITE
:
2.
INDEFINITE.
NARRATIVE.
INCOMPLETE.
COMPLETE.
5.
c.
PRESENT
PAST
:
a.
/3.
FUTURE:
y.
TJ.
/ write.
6.
i.
Most languages disregard some of these distinctions, and some make other distinctions not here given. The Indo-European parent speech had a Present tense to express a and r?, a Perfect to express 5, an Aorist to express 0, a Future to express 7 and *, and an Imperfect to express /3. The Latin, however, confounded the Perfect and Aorist in a single form (the Perfect scrips!), thus losing all distinction of
and probably
in
The nature of this confusion may be seen by comparing dixl, dicavl, and didid (all Perfects derived from the same root, Die), with eScja, Skr. adiksham, 5e5eix a Skr. dideca. Latin also developed two new forms, those for c (scrlpseram) and C (scrlpsero), and thus possessed six tenses, as seen in
meaning.
,
5-
The
lines
between these
hard and
fast,
precisely the same that we draw in English. Thus in many verbs the form corresponding to I have written (5) is used for those corresponding to / am writing (a) and / -write (T?) in a slightly different sense, and the form corresponding to / had
written (e) is used in like manner for that corresponding to / was writing (8). Again, the Latin often uses the form for / shall have written (C) instead of that for 1 shall write (i). Thus novl, I have learned, is used for / kn<no ; cSnstiterat,
/ shall
(i)
in
27O. The Present Tense denotes an action or state as now taking place or existing; and so (2) as incomplete present time, or (3) as indefinite, referring to no parThus,
i.
senatus haec intelligit, consul videt, hie tamen vivit (Cat. Senate kno-MS this, the consul sees it, yet this man
.
2),
the
etiani
istis
dictis
now you
292
tibi
276.
cSncedo meas sedes (Divin. i. 104), I give you my seat (an offer which may or may not be accepted). exspecto quid velis (Ter. And. 34), / aivait your pleasure (what you
ille
22), you
arrange a
case,
he arrays an army.
ment.^
[The present
is
di neglegunt (Nat. D. iii. 86), the gods disregard trifles. [Of a general truth.~\ obsequium amic5s, veritas odium parit (Ter. And. 68), flattery gains [General truth.] friends, truth hatred.
minora
a.
diu,
The Present, with expressions of duration of time, especially iam iam dudum, denotes an action continuing in the present, but
(cf.
277.
):
as,
iam diu ignoro quid agas (Fam. vii. <)},for a long time I have not known what you are doing. te iam dudum hortor (Catil. i. 12), I have long urged you. patimur iam multos annos (Verr. v. 126), -we suffer now these many years. [The perfect would imply, we no longer stiffer.~\ anni sunt octo cum ista causa versatur (Clu. 82), it is now eight years
that this case has been in hand.
(Off.
i.
NOTE r. In this use the present is commonly to be rendered by the perfect in English. The difference in the two idioms is that the English states the beginning and leaves the continuance to be inferred, while the Latin states the continuance and leaves the beginning to be inferred. Compare he has long suffered (and still suffers) with h still suffers (and has suffered) long. indicates that NOTE 2. Similarly the Present Imperative with iam the action commanded ought to have been done or was wished for long ago (cf. the
:
>.
dudum
as,
ii.
ii.
530),
and nozv,
to
to
(id. 11.511),
he starts
decerno quinquaginta dierum supplicationes (Phil. [Cf. senatus decrevit, fifty days' thanksgiving.
c.
The
often
as,
17), shall
we
we going
to sit ?)
276.]
Present Tense.
293
to change it (I am not trying to change). quod si fit pereo fumlitus (id. 244), if this happens, f am utterly undone. hodic uxorcm duels (id. 321), are you to be married to-day ?
abin hinc
si
in
nudain rein (id. 317), will you be off? go and be hanged ! periisse iuvabit (.En. iii. 606), ;/ I perish,
(cf.
it
307. a, note),
ecquid
in ius
me adiuvas
(Clu. 71), -won't you give me a little help? Is (PI. As. 480) ? / summon you to the court.
and its compounds are especially frequent in this use. (Cf. -where are you going to-morrow? and the Greek efyu in a future sense.) RKMARK. For other uses of the Present in a future sense, see under Conditions ($ 307), cum ($ 328), antequam ($ 327. a), dum ($ 328), and the De-
NOTE.
E6
2.
Historical Present.
used for the Historical
d.
The Present
as,
quam nox
(Verr.
v.
curritur ad praetorium; Cleomenes, quamtamen in publico esse non audet; includit se domi 92), the news is brought to Syracuse; they run to headCleomenes, though it was night, does not venture to be abroad ;
erat,
NOTE. This usage, common in all languages, events as going on before our eyes (repraesentatio)
.
past
takes the Present Indicative in reference to IDumj-a;////^, regularly past events! In translating, the English imperfect must generally be used.
p>-\ e.
3.
\
>^-i
Thus,
v.
haec
dum
91), while this was going on, Cleomenes to the coast at Elorutn.
aguntur, interea Cleomenes iam ad Elori litus pervenerat (Verr. meanwhile had come down
hoc
dum narrat, forte audivi (Ter. Heaut. 272), while she was telling it.
A
past tense with
I happened to hear
this
NOTE.
by
contrast.
is
dum
contrast
dum with
nee enim dum eram vdbiscum animum meum videbatis (Cat. Maj. 79), while Iii'.; lUtldrft sci' my so nl. [Here the time when he was alive is contrasted with that after his death.]
294
276, 277.
47), a conflict
coorta est pugna, par dum constabant ordines (Liv. began, well matched as long as the ranks stoodfirm.
But,
xxii.
dum
dum unum
adscendere gradum conatus est, venit in periculum (Mur. while he attempted to climb one step [in rank] he fell into danger.
is
ii.
17),
in vulnere (id.
Homer
ariete colloquentem facit (Tuscul. brings in (makes) Polyphemus talking with his ram.
115),
state
as
as,
hunc audiebant antea (Man. 13), they used to hear of him before. Socrates ita censebat itaque disseruit (Tusc. i. 72), Socrates thought
so
(habitually), and so he spoke (then), prudens esse putabatur (Laelius 6), he was (generally) thought wise. [The perfect would refer to some particular case, and not to a state of
things.]
iamque rubescebat Aurora (^n. iii. 521), and now the dazvn was ara vetus stabat (Ov. M. vii. i), an old altar stood there.
blushing.
NOTE. The Imperfect is a descriptive tense and denotes an action conceived as in progress or a state of things as acti4ally observed. Hence in many verbs it does not differ in meaning from the Perfect. Thus rex erat and rex fuit may often be used indifferently but the former describes the condition while the latter only states it. The English is less exact in distinguishing these two modes of statement. Hence the Latin Imperfect is often translated by the English Preterite.
;
Thus
Aedui graviter ferebant, neque legates ad Caesarem mittere audebant (B. G. v. 6), the sdui were displeased, and did not dare, etc.
[Here the Imperfects describe the state of things.] But, id tulit factum graviter Indutiomarus (id. v. 4), Indutiomarus pleased, etc. [Here the Perfect merely states the fact.]
aedificia vicosque
was
dis-
habebant
REMARK.
Hence
action,
all
The
the
meanings which the present has derived from the continuance of the
a.
The Imperfect
is
used in descriptions:
.
. . .
as,
i.
erant omnino itinera duo mons altissimus impendebat (B. G. a very high mountain overhung. there were in all two ways
. .
6),
277.]
Imperfect
Tense.
295
b. With lam difl, iam dfidum, and other expressions of duration of time, the Imperfect denotes an action continuing in the past but as, 115. a. 2) begun at some previous time (cf.
:
iam diidum flebam (Ov. M. iii. 656), I had been weeping for a long time. copias quas diu comparabaut (Fam. xi. 13), the forces -which they had long
been getting ready.
In this construction NOTE. I'oK-ct. Compare the Present in
the Imperfect
is
c. The Imperfect sometimes denotes an action as begun (inceptive Imperfect}, or as attempted or only intended (Conative Imperfect}
(cf.
2 7 6.):
as,-
in exsilium
ii.
14),
eiciebam quern iam ingressum esse in bellum videbam (Cat. was I sending (i.e. trying to send) into exile one who I saw had
diem
sibi
hunc
igitur
ilia
augusta
centuriarum auspicia veniebat (Mil. 43), was Milo coming likely that he would come), etc.?
si
(i.e.
was
it
licitum esset
veniebant (Ver. v. 129), they were coming if it had been allowed (they were on the point of coming, and would have done
if,
so
etc.).
NOTE.
To
this
as,
vi.
iamque
477),
and now
d. The Imperfect is sometimes used to express a surprise at the present discovery of a fact already existing as,
:
tu
quoque hie
too.
ehem
pater mi, tu hie eras (Plaut.), -what! you here, father? ah miser! quanta labdrabas Charybdi (Hor. Od. i. 27. 19), unhappy boy, what a whirlpool you are struggling in [and I never knew it]
!
often used in dialogue by the comic poets where later writers would employ the Perfect: as,
e.
is
The Imperfect
ad amicum Calliclem quoi rem aibat mandasse hie suam (Plaut. Trin. 956), to his friend Callicles, to whom, he said, he had intrusted his property. praesagibat animus frustra me ire quoin exibara domo (Plaut. Aul. 222), my mind mistrusted when I went from home that I went in vain.
NOTE.
So
:
also,
as,
in
(cf.
as 1
was a-saying)
at medici
quoque, ita cnim dicebas, saepe was what you were haec mihi fere in mentem veniebant (id.
that
.<
falluntur
(Xat.
I),
iii.
i$)
for
occurred
to
me,
etc.
ii. 67, 168), this is abou: [In a straightforward narration this would be
venerunt.]
296
277-79.
g.
The
would :
as,
itaque (Damocles) nee pulchros illos ministratores adspiciebat (Tuscul. v. 62), therefore he could not look upon those beautiful slaves, [In this case did not would not express the idea of continued prevention of
enjoyment by the overhanging sword.] nee enim dum eram vobiscum animum meum videbatis (Cato Major 79), for, you know, while I zvas with you, you could not see my soul. [Here the Perfect would refer only to one moment^}
h.
282.
Future.
state that will
the force
of
an
Imperative
(see
269.7).
b.
where
as,
cum aderit videbit, when he is there he will see (cf. 325. c}. sanabimur si volemus (Tusc. iii. 13), we shall be healed if we wish
(cf.
307. a).
II.
Perfect
279. The Perfect denotes an action either as now completed (Perfect Definite), or as having taken place at some
undefined point of past time (Historical or Aoristic Perfect).
Thus,(1) ut ego feci, qui Graecas litteras senex didici (Cat. Maj. 26), as
I have
an
done, who have learned Greek in my old age. diuturni silenti finem hodiernus dies attulit (Marc, i), this day has put
end to my long-continued
silence.
(2) tantum helium extrema hieme apparavit, ineunte vere suscepit, media aestate confecit (Man. 35), so great a war he made ready for at the
NOTE.
end of winter, undertook in early spring, andfinished by midsummer. The distinction between these two uses of the perfect, which is repre-
sented by two forms in most other Indo-European languages, was almost if not wholly lost to the minds of the Romans. It must be noticed, however, on account of the marked distinction in English (see also 115. c).
279.]
/ \-rjcct Tense.
297
a. The perfect is sometimes used emphatically to denote that a ^, thing or condition of things that once existed no longer
fait ista
quondam
i.
i.
immo habui;
no lor. mine habeam necne incertumst (Ter. I had one ; whether I have one now or
325),
uncertain.
ii.
we have
ceased
to
be
Trojans,
The
(
truth
Indefinite Present, denoting a customary action or a general 276), often has the Perfect in a subordinate clause refer-
main clause
as,
compedibus corporis semper fuerunt, etiam cum soliiti sunt tardius ingrediuntur (Tusc. i. 75), they who have always been in the move more slowly. fetters of the body, even when released haec morte effugiuntur, etiam st non evenerunt, tamen quia possunt evenire (id. 86), these things are escaped by death even if they have
i.
not [yet] happened, etc. simul ac mihi collibitum est, praesto est imago (N. D. have taken a fancy, the image is before my eyes.
108), as soon as
NOTE.
is
especially
common
309. c).
The
perfect
is
negatives
{Gnomic
qui studet contingere metam multa tulit fecitque (Hor. A. P. 412), he who aims to reach the goal, Jit st bears and does many things.
non
of brass
deduxit corpore febres (id. Ep. not fever from the frame.
i.
2,
NOTE.
that
The gnomic
the English
never
"
perfect strictly refers to past time; but its use implies in any known case, never does happen, and
tive that
Faint heart never won fair lady"} or without a negawill always happen under similar circumstances.
;
d.
The
would be preferred:
as,
dicebat melius quam scripsit Hortensius (Or. 132), Hortensius spoke better than he wrote. [Here the negative is implied in the comparison:
12. c),
The completed
tenses of
some verbs
meaning.
298
Such are the
279-81.
I hate; memini, / remember , accustomed,^ with others used preteritively, as venerat (= aderat, he was at hand, etc.) (see 143, note).
I am
maximos efficere consuevit (B. G. iv. 29), ally makes the highest tides (is accustomed to make). cuius splendor obsolevit (Quinct. 59), whose splendor
qui dies aestus
now
all
faded
REMARK.
Many
as,
dum
had
turned their
them turned).
2.
[Here averterat
tenebat.]
Pluperfect.
is
used
(i)
to denote
an action or
state completed in past time ; or (2) sometimes to denote an action in indefinite time, brt prior to some past time
referred to
(1)
loci
as,
this
was
the
quem locum nostri castris delegerant (B.C. ii. 18), nature of the ground which our men had chosen for a
imperi tenebat earum omnium civitatum quae defeceViridovix held the chief command of all those
revolted.
camp.
Viridovix
summam
(id.
iii.
rant
tribes
17),
whifh had
cum aliquid mandaverat confectum putabat (Cat. iii. 16), when he had given a thing in charge he did not look on it as done.
but
quae si quand5 aclepta est id quod el fuerat concupitum, turn fert alacritatem (Tusc. iv. 35), if it (desire) ever has gained ivhat it had [previously] desired, then it produces joy.
a.
282.
Future Perfect.
281. The Future Perfect denotes an action as completed in the future ut sementem feceris,
:
as,
ita
ii.
65), as
you sow
(shall
have
sown), so shall you reap. carmina turn melius cum venerit ipse canemus (Eel. ix. 67), then shall ^ve sing our songs better, when he himself has come. si illius insidiae clariores hac luce fuerint turn denique obsecrabo (Mil. as clear as day6), when the plots of that man have been shown to be
light, then,
shall
I conjure you.
281-84.]
ego certe
Epistolary Tenses;
oflkimn praestiter5
(/.<.
Tenses of Subjunctive.
(!>.(',.
iv.
299
'"
meum mv liuty
to
25), T
.
,il
l<f
T,-/
I
when
it,
the tiur
>n
up
the matter,
\\ill
be found
Ri
have done
MARK.
than
in English,
The Future Perfect is used with much greater exactness in Latin and may even be used instead of the Future, from the fondness of
:
as,
ii.
quid inventum
qui
sit
76),
whoever
Antonium oppresserit bellum taeterrimum confecerit (Fam. x. 19), erusJies (shall have crushed) Antony will finish (will have
a most loathsome war.
in future conditions, see \ 307. c.
finished)
NOTE.
EPISTOLARY TENSES.
282. In Letters, the Perfect Historical or the Imperfect may be used for the present, and the Pluperfect for any past tense, as if the letter w.ere dated at the time it is supposed to be received: as,
neque tamen, cum haec scribebam, eram nescius quantis oneribus premerere (Fam. v. 12), nor while I write this am I ignorant under what burdens you are weighed down. ad tuas omnes [epistulas] rescripseram pridie (Att ix. 10), 7 [have]
cum quod
NOTE. The
is
ansiuered all your letters yesterday. scriberem ad te, nihil haberem, tamen has dedi
16), though
still
I write
this letter.
In this use these tenses a re called the Epistolary Imperfect and Pluper-
fect.
tion
epistolary tenses are not used with any uniformity, but only when atten(So especially scribebam, particularly directed to the time of writing.
etc.).
dabam,
IV.
Independent
Clauses denote time in relation to the time of the speaker. The Present always refers to future (or indefinite) time,
future
the Imperfect to either/^/ or present, the Perfect to either past, the Pluperfect always to past.
tive
In Dependent Clauses th of the Subjuncwere habitually used in certain fixed connections determined by the time of the main verb and the time of the dependent verb together.
300
NOTE.
285, 286.
Dependent
clauses (as in Independent), each with its own time in relation to the point of view of the speaker ; but in consequence of the natural tendency of language to refer all
the parts of a
the complex sentence to one time, namely, that of the speaker, connections in which these tenses were used became fixed. Hence the rules for the Sequence of Tenses. These are by no means rigid, but allow many varieties, as is
natural from their origin,
Sequence of Tenses.
of
the Subjunctive in
Dependent
clauses follow special rules for the SEQUENCE OF TENSES. With reference to these rules all tenses when used in
primary
and secondary,
The primary tenses include all forms that express 1. PRIMARY. present or future time. These are the Present, Future, and Future Perfect Indicative, the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, and the Present
and Future Imperative. The Perfect Definite NOTE.
2.
is
287. a.
SECONDARY. The secondary tenses include all forms that refer to past time. These are the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluperfect Indicative, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, and the Historical Infinitive.
NOTE
i.
To
these
may be added
commonly used
in Inde-
pendent Clauses. Such are: (i) Primary: Present Infinitive in Exclamations; (2) Secondary: Perfect Infinitive in Exclamations (see $ 287. a. note). NOTE 2. For the Historical Present, see 287. <?; for the Imperfect Subjunctive in Apodosis, see 287.^.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES
In complex sentences a Primary tense in the main is followed by the Present or Perfect in the depend-
us.
NOTE. The beginner must observe that the rule affects only the tenses of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses. The tenses of the other moods and those of the Subjunctive in independent constructions (as in apodosis contrary to fact, $ 308) are not affected by the sequence of tenses. (But cf. 338. a. note 2, 339. note 2.)
286, 287.]
Sequence of Tenses.
In applying the rule for the sequence of tenses, observe (i) whether (a) primary or (6) secondary, (2) whether the dependent verb is to denote completed action (i.e. past with reference to the main verb) or incomplete (i.f. present or future with reference to the main verb). Then
is
REMARK.
it
(a) If the leading verb \sfrtmary, the dependent verb must be in the Present if denotes incomplete action, in the Perfect if it denotes completed action. () If the leading verb is secondary, the dependent verb must be in the Imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, in the Pluperfect if it denotes completed action.
Thus,
he writes (primary) to warn (incomplete) us, scribit ut nos moneat. / ask (primary) what you were doing (now past), rog5 quid fcceris.
to),
Notice that the Future Perfect denotes action completed (at the time referred and hence is represented in the Subjunctive by the Perfect or Pluperfect
Thus,
I ask what you will have accomplished, rog5 quid perfeceris. he asked what he would have accomplished, rogavit quid perfecisset.
a.
The
Perfect Indicative
is
when
mind.
Thus,
ii. 26), provision has been made [Secondary sequence.]
ut satis
adduxi hominem in quo satisfacere exteris nationibus possetis (Verr. i. 2), / have brought a man in whose person you can make satisfaction to
foreign nations. [Secondary sequence.] est enim res iam in eum locum adducta, ut quamquam multum intersit inter eorum causas qui dimicant, tamen inter victorias non multum interfuturum putem (Fam. v. 21, 3), for affairs have been brought to
such a pass that, though there
those
is
a great
still
I do
much
difference
[Primary sequence.] ca adhibita doctrina est quae vel vitiosissimam naturam excolere possit (Q. Fr. i. I, 7), such instruction has been given as can train even the [Primary sequence.] faultiest nature.
NOTE.
The
same
rule: as,
adeon rem redisse patrem ut extiinescam (Ter. Ph. 153), to think that things have come to such a pass that I should dread my father.
b. After a primary tense the Perfect Subjunctive is regularly used to denote any past action. Thus the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, I.
non dubito qum omnes tui scripserint (Fam. v. 8), I do not doubt yourfriends have written. [Direct statement scrlpserunt.]
:
3O2
287
quare non Ignor5 quid accidat in ultimis terns, cum audierim in Italia querelas civium (Q. Fr. i. I, 33), therefore I knoiv well what happens at the ends of the earth, when I have heard in Italy the complaints of citizens. [In a direct statement, audivi.]
2.
Perfect Historical
as,
me autem hie laudat quod retulerim, non quod patefecerim (Att. xii. 21), me he praises because I brought the matter [before the senate], not because I brought it to light. [Direct statement retulit.]
:
3.
An
Imperfect: as,
ceciderint turn intellegitur
si forte
quam fuerint inopes amicorum (Lael. by chance they fall (have fallen), then one can see how poor [Direct question : quam inopes erant?] they were in friends. qui status rerum fuerit cum has litteras dedi scire poteris ex C. Tidio Strabone (Fam. xii. 6), what the condition of affairs was when I wrote this letter, you can learn from Strabo. [Direct question qui erat?]
15, 53), if
:
quam
cams fuerit maerore funeris indicatum est (Laslius n), how dear he was to the State has been shown by the grief at his funeral.
civitati
[Direct question: quam carus erat?] ex epistulis intellegi licet quam frequens fuerit Plat5nis auditor (Or. 15), it may be understood from his letters how constant a hearer he was of
Plato.
[Direct question:
quam
frequens erat?]
the Perfect Subjunctive may represent, not only a Perfect DefinNOTE. ite or a Perfect Historical of a direct statement or question, but an Imperfect as This comes from the want of any special tense of the subjunctive to express well.
Thus
continued action after a primary tense. Thus, miror quid fecerit may mean (i) I wonder what he has done, (2) I wonder what he did (hist, perf.), or (3) / wonder what he was doing.
c.
is
as,
Hortensius ardebat dicendi cupiditate sic ut in nullo unquam flagrantius studium viderim (Bru. 302), Hortensius was so hot with desire of speaking that I have never seen a more burning ardor in any man. Siciliam Verres per triennium ita vexavit ac perdidit, ut ea restitui in
antiquum statum nullo modo possit (Ver. i. 12), for three years Verres racked and ruined Sicily, that she can in no way be restored to her former state. [Here the Present is used in describing a state of things
so
actually existing.]
videor esse conseciitus ut non possit Dolabella in Ttaliam pervenire (Fam. xii. 14), / seem to have brought it about that Dolabella cannot
come into
Italy.
result; the regular construction
REMARK.
subordinates
it.
NOTE.
There
is
Perfect Indicative.
Thus,
287.]
Sequence of Tenses.
303
Thorius crat ita nun supcrstitiosus ut ilia pliirima in sua patria et sacrilicia et fana contemneret; ita non timid us ad mortem ut in acic sit ol> r<-m publicam interfectus (Finih. ii. 63), Thorius was so little supersti~
tious that he despised [contemncbat] the many sacrifices and shrines in his country ; so little timorous about death that he was killed [interfectus est] in battle, in defence of the State.
Zeno nullo modo is crat qui nervos virtutis incident (cf. 279. d} scd contra qui omnia in una virtute pSneret (Acad. i. 35), Zeno ivas by no means one to cut the sinews cf virtue ; but one, on the contrary, who made everything defend on virtue alone, [incidit ponebat.l erant enim nobis pcrirati, quasi quicquam de nostia salute decrevissemus quod nun idem illls censuissemus aut quasi utilius rei publicae fuerit
;
.
eos etiam ad bestiarum auxilium confugere quam vel emori vel cum spe vivere (Fam. ix. 6, 3), for they were very angry with us, just as if we
had voted for anything in regard to our own preservation which we had not advised them also, or as if it were more advantageous to the
state
hope. d.
as,
for them to fly for help to brutes than either to die or to live in [Without quasi, decreveramus and fuit would have been used.]
after
A general truth
ex his quae tribuisset sibi quam mutabilis esset reputabat (Q. C. iii. 8), from what she (Fortune) had bestowed on him, he reflected how inconstant she is. [Direct: mutabilis est.]
ibi
quantam vim ad stimulandos anim5s Ira haberet apparuit (Liv. xxxiii. 37), here it appeared what power anger has to goad the mind. [Direct
:
habet.]
NOTE.
e.
is
more commonly
is
kept.
felt
The
Historical Present
276.
d}
sometimes
it
as a primary,
followed by either the primary or the secondary sequence, more commonly by the second-
Accordingly
is
Thus,
ut curet quod dixisset (Quinc. 18), he asks him to attend to the thing he had spoken oj. castella communit quo facilius prohibere posset (B. G. i. 8), he strengthens the forts that he might more easily keep them off.
rogat
NOTE.
must
/.
(
The
Imperfect and
by
fact
quia tale sit, ut vel si Ignorarent homines, etc. (Finib. is such that e-'cn if men ,in(, etc.
g.
(
49), because it
The
is
308)
304
si
alii
287, 288.
quam amicissimos redderes (Fam. xv. 13), if there -were other consuls, I should send to you, Paulus, in preference to all, that you might make them as friendly to me as possible.
si
eos diceres miseros quibus moriendum esset, neminem exciperes (Tusc. wretched who must die, you would except no one. i. 9), if you called those
h.
The Present
si
is
as,
res coget, est quiddam tertium, quod neque Selicio nee mihi displicebat; ut neque iacere rem pateremur, etc. (Fam. i. 5. a}, but if the
case shall
demand, there
is
[Here Cicero is led myself disapproved, that we should not alhw, etc. by the time of displicebat.] sed tamen ut scires haec tibi scribo (Fam. xiii. 47), but yet that you may know, I write thus. [As if he had used the common epistolary imperfect scribebam ( 282).] cuius praecepti tanta vis est ut ea tribueretur (Leg. i. 58), such
ascribed not to
old one.]
to
non homini cuipiam sed Delphico deo force of this pretept, that it was the Lielphic god. [The precept was an
is the
ble.
The rules for the sequence of tenses must not be regarded as inflexiNOTE. They were often disregarded by the Romans themselves, either from careless-
When a clause depends upon one already dependent, the sequence becomes secondary as soon as the time is thrown back into the past by any form that represents past time as,
/".
:
sed tamen qua re acciderit ut ex meis superi5ribus litteris id suspicarere nescid (Fam. ii. 16), but yet how it happened that you suspected this from my previous letter, I don't know. tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremur (Nat. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks. beate vixisse videor quia cum Scipione vixerim. (Laelius 15, / But,
seem
to
I have
(who had
just died).
NOTE.
336. B. note.
G.
ii.
our
[Direct
sunt.J
2Sa]
quam luno
is
305
ferfur terris magis omnibus coluisae (/En. i. 15), which Juno said to have cherished above all lands. [Direct colebat.J sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Ld. 79), they hope they shall
:
receive
tfie
greatest advantage.
[Direct: capiemus.j
of verbs of necessity, propriety, and possibility (as potui, dgbuT, and oportuit) the present infinitive must be rena. After past tenses
infinitive in
English
as,
known.
17),
infinitive in
common use.
Present
is
est adulescentis
to
i.
of a youth
and the
:
like,
as,
nollem factum,
apology.]
/ regret
it
(I could wish
it
not done).
of
domestica cura te levatum [esse] vo!5 (Q. F. iii. 9), / wish you. relieved of household care. quod iam pridem factum esse oportuit (Cat. i. 5), which ought to have been done long -..go (cf. a, above).
NOTE. The participle in this case is rather in predicate agreement (with or without esae) than used to form a strict perfect infinitive, though the full form can hardly be distinguished from that construction cf. maturate opus est, there is need of haste ($ 092. b) and I pray thee have me excused.
;
REMARK. In early and late Latin, and in poetry, rarely in good prose, the Perfect Active infinitive is also used instead of the Present, and even after other
verbs than those of wishing and the
like
:
as,
commisisse cavet (I lor. A. P. 168), he is cautious of doing. baud equidem premendo alium me extulisse velim (Liv. xxii. 59), I would
not by crushing another exalt myself. sunt qui nolint tetigisse (Hor. Sat. i. 2), there are those
touch.
statim vicisse debeo (Rose. Am. 73), regarded as having won it),
ought
to
win my
case (I must be
iv.
43),
After verbs
used, especially by
3 o6
288, 289
So also with satis est, satis habeo, melius est, conteiitus sum, and in a few other cases where the distinction of time is important.
Thus,
xvi. 21),
I was
not
made a
respite of -writing.
pudet me non praestitisse (id. xiv. 3), I am ashamed not to have shown. sunt quos curricu!5 pulverem Olympicum collegisse iuvat (Hor. Od. i. I. 3),
there are those
wko
delight, etc.
quiesse
nil
iii. 48), it will be better to have kept quiet. ego si peccem possum nescisse (Ov. Her. xvii. 47), if I should -0 wrong, I cannot have done it in ignorance (am not able not to have known).
erit
melius (Liv.
f.
The Future
(cf.
infinitive is often
;
Rem., 332.
Thus,
82),
II.
The
several
:
Noun and
as follows
Attributive
2.
a.
Present and
Perfect
3.
4.
Simple Predicate
291. b).
(
291. R.).
92)0
5.
i.
PARTICIPLES
b.
ri.
Future
2.
c.
1.
Descriptive Adjective ($ 294. a). Periphrastic with esse ( 294. b). certain verbs (294.^?). [3. Genitive as Objective Genitive ( 298).
r i.
I
As
Gerundive
2.
Of Purpose with
2.
2.
3. 4.
Dative, with Adjectives (of Fitness), Nouns, Verbs ($ 299). Accusative, with certain Prepositions ( 300). Ablative, of Means, Comparison, or with Prepositions
(5 301).
3.
SUPINI
1.
Former Supine
2.
(in -urn), with Verbs of Motion ($ 302). Latter Supine (in -u), chiefly with Adjectives ($ 303.)
I.
-PARTICIPLES.
289. The Participle expresses the action of the verb in the form of an Adjective; but has a partial distinction of tense, and may govern a case.
289, 290.]
307
NOTE. Thus the participle combines ;ill tin: functions of an adjective with some of the functions of a verb. As an adjective, it limits substantiv them in gender, number, and case ($ 186). As a verb, it has distinctions of time ($ 290), and often takes an object.
1.
Distinctions of Tenae.
the time indicated by the tense of the verb, the Perfect as completed, and the Future as still to take place.
a.
The Present
Present Indicative.
1.
Thus
it
may denote:
the
An
action continued
:
in
in
the
past
276. a)
as,
iv.
quaerenti mihi iamdiu certa res nulla veniebat in mentem (Fam. though I had long sought, no certain thing came to my mind.
2.
13),
Attempted action
276. b)
as,
resisted
C. Flaminio restitit
agrum Picentem dividenti (Cat. M. n), he Flaminius when attempting to divide the Picene territory.
Futurity or Purpose
(
3.
276.
<:):
as,
ii.
114),
we send Eurypyliis
is
used nearly
in
Such are, regularly, ratus, solitus, veritus commonly, fisus, ausus, aecdtus, and occasionally others, especially in later writers. Thus,
cohortatus milites docuit (B. C. iii. 80), encoiiraging the men, he showed. iratus dixisti (Mur. 62), you spoke in a passion.
oblitua auspicia (Phil. i. 31), forgetting the auspice*. insidias veritus (B. G. ii. li), fearing ambuscade.
xxi. 2),
(id. iv.
ail
Latin has no Present Participle in the passive. The place of such a form is supplied usually by a clause with dum or cum, rarely
The
by the participle
as,
dura calceantur niatiitino duo Caesares (Plin. X. II. vii. 181), from no obvious cause two t'tesars dud white having their shoes put on in the morning.
308
meque
290, 291.
ista delectant cum Latine dicuntur (Academ. i. 18), those things please me when they are spoken in Latin. crucibus adfixi aut flammandi (Tac. Ann. xv. 44), crucified or set on fire
(in flames).
NOTE.
ple might
The
constructions with
:
be employed
as,
nos
obsequimur, tell it, stranger, at Sparta, that you saw us lying here obedient to our cotmtry's sacred laws. [Here dum obsequimur is a translation of the Greek present participle irfi.Q6p.evoi."]
dum
[Ulixes] sibi, dum sociis reditum parat (Hor. Ep. i. 2. 21), Ulysses, while securing the return of himself and his companions. [In Greek:
d.
The
The
deficiency
1.
supplied
its
regular active
meaning
as,
nam
2.
(
singulas [naves] nostri consectati expugnaverunt (B. G. iii. 15), for our men having overtaken them one by one, captured them by boarding.
255. d, note) or
In other verbs, either by the ablative absolute with a change of voice by a clause (especially with cum or dum): as,
itaque convocatis centurionibus rmlites certiores facit (B. G. iii. 5), and so, having called the centurions together, he informs tJie soldiers (the centurions having been called together).
cum venisset
NOTE.
vii.
(when he had
either active
come), he noticed a
The
may be
or passive in meaning
135. b).
2.
Adjective Use.
291. The Present and Perfect participles are used sometimes as attributive, nearly like adjectives as,
:
cum antiquissimam
signa
sententiam turn comprobatam (Div. once most ancient and well approved.
i.
n), a view at
nunquam
fere
ementientia
(id.
5),
a. Participles often
become complete
Thus,
adjectives,
qu5 mulieri esset res cautior (Caecina n), that the matter might be more secure for the woman. in illis artibus praestantissimus (De Orat. i. 217), pre-eminent in those
arts.
291, 292.]
sibi
309
indulgentes
dgservientes (Leg.
i.
and slaves
ought
to
ing the body). body (indulging themsd\ 1C debcnt (I'.ir.id. jj), right deeds (things rightly done) be like in value (see 207. f).
to the
(Phil.
ii.
65),
ill got,
ill
spent (things
in health.
ill-
consuctudo valentis
b.
(1 >e
<
>r. ii.
i<S(>),
the habit
of a
man
may be
As such they Participles are often used as Predicate Adjectives. 186. b, joined to the subject by esse or a copulative verb (see
divisa (B. G.
i.
i),
Gaul
i.
is
divided.
locus qui
nunc saeptus
est (Liv.
which
is
ncnu enclosed.
operosa et semper agens aliquid et moliens(C. M. 26), you see how busy old age is, always aiming and trying at something. nemo adhuc convenire voluit cui fuerim occupatus (Cato Major 32), nobody hitJurto has fever] wished to converse with me, to whom I have
vidctis ut senectus sit
predicate use arise the compound tenses of the passive, the participle of completed action with the incomplete tenses of esse developing ,i of past time : as, interfectus est, he was (or has been) killed, lit., he is having-been-killed (i.e. already slain). In the best writers (as Cicero), the perfect participle, when used with ful, etc., r'-t.iins its proper force; but in later writers the two sets of tenses (as amatus
REMARK.
sum
or ful) are often used indiscriminately to form the tenses of the perfect system
:
in the passive
as,
[leges]
55),
compound perfect. The publishing, of posting, was a continued state, which is indicated by the participle promulgatae, and fuerunt is the perfect of the copula.] arma quae fixa in parietibus fuerant, humi inventa sunt (Div. i. 74), the
the walls were found upon the ground. occupati sunt et fuerunt (Off. i. 57), are and have been engaged. The difference between this and arma quae, etc., is, that occupatus in this sense is used only as an adjective.]
[(
f.
published. sunt is a
turn vero quae promulgatae fuerunt (Sest. which were proposed, and those which were [The proposal of the laws was a single act : hence latae
3.
Predicate TJse.
as a predicate,
292. The Present and Perfect participles are often used where in English a phrase or clause would
In this use the participles express time, cause, occasion,
be usual.
condition, concession, characteristic (or description),
manner,
W, attendant circumstances.
Thus,
3IO
volventes
292.
hostilia cadavera amicura reperiebant (Sail. Cat. 61), while rolling over the corpses of the enemy they found a friend. [Time.] paululum commoratus, signa canere iubet (Sail. Cat. 59, i), after delaying a little while, he orders to give the signal. [Time.]
feared to follow further\ he came to Cicero. [Cause.] quo sciret laxas dare iussus habenas (^En. i. 63), who might know how
give them loose rein when bidden.
to
[Occasion.] damnation poenam sequi oportebat (B. G. i. 4), if condemned, punishment must overtake him. [Condition.]
salutem insperantibus reddidisti (Marc. 21), which we did not hope. [Concession.]
you have
restored
safety
x.
[Description.] nee trepides in usum poscentis aevi pauca (Hor. Od. ii. n. 5), be not anxious for the needs of age that demands little. [Characteristic.] incitati fuga monies altissimos petebant (B. C. iii. 93), in headlong flight [Manner.] they made for the highest mountains.
milites sublevati
alii ab aliis magnam partem itineris conficerent (B. C. i. 68), the soldiers helped up by each other, etc. [Means.] hoc laudans, Pompeius idem iuravit (B. C. iii. 87), approving this, Pom-
head uncovered.
pey took
the
same
oath.
[Attendant circumstance.]
(Tuscul.
i.
ambulans -disputabam
7),
1'conducted
the dis-
[Circumstance.]
REMARK.
as,
t<p
he drarvs
to level ground.
ut hos transductos necaret (B. G. v. 5), thai he might carry them over put them to death.
and
NOTE
English
is
i.
participle with a negative often expresses the same idea which in given by without and a verbal noun : as,
est nihil
miserum
D.iii. 14), it is
wretched
to
vex
expensum
:
as
predicates
with
ferre and
as,
ii.
expensas (Verr.
170),
ciple
A noun and a passive participle are often so united and not the noun contains the main idea J as,
:
ante
was
built
or building.
1 Compare the participle in indirect discourse in Greek (Goodwin's Greek " " Grammar, $ 280) and the English, Twas at the royal feast for Persia won
;
(Dryden),
t.e.
292.1
illi
/V,v//Vw/V
Us*
<>f 1 \irticip;,
311
libcrtatcm civium
Komanorum imminutam
i
\
ereptam
of t>:
post
\.\\\\
m'k'lc^ctis (M.mil.
),
nf>n tulerunt; vos vitain thcv did not endure the injnn
f their
city.
life ?
homines natus
ri*C* tk* (Teotion of ma*. 9), even from the founding of the
22.\),
b.
as
perfect participle with a noun in agreement, or in the neuter an abstract noun, is used in the ablative with opus, need (cf.
:
The
243. c)
as,
is
need of laying in
maturate opus est (Liv. viii. 13), there is need of haste. The omission of the noun in agreement gives rise NOTE.
structions: as,
to
quid opus factost, what must be done? and quo factd opus est ?]
c. The perfect participle with habeo (rarely with other verbs) has nlmost the same meaning as a perfect active, but denotes the continued J as, effect of the action of the verb
:
fidem
quam habent spectatam iam et diii cdgnitam fidelity, which they hare proved and long known.
habebat (B. C. iii. 89), he had eighty cohorts stationed in line of battle. nefarios duces captos iam rt comprehensos tenetis (Catil. iii. 16), you
cohortes in acie Ixxx. cdn^titutas
have captured
d.
and hold in
may be used
in
combination with
the perfect participle of a transitive verb to express the action of that verb more forcibly: as,
praefectos suos multi missds fecerunt their officers (made dismissed).
hie
(Ver.
iii.
134),
many
discharged
finished).
ademptum
illam tihi
tihi
iam faxo
it
omnem metum
taken away).
I will
relieve
incensam dabo
Similarly
No
K.
vo!5
(cf. $
(with
make her angry with you. compounds) and cupio, with a perfect
)
:
participle without
esse
I
288 d. note
ii.
as,
UK fxciisidiun roHS
!.
(V.
thce
i.
103), I
wish
to be
excused
to
(I
want myself
pray
//</
qui te
conventum
who wants
you met).
1 The perfect \\ith Aui'f, in of this use of habeo.
stock, has
growo out
312
e.
[292,293.
in
After verbs denoting an action of the senses the present participle agreement with the object is nearly equivalent to the infinitive of
(
indirect discourse
ut
more
vividly
as,
equo sedentem viderit (Verr. v. 27), one ever saw him sitting on a horse. [Cf. Tusc. iii. 31.]
so that
no
NOTE.
with the
after
like,
Xenophon
facit
i.
31),
Xenophon
represents
Socrates, disputing.
4.
Future Participle.
is
293. The Future Participle (except futurus and venturua) rarely used in simple agreement with a noun, except by
a.
later writers.
The
esse (which
129)
:
is
often
as,
i.
morere, Djagora, non enim in caelum adscensurus es (Tus. for you are not likely to rise to heaven.
sperat adolescens diu se
live long (that
in),
die,
he
man
hopes to
not
neque petiturus unquam consulatum videretur (Off. iii. seem likely ever to be a candidate for the consulship.
b. By later writers and the poets the future participle simple agreement with a substantive to express : 1. Likelihood or certainty as,
:
and did
is
also used in
habituram
(Liv.
ii.
10), he
repute.
:
as,
viii.
cum
i),
when a
lion rushed on
rediit belli
xvii.
invasuris (id. xxxi. 36), while the horse were ready to attack the soldiers scattered through the fields. [A rare use of the Ablative Absolute.]
ii.
si
away
to perish.
3.
Apodosis
as,
potuit,
dedit mini
quantum maximum
me
as
much
293,294.]
313
c. With past tenses of ease, the future participle is often equivalent to the pluperfect subjunctive (see 308. d).
5.
NOTE.
tinct uses
:
The
dis-
(1) (2)
Its
Its
predicate and attribute use as participle or adjective ($ 294). use with the meaning of the gerund ( 296). This may be caJled
its
gerundive use.
as,
to be
fortem
et
conservandum virum
preserved.
b.
The most
129)
as,
non agitanda
agitated?
c.
res erit
(Verr.
v. 179),
The
with an object.
verb.
neuter of the gerundive 1 is occasionally used impersonally The object is in the case regularly governed by the
Thus,
vigilias (PI. Tr. 869),
sit
agitandumst
via
to enter.
NOTE.
ablative: as,
parendum est, die laws must be obeyed. utendum exercitationibus modicis (Cat. Maj.
legibus
exercise.
36),
we must
use moderate
undertake,
d. After verbs signifying to give, deliver, agree for, Stave, receive, demand? a gerundive in agreement with the object is used
:
to express purpose
1
as,
Sometimes
called
in -T'OI
(Goodwin's Grammar,
2
281).
Such verbs are acciplO, adnOtO, attribuS, conducS. cur5. den5t5, deposc6, dO, dlvid5. d5nO, SdlcS. edoceS. fer6. habe6. Ioc6. mando, oblciO, permlttO, pet6, pono, praebeo, propouo, relinqud, rogro, sus. cipio, tr&dd, voved.
314
294-96.
redemptor qui columnam illam conduxerat faciendam (Div. ii. 47), the contractor who had undertaken to make that column. [The regular
aedem
construction with this class of verbs.] Castoris habuit tuendam ( Ver. ii. 1. 150), he to take care of.
had the
temple of Castor
naves atque onera diligenter adservanda curabat that the ships and cargoes should be kept.
(id, v. 146),
he took care
II.
295. The Gerund expresses an action of the verb in the form of a verbal noun. As a norm the gerund is itself
governed by other words as a verb in the proper case. Thus,
;
it
may
take an object
(De
Or.
ii.
157),^ art
of discoursing
well,
true
andfalse.
The nominative of the gerund is supplied by the infinitive. Thus example above, the verbal nouns discoursing and distinguishing, if used in the nominative, would be expressed by the infinitives disserere and diiudicare.
in the
REMARK.
296.
When
The
gerundive agrees with its noun, and takes the case which the gerund would have had as,
:
paratiores ad
omnia pericula subeunda (B. G. i. 5), readier to undergo all [Here subeunda agrees with pericula, which is itself governed by ad. The construction with the gerund would be, ad subeundum pericula ad governing the gerund, and the gerund governing
dangers.
;
exercendae memoriae
sloth is odious.
1 The gerundive construction is probably the original one. The participle in -dus seems to have had a present passive force (as in ante condendam urbem 292. a), rotundus, volvenda dies (Virg.), flammandl (Tac.), 290. c) from (
futurity, as in the
develop-
ment of the subjunctive (see p. 274). Consilium urbis delendae would have meant a plan of a city being destroyed [in process of destruction] then about to be destroyed, then to be destroyed, then apian of destroying the city, the two words becoming fused together as in at) urbe condita,
,
296-98.]
315
In tins use the gerund and the gerundive are translated NOTE. way. but have really a different construction. Tin- lintm aguvs with its noun, though in translation we change the %
1
translate vigfiliae agitandae sunt (guard must be kept] by / must stand gnat d. The Gerund is the neuter of the gerundive i:sM imprrsonally, but retaining the verbal idea sufficiently to govern an object, as in agritandumst vigilias (\ 294. <:). It may therefore be considered as a noun (cf. opus est
\sr
may
matftrato,
$ 292. b)
(cf.
hauc
tactio,
p. 235, foot-note).
See
p. 314, foot-note.
The
and gerundive
ur )em ca P ie " di
j urbis capiendae I
I a design of faking
the city.
operam
Ace. veniunt ad { I
m.ihi
come j
to
I to
ABL.
terit
REMARK.
($ 249. b)
:
etc.,
are
in early Latin
expetuntur divitiae ad perfruendas voluptates (Of. i. 25), riches are sought for the enjoyment ofpleasures (for enjoying pleasures).
li!)7.
oblique cases, in
many
Genitive.
298. The Genitive of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after nouns or adjectives either as subjective or
objective genitive
neque
consilii
:
as,
habendi neque arma capiendi spatio dato (B. G. iv. 14), time being given neither for forming plans nor for taking arms.
[Objective.]
i. 1
Vivendi
finis est
end of living.
desirous not so
rerum quam evertendarum cupidos (Off. ii. 3), much of changing as of destroying the state. [Objective.]
NOTE. Ln a few phrases the Infinitive is used with nouns which ordinarily have the genitive of the Gerund or Cjerunuivc. Thus tempua est ablre, /
time to depart.
316
REMARK.
early
[298,299.
and
:
late Latin) as
as,
gerund or gerundive is used (especially in a predicate genitive. When so used it often expresses
purpose
quae res vertendae reipublicae solent esse (Verr. ii. 132) things which generally tend to the overthrow of the commonwealth. si arborum trunci deiciendi opens essent missae (B. G. iv. 17), in case trunks of trees should be sent down [with the object] of overthrowing the work. [Pred. gen. like quas sui commodi fecerat (v. 8).] Aegyptum proficiscitur cognoscendae antiquitatis (Tac. Ann. ii. 59), he
sets out for Egypt to study old times. ne id assentandi magis quam quo habeam gratum facere existumes (Ter. Ad. 270), for fear you should think that I do it more for the sake o/ flattery than becattse, etc.
a.
The
genitive of the gerund is occasionally limited by a noun or in the objective genitive instead of taking a
as,
to see
ems
reiciendi
trium iudicum
potestas ( Ver.
iii.
ii.
*]*]},
the power
of challenging three
This construction undoubtedly arose from the fact that the gerund, NOTE. with the noun (or adjective) on which it depends, was conceived as a compound noun (or adjective) governing an objective genitive (cf. 217. b). Thus sui colligendl facultas would be literally, a chance of a recovering of theirs. This construction is easily distinguished from that of the gerundive by the fact that the
in
equally
c.
is
NOTE.
298.
2.
Dative.
after adjectives 1
299. The Dative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used which take the dative and rarely after nouns ( 234. a) as,
:
The
adjectives accommodatus, aptus, ineptus, utilis, inutilis. But the accusative with ad
and gerundive occurs most commonly after the bonus, habilis, idoneus, par, is common with most of these
299, 30O."]
K'nus nrmorum
te
/;/</
an<1 (icrnu<thr.
(Liv. xxxii. 10),
317
a
sort of
armor snitch to the defence of tJic l>,/y. sociam stmlni serfbendia versibus esse (Lucr.
thou (Venus) /v
i.
25),
desire that
my partn/r
in writing verses.
et
rcliqua
percipiendls
to
sunt (Cat. Maj. 70), the other seasons are fitted the harvest.
reap
i,
perferendis inllitum mandatis idoneus (Tac. Ann. carrying out the instructions of the soldiers.
a.
23), suitable
The
dative
is
l
:
as,
diem
operi faciendo(Ver.ii.
Am.
(to
50), to take
pay
be
for paying).
NOTE.
This construction
is
The
dative
is
ing the
also used in certain legal phrases after nouns meanindicate the function or scope of
office, etc.
as,
comitia consulibus rogandis (Div. i. 33), elections for nominating consuls. triumvir coloniis deducundis (Jug. 42), a triumvir for planting colonies. triumviri reipublicae constituendae (title of the Triumvirate), triumvirs (a commission of three) for settling the government.
3.
Accusative.
3OO. The Accusative of the Gerund and Gerundive is used after the prepositions ad, inter, circa, ob (and rarely
in
and
mo
ante);
most frequently
as,
(Cf.
318-*):
vocas
vivis
ad scribendum (Or. 34), yon summon me to ivrite. non ad deponendam seel ad confirmandam audaciam (("'at you live, not to put off, but to confirm voiir </<;;. nactus aditus ad ea conanda (B. C. i. 31), having found means to undertake these things.
inter
agendum
(Eel.
ix.
NOTE.
0296).
i
The Accusative
i:
operam
locum capere.
3i8
[301,302.
Ablative.
Gerund and Gerundive is used (i) to express Manner, Means, Cause, etc.; and and (3) after the prepositions ab, (2) after Comparatives de, ex, in, and (rarely) pro and cum as,
of the
1
;
:
(1) multa pollicendo persuadet (Jug. 46), he persuades by large promises. Latme loquendS cuivis par (Bru. 128), equal to any man in speaking
Latin.
nullis virtutis praeceptis
tradendk
(Off.
i.
5),
witkoztt delivering
.
any
no precepts)
legendis (Cat. M. 21), by reading these very things. obscuram atque humilem conciendo ad se multitudinem (Liv. i. 8), calling to them a mean and obscure multitude. (2) nullum officiura referenda gratia magis necessarium est (Off. i. 47), no duty is more important than repaying favors.
(3) in re
NOTE.
gerenda versari (Cat. M. 17), to be employed in conducting affairs, The Ablative of the Gerund and Gerundive is also very rarely used
abstitit
Appius non
desist from
ix.
REMARK.
The gerund
in apposition with
a noun:
as,
fortim, in the senate-house, in defending my friends in jeopardy. (2) ad res diversissimas, parendum atque imperandum (Liv. xxi. 3), for the most widely different things, obeying and commanding*
lll.-SUPINE.
NOTE.
no
is
declension
(i)
($
The form
the accusative of the end of motion ( 258. b, Rem.). (2) The form in -u is usually dative of purpose ($ 233), though probably the ablative has been confused with it.
(in
-um)
is
It
may
is,
and
in mediaeval
as,
FLENDO
(Gesta
sedisset,
Romanorum, 66 [58]), as one day she sat weeping, a certain knight came riding by. (Compare \ 301, fifth example.) From the gerund used as ablative of manner come the Italian and Spanish forms of the present participle (as mandando, espe)
becoming an
302,303."]
quid
(
Sufline.
ctsi monitum venimus now, shall we be seated ? though
319
te,
?.v
cst,
imusnc sessum?
17), //<w
non flagitatura
(I>c
iii.
not
to
en Ir cat you ?
to
nuptum
venerunt
dare (collocate),
give in marriage.
iii.
questum
iniurias (Liv.
in
25), they
came
to
complain of wrongs.
with
RIMVKK.
The supine
-um
is
especially
common
Thus,
rempublicam perditum irent (Sail. Cat. 36), there were 'cent about to ruin the republic (cf. 258. l>, Rcm.) non Grals servitum nuUrilms ibd (.Kn. ii. 786), I shall not go to be a slave to the Grecian dames, si sclsset se trucidatura irl (Div. ii. 22), if ht (Pompey) had known that he was going to be murdered. [For the more usual form of the future
>ts ivlio
infinitive, see
147.
<:.]
3O;*. The Latter Supine (in -u) 1 is used only with a few adjectives, with the nouns fas, nefas, and opus, and rarely with verbs, to denote an action /'// reference to which
the quality
is
asserted
as,
(Phil.
ii.
63),
a thing not
but even
to
hear
of.
humanum
si
quaerunt quid optimum factu sit (Ver. ii. i. 68), they ask what is best to do. factu aut inceptu (Ter. Andr. 236), a human thing to do or undertake.
hoc
fas est
dictu (Tusc.
you
NOTE.
see it is
a sin
to
lawful to say. talem senectutem (Cato. M. say that such an old age was wretched.
v. 38),
is
if this
miseram
fuisse
13),
it is
is
shame
to tell.
The
$
latter
.
supine
302 head-note.
ki MARK. The supine in -tl is found especially with such adjectives as indicate an effect on the senses or the feelings, and those which denote ease, difficulty, and the like. But with facilis, difflcilis, iucundus, ad with the gerund is
more common.
nee visu
difticilis
Thus,
facilis
for (inv
man
iii.
621), he
is
not pleasant
difficult to
ad distinguendum
(Dc
>.
ii.
-12),
a likeness
distinguish.
With
all
same sense
as,
facilcs
to lei:
common
lour vcibi.
It
ii>
32O
Syntax: Conditional
Sentente.
CHAPTER IV.
NOTE.
this, that
Conditional Sentences.
differs
from other compound sentences in is determined in some degree by the nature of the subordinate clause (PROTASIS), upon the truth of which the whole statement depends. Like all compound sentences, however, the Conditional Sentence has arisen from putting together two independent statements, which in time became so closely united as to make one modified statement. Thus Speak the word: my servant shall be healed is an earlier form of expression than If thou etc. the word, speak The Conditional Particles were originally independent pronouns : thus si, if, is
the form of the
a weak demonstrative of the same origin as sic, so (si-ce like hl-ce, see footnotes at pp. 65, 67), and has the primitive meaning of in that way, or in some way. In its origin the Condition was of two kinds. Either it was assumed and stated as a fact, or it was expressed as a mild command. From the first have come all
the uses of the Indicative in protasis; from the latter all the uses of the Subjunctive in protasis. The Apodosis has either (i) the Indicative, expressing the conclusion
as a fact; and the Present and Perfect Subjunctive, expressing it originally as and hence more or less doubtful or (2) the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subfuture junctive expressing it &->futurum in praeterito}- and so unfulfilled in the present or past. Thus rides, maiore cacbinno concutitur, you laugh, he shakes with more boisterous laughter, is the original form for the Indicative in protasis and
apodosis ; si rides originally means merely you laugh in some way or other, and so, later, IF you laugh. So roges Aristonem, neget, ask Arista, he would say no, is the original form of the subjunctive in protasis and apodosis ; si roges would mean ask in some way or other. In si rogares, negaret, the Imperfect rogares
command of roges to past time,2 with the meaning sttpposeyou had asked, and si would have the same meaning as before ; while negaret transfers the the stating future idea of neget to past time, and means he was going to deny.
transfers the
Now
of this supposition at all gives rise to the implication that it is untrue in point of fact, because, if it were true, there would ordinarily be no need to state it as a supthen for it would a be in the indicbe and as such would simple fact, put position :
Such a condition or conclusion originally past, meaning suppose you had came to express an unfulfilled condition in asked [yesterday] he was going to deny the present ; suppose (or if) you were now asking, he would [now] deny just as in English ought, which originally meant owed,* has come to express a present obligation.
ative.8
,
past.
in praeterito is a tense future relatively to a time absolutely denotes a future act transferred to the point of view ofpast time, and hence is naturally expressed by a past tense of the Subjunctive : thus dixisset, he would have jtfzd?=dicturus fuit, he was about to say [but did not]. As that which
1 It
The futurum
looks towards the future from some point in the past has a natural limit in present a tense (the imperfect subjunctive) came naturally to be used to express a present condition purely ideal, that is to say, contrary to fact. 2 Compare potius diceret, he should rather have said ( 266. e). 8 There are, however, some cases in which this implication does not arise as, deciens centena dedisses, nil erat in loculis (Hor. Sat. i. 3. 15), if you'd
time, such
:
given him a million, there was nothing in his coffers. * "There was a certain lender which ought him
d&le's
five
hundred
pieces."
Tyn-
N.
T.
304.]
Proftt sis
and
Apottos is.
.:
321
i.
SiMiM
($306).
implied as to fulfilment
J.
Less vivid
3.
4.
GENERAL CONDITIONS: j
(
Indefinite Subject
<J.
309. 309.
).
Repeated Action
^. c).
in clause of Fact,
Wish,
(i.
5.
IMPLIED CONDITIONS:
1.
b.
Protasis Omitted
\
2.
1.
3O4.
The
SIS;
clause containing the condition is called the PROTAthe clause containing the conclusion is called the
as,
ii.
APODOSIS:
si
27),
if any wish
si est
to
depart,
I can
keep
my
eyes shut.
if he
in exsilio [PROTASIS], quid amplius postulatis [APODOSIS] (Lig.i3), is in exile> what more do you ask?
It
NOTE.
a.
is
The
Protasis
its
si (IF) or one of
compounds.
These compounds are sin, nisi, etiamsi, etsl, tametsi, tamenetsl (see Conditional and Concessive Particles, $ 155. e g). An Indefinite Relative, or any relative or concessive word, may also serve to introduce a conditional clause
t
NOTE.
(see
b.
316).
The Apodosis
:
is
often introduced
phrase
is
est, si se ipsa defendit (Cat. Maj. 38), on this old age honorable, if it defends itself. aniarot, turn istiic pro.lesset (Ter. Eun. 446), if he loved me,
be profitable.
NOTE.
ea condicidne
are rare.
322
c.
304. 305.
but
may
The Apodosis is the principal clause of the conditional sentence, at the same time be subordinate to some other clause, and so
:
as,
ing also
to
deprive
him
(Q. C. viii. 2), intendof burial, unless the king had ordered him to be
iussisset
human
interred.
quod
si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum [esse] (B. G. i. 40), but if no one else would follow, he would go with the
quos adversum proelium commoveret, h5s reperire posse of a battle alarmed any, they mightfind, etc.
NOTE.
itself is in
construction, the verb of the Protasis is regularly in the Subjunctive (as in the two of the above examples, see 337).
d. Conditions are either (i) Particular or (2) General. Particular Condition refers to a definite act or series of acts 1.
A A
occurring at
2.
some
definite time.
may
General Condition refers to any one of a class of acts which occur (or may have occurred) at any time.
2.
Classification.
may
of
conditional
to fulfilment.
bene
est,
if he
is
[now]
2.
Some
clauses.
si
aderat,
si adfuit,
bene erat, if he was [then] here, it was well. bene fuit, if he has been here, it has been well.
(necessarily as yet unfulfilled).
b.
I.
both clauses.
be) here,
it
bene
erit,
if he
is (shall
will be well.
Future Perfect Indicative in protasis, Future Indicative in apodo(J3) sis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins).
1
Cf. the
2.
b. I.
c.
Greek forms:
a.
I.
et irpdo-o'ei
rovro, Ka\ws
I.
rovro, Ka\cas el^ei/. 6a> Trpdo*o-r) rovro, Ka\S>s fc. et ieirpaffffe rovro, Ka\oas tiv el^ev.
ei firpao~o~
2. 2.
et'
d. I. tdir rts
K\tirry t Kohd&Tai.
elf
ns
$ 305.)
Classification.
brnc
erit,
si
adfurrit.
(but
2.
it
will not
be well if he is (shall have been) here, it -will [then] begin to be well until he actually is here).
Less vivid.
both clauses.
it
adsit,
hene
sit,
would be
well.
(/?) Perfect Subjunctive in protasis, Present Subjunctive in apodosis (condition thought of as completed before conclusion begins).
si aclfucrit,
bene
sit,
it
would
[then] be well.
c. 1.
si adesset,
NOT
here).
2. Past,
si
contrary to fact. Pluperfect Subjunctive in both clauses. adfuisset, bene fuisset, if he had [then] been here, it would have been well (but he was NOT here).
d.
GENERAL CONDITIONS.
Conditions (a,
:
ticular
b,
and
c)
cases following
1. Present General Condition (Indefinite Time). (a) Present Subjunctive second person singular in protasis, Present Indicative in apodosis.
si
hoc dicas,
creditur, if any
this, it is
[always] believed.
Present in apodosis.
it is
quid
dixit, creditur,
[always] believed.
2.
quid diceret, credebatur, if he [ever] said anything, believed (= whatever he said was always believed),
it
was [always]
(/:?)
si
quid
was [always]
believed.
The use of tenses in Protasis is very loose in English. Thus if he a PRESENT condition, to be expressed in Latin by the Present Indicative; if he is alive next year is a FUTURE condition, expressed in Latin by the Future Indicative. Again, if he were here now is a PRESENT condition conis
alive
REMARK. now
is
junctive
and would be expressed by the Imperfect Subjunctive; if he were to a FUTURE condition less vivid to be expressed by the Present Suband so too, ifyou advised him, he would attend may be future less vivid.
is
324
3.
306.
Nothing Implied.
3O6. In the statement of present and past conditions whose falsity is NOT implied, the present and past tenses of the Indicative are used in both Protasis and Apodosis.
Thus,
si
tu exercitusque valetis,
well, it is well.
bene
est
(Fam.
v. 2),
if you
and
the
army
art
away
si
si ades, haec negotia sic se 18), this, then, if you are at Rome ; but if you are or even if you are there these matters are as follows.
[Present.]
qul
magms
non
satis
Graecorum gloriae
responderunt (Tuscul. i. 3), if any men have appeared ofgreat genius in that branch, they have failed to compete with the glory of the Greeks.
[Past Condition.]
accepi
et
Roma
Romae
sine epistula tua fasciculum litterarum in quo si modo valuisti fuisti Philotimi duc5 esse culpam non tuam (Att. v. 17), 1
have received from Rome a bundle of letters without any from you, which, provided you have been well and at Rome, I take to be the fault of Philotimus, not yours. [Mixed: Past condition and present conclusion.]
quas
litteras, si
Romae
es,
v. 18),
as to
it
this letter, if you are at Rome, you will see whether in [Mixed : Present and Future.] otight to be delivered.
si
your opinion
(Ligarius
30),
my request is presumptuous.
a.
tive
;
but
In these conditions, the apodosis need not always be in the Indicamay assume any form, according to the sense. Thus,
.
si
placet
videamus (Cato M.
si
1 us see. [Hortatory.] 5), ifyou please, let iudicabat (Div. i. 29), s^lppose it was the censor's
[Hortatory Subjunctive.]
61),
nondum
satis cernitis,
recordamini (Milon.
iv.
clearly, recollect.
si
[Imperative.]
10), if
it.
quid habes certius, velim scire (Att. worthy information, I should like to
esty,
trust-
know
Mod-
311.
b.-\
NOTE. Although the form of these conditions does not imply anything as to the truth of the supposition, the sense or the context may of course have some such
implication: as,
nolite, si in nostro
omnium fietu nullam lacrimam aspexistis Milonis, hoc minus ei parcere (Milon. 92), do not, if amid the weeping of its all you have seen no tear [in the eyes] of Milo, spare him the less for
that.
<?
306, 307.]
pctimus a
vtlhls,
Future Conditions.
indices,
si
325
commendatio
~uc
qua divina
in
tantis ingeniis
debet
yon,
it to
.
esse, ut
eum
(An
ask
there ought to be anything in such genius to recommendation of the gods, that you receive
your protection.
In these two passages, the protasis really expresses cause : but the cause is put by the speaker in the form of a non-committal condition. His hearers arc to draw the inference for themselves. In this way the desired impression is made on their minds more effectively than if an outspoken causal clause had been
used.
4.
Future Conditions.
3O7. Future Conditions may be more or less vivid. 1. In a more vivid future condition the protasis makes a
distinct supposition of a future case, the apodosis express-
ing what will be the result. 2. In a less vivid future condition, the supposition is less distinct, the apodosis expressing what woitld be the
result in the case supposed.
a. In the
in both protasis
Indicative is used
sanabimur
quod
si
si
volemus (Tus.
iii.
13),
. . .
[shall
we shall be healed if ^ve wish. reperietis (Cato M. 20), if you will will find.
In English the protasis is usually expressed by the Present Indicative, NOTE. rarely by the future with SHALL. Often in Latin the Present Indicative is found in the protasis of a condition of this kind (cf. $ 276. c) : as,
si
ilia
advorsa fient (Sail. Cat. 58, 3), if we conquer, all things will be safe for us; but if we yield through fear, those same things will become
hostile.
si
pereS hominum manibus periisse iuvabit (./En. iii. 606), if will be pleasant to have perished at the hands of men.
I perish,
is
it
b.
used
in
as,
tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat (Cat. i. 19), your country should thus speak with theet ought she not to pre. . .
vail?
quod
valde
recusem
I should stoutly
326
307.
REMARK. The present subjunctive sometimes stands in protasis with the future in apodosis from a change in the point of view of the speaker. 1
c. If the conditional act is regarded as completed before that of the apodosis begins, the Future Perfect is substituted for the Future Indicative in protasis, and the Perfect Subjunctive for the Present Subjunc-
tive: as,
sin
si
potuero, non venerS, turn erit inimicus (Att. ix. come when I can, he will be tmfriendly. non feceris ignoscam (Fam. v. 19), ifyou do not do it,
cum
REMARK.
condition: as,
The Future
Perfect
is
vehementer mihi gratum feceris, si hunc adolescentem humanitate tua comprehenderis (Fam. xiii. 15), you will do (will have done) me a great favor, if you receive this young man with your usual courtesy.
d. Any form denoting or implying future time may stand in the apodosis of a future condition. So the Imperative, the participles in -dus and -rus, and verbs of necessity, possibility, and the like as,
:
alius finis
constituendus est
si
prius
59),
if
I first
state
si
what Scipio was %vnt most to find fault with. me praeceperit fatum, vos mandasse memento, if fate cuts me soon, do you remember that I ordered this (Q. C. ix. 6, 26).
off too
Miloni a Clodio factas, nee deprecaturi sumus nee postulaturi (Milon. 6), unless you see with your own eyes the plots laid against Milo by Clodius, I shall neither beg nor demand, etc. non possum istum accusare si cupiam (Ver. iv. 87), / cannot accuse him if I should desire to.
nisi oculis videritis insidias
e. Rarely the Perfect Indicative is used in apodosis with a Present or even a Future in protasis, to represent the conclusion rhetorically as
in
anim5
est,
is
well fixed
si
your minds, you have conquered. [For you will have conquered.] eundem [animum] habueritis, vicimus (id. 43), if you shall have kept the same spirit, we have conquered.
f. A future condition is frequently thrown back into past time, without implying that it is contrary to fact ( 308). In such cases the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive may be used : as,
often depends entirely upon the view of the writer at the moment, and not the nature of the condition, whether it shall be stated vividly or not as in " If the sky falls, we shall catch larks," the impossible condition is the proverbial ironically put in the vivid form, to illustrate the absurdity of some other supposed
1 It
upon
condition stated by
some one
else.
307,308.]
nun poterat
Conditions Contrary
nisi vrllcl
i'.
'
to
Rict.
327
'.
iii.
.;
tumulus apparuit ... si luce palam iretur li. \\ii. 24), <i hill appeared if they should go openly hy light, the eueinv would prerent. (The first tuo appear like ind. disc., hut arc- n<.t. An observer describing the situations as present ones would say potest si
.
.
The only velit (etc., sec i/), and no ind. disc, would be thought of. difference between these and the third is that in them the forms in J
are used instead of the subjunctive.]
Caesar
si
>'
peteret
r.v/v to ask he
not contrary to
past time.]
ndn cjuicquam proficeret (Ilor. Sat. i. 3. 4), if even would gain nothing. [Here the construction is fact, but is simply si petat non proficiat, thrown into
.
.
5.
3O8. In the statement of a supposition known to be false, the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used The imperfect refers to in both Protasis and Apodosis. 1
Present Time, the pluperfect to Past as, quae si exsequi nequirem, tamen me lectulus oblectaret meus (Cat. Maj. couch would 38), if I coiild not [now] follow tJiis (an active \\fe},yet my [ Present. ] afford me pleasure.
:
nisi tu amisisses, nunquam recepissem should not have recovered it. [Past.]
si
(id.
n),
ttnless
you had
lost
it,
meum
if
my
consilium auctoritasque valuisset, tu hodie egeres, nos liberi tot duces et exercitus amisisset (Phil. ii. 37), judgment and authority had prevailed [as they did not], you
be
and the republic would [Mixed Present and Past.] qui nisi revertisset, in e5 conclavi ei cubandum fuisset, quod proxima nocte conruit: ruina igitur oppressus esset; at id neque si fatum fuerat effugisset, nee si non fuerat in eum casum incidisset (Div. ii. 20), //"// had been decreed by fate, he would not have escaped, etc. [The apodosis of fuerat is not effugisset, but the whole conditional senwould this day
not have
a beggar, we
leaders
shotild be free,
lost so
many
and armies.
tence of which effugisset is the apodosis; the real protasis of effugisset is revertisset (cf. 311. </).]
a. In conditions contrary to fact the Imperfect often refers to
past
time, both in protasis and apodosis, especially when a repeated or continued action is denoted, or when the condition if true would still
exist: as,
1
The
implication of
falsity, in this
construction,
is
Thus the tive; but comes from the transfer of a future condition to past time. time for the happening of the condition has, at the time of writing, already passed; so that, if the condition remains a condition, it must be contrary to fact. So past
forms implying a future frequently take the place of the subjunctive in apodosis in this construction (see d, below, and head-note, p. 320),
328
hie
si
308.
mentis esset suae, ausus esset educere exercitum (Pis. 50), ifhe were of sane mind, ^vould he have dared to lead out the army ? [Here esset
denotes a continued
non
state, past as well as present.] concidissent, nisi illud receptaculum classibus nostris pateret (Verr. ii. 3), [the power of Carthage] -would not have fallen, unless that station
to
our fleets.
fact that the pluperfect is equivalent to a future perfect in praeteritd, and so represents the action as completed and momentary rather than as continuing.
',
REMARK.
b.
the Indicative
In the apodosis of a condition contrary to fact the Past tenses of may be used to express what was intended, or likely, or
:
already begun
si
as,
veniebant (Verr.
(see
305.
c.
v. 129), the
2). in amplexus filiae ruebat, nisi lictores obstitissent (Tac. A. xvi. 32), he was about rushing into his daughter's arms, unless the lictors had opposed.
if it
iam
tuta tenebam, ni gens crudelis ferro invasisset (^En. vi. 358), / was just reaching a place of safety, had not the Jierce people attacked me.
NOTE.
may be
regarded as
elliptical.
Thus,
matres veniebant (et venissent) si licitum esset, the matrons were coming (and would have kept on) if it had been allowed. [So with paene, prope, etc.]
REMARK.
In this use, the imperfect indicative corresponds in time to the and the perfect or pluperfect indicative to the pluperfect
c. Verbs and expressions denoting necessity, propriety, duty* when used in the Apodosis of a condition contrary
possibility,
to fact are
regularly put in the Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect Indicative instead of the Subjunctive : as,
si ita
so,
si
putasset certe optabilius Miloni fuit (Milon. 31), if he surely it would have been preferable for Milo.
had thought
privatus esset hoc tempore, tamen is erat deligendus (Manil. if he (Pompey) were at this time a private citizen at Rome, yet he ought to be appointed. quod esse caput debebat si probari posset (Fin. iv. 23), what ought to be the main point if it could be proved. nam nos decebat lugere (Tuscul. i. 115), for it would befit us to mourn.
50),
1
Romae
Such are possum, decet, oportet, debeo, and the Second Periphrastic
Observe that
all
Thus, decet me [hodie] Ire eras, means it is proper for me Ire hodie, it was proper [to-day] to go to-morrow; and, decebat me [her!], not gone as for me [yesterday] to go to-day, usually with the implication that / have / was bound to.
(cf.
308, 309.]
(icncnil Conditions.
it
329
condition
NOTE
dition.-d,
I.
In this construction
is
itself.
is
Subjunrtivr is n --<! as with other verbs. may be seen in the following example
:
The
dii
quid facere potuissem nisi turn consul fuissem? consul autem esse qui potui nisi cum vitae cursuin lenuisscin a pueritia (Rep. i. 10), what
could
I have done
if
I had
is
and how
could 1
NOTE 2.
si
This construction
iactaret
sometimes carried
still
non alium
odorem, laurus erat (Georg. but for giving out a different odor.
ii.
133), it were
laurel,
d. The participle in -urus with eram or fui may take the place of an Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive in the Apodosis of a condition
contrary to fact
quid enim
as,
futurum
fuit
[=
fuisset], si
... (Liv.
ii.
i),
happened if, etc. neque ambigitur quin ... id facturus fuerit, si ... (id.), nor is there any [Direct: fecisset.] question he would have done it if, etc. ex quo intellegi potest quam acuti natura sint, qui haec sine doctrina creditor! fuerint (Tusc. i. 48), hence it may be understood how keen they are by nature, who, without instruction, would have believed this. [Here the condition is contained in the words sine doctrina.] adeo parata seditio fuit, ut Othonem rapturi fuerint, nl incerta noctis timuissent (Tac. H. i. 26), so far advanced was the conspiracy that
they would have seized upon Olho, had they not feared the hazards the night. [In a main clause : rapuissent ni timuissent.]
of
NOTE. This construction is regularly used when the apodosis is itself a dependent clause requiring the subjunctive, and also in Indirect Discourse. In Indirect Discourse fuisse replaces eram or fui (see \ 337).
e.
in the protasis
Perfect subjunctive are sometimes used in poetry and apodosis of conditions contrary to fact as, comes admoneat, inruat (/En. vi. 293), had not his companion warned
:
him,
bear
lie
would
away
This
sea
is
and land.
NOTE.
probably a remnant of an old construction. Its use puts the as if possible at any moment in the future though not
now
true.
6.
General Conditions.
3O9. General Conditions ( 304. d) have usually the same forms as Particular Conditions. JUit they are sometimes distinguished in the following three cases:
33O
a.
[309,310.
is sometimes used in the second person singular, an Indefinite Subject (you any one}. Here the Indicative of a general truth may stand in the apodosis as, mens prope uti ferrum est: si exerceas conteritur; nisi exerceas, rubi:
ginem contrahit (Cato de Mor.), the mind is very like iron: ifyou use it, it wears away ; ifyou don't use it, it gathers rust. virtutem necessario gloria, etiamsi tu id non agas, consequitur (Tusc. i.
si
prohibita
91), glory necessarily follows virtue, even if that Is not one's aim. impune transcenderis, neque metus ultra neque pudor est
si
(Tac. A. iii. 54), ifyou once overstep the bounds with impunity, there is no fear nor shame any more. cederes placabilis (Tac. Ann.), [he was'] easily appeased ij one yielded.
b. In later writers (not in Cicero), the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive are used in protasis, with the Imperfect Indicative in apodas, osis, to state a repeated or custotnary action in past time
:
accusatores,
si
facultas incideret,
poems adficiebantur
offered,
(Tac. A.
vi.
30), the
accusers,
whenever opportunity
c. In a general condition in present time, the protasis often takes the Perfect, and the apodosis the Present Indicative. For past time, the Pluperfect is used in the protasis, and the Imperfect in the apodosis.
Thus,
si
inutiles
if they [ever]
mark any
si
[Present.] they [always] order them to be put to death. a persequendo hostes deterrere nequiverant ab tergo circumveniebant e re unable to prevent the enemy from pur(J U S- 5)> */T ever ] they [Past.] suing, they [always] surrounded them in the rear.
Condition Disguised.
31O. In many sentences properly conditional, the Protby a conditional clause, but is stated in some other form of words or implied in the nature of
the thought.
a.
Thus,
may be
illo
The
me
condition
Thus,
pro Sex. Roscio dicere ipso iudlce quaerente to speak for Roscius (Rose. Amer. 85), / should readily allow myself the trial. [Present contrary to fact : zvere that conducting very judge if
paterer
si
quaereret,
etc.]
310.]
MMII mihi, nisi
Condition Disguised.
331
admonito, venissct in incntcm (I -o), it would not have come into my mind unless [I had been] reminded. [I'.i trary to fact: nisi admonitus essem.] nulla alia gens tanta mole cladis non obruta esset (Liv. xxii. 54), // no other people that -could not have been crushed by such a weight of
disaster.
no one, without great hope of immortality, ever expose himself to death for his country. [Present contrary to fact nisi magnam spem haberet.] quid hunc paucorum annorum accessid iuvare potuisset (Loel. n),what good could the addition of a few years have done him (if they had been
:
added) ? [Past contrary to fact si accessissent.] qul igitur mihi ferarum laniatus oberit nihil sentient! (Tuscul. i. 104), what harm will the mangling by wild beasts do me if I don't feel any:
[Future more vivid si nihil sentiam.] thing (feeling nothing) ? incitata seinel procllve labuntur (Tusc. iv. 42), if once given a push, they slide down rapidly. [Present General si incitata sunt.]
: :
b. The condition niay be contained in a Wish (optative subjunctive), or expressed as an Exhortation or Command (hortatory subjunctive, 1 or
imperative)
as,
utinam quidem fuissem! molestus nobis non esset (Fam. xii. 3), I wish I had been [chief] he would not now be troubling us (i.e. if I had
:
been). [Optative Subjunctive.] naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret (Hor. Ep. i. 10. 24) drive out nature with a pitchfork, still she will ever return. [Hortatory.]
roges enim Aristonem, neget (Fin. iv. 69), for ask Aristo, he would deny. manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria(Cato M. 22), old men keep their mental powers, only let them keep their zeal and dilitolle
gence ( 266. d). [Hortatory.] hanc opinionem, luctum sustuleris (Tusc. i. 30), remove this notion, and you will have done away with grief. [Imperative.]
NOTE.
and
The so-called concessive subjunctive with lit often has the force of protasis ($ 313. a) : as,
and ne
is
really hortatory,
ut enim rationem Plato nullam afferret, ipsa auctoritate me frangeret (Tusc. i. 49), even if Plato gave no reasons, [still] he would overpower me,
etc.
c.
as,
rides:
100),
you laugh; he
shakes
(=
tin-
if
TV
prnbublv
i:
Minrtivr tiriti"
form
332
:
310, 311.
commove senties (Tusc. iv. 54), stir him up [and] you'll find, etc. de paupertate agitur multl patientes pauperes commemorantur (Tusc. are mentioned. iii. 57), we speak ofpoverty ; many patient poor
:
d.
The
condition
is
316).
REMARK.
APODOSIS, see
304.
c.
Condition Omitted.
311. The Protasis is often wholly omitted, but may be inferred from the course of the argument. Thus,
poterat Sextilius
tilins
impune negare quis enim redargueret (Fin. ii. 55), Sexmight have denied with impunity; for who would prove him wrong (if he had)
:
.
REMARK.
Under
this
I.
so-called
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually performed, but as possible. In this use the Present and the Perfect refer without distinction to
a.
The
is
the immediate future; the Imperfect to past time. The second person common, indicating an Indefinite Subject (cf. 309. a). Thus,
hie quaerat quispiam (N. D. ii. 133), here some one may ask. assimilare freto possis (Ov. M. v. 6), you might compare. ut aliquis fortasse dixerit (Of. iii. 97), as one may perhaps say. forsitan haec illi mirentur (Verr. iv. 124), they may perchance
these things. turn in lecto quoque
marvel at
ii.
8. 77),
(^n.
iv.
NOTE
2.
The
.
Pluperfect
Its
place
is
supplied by
the Imperfect.
putasses eius luctus aliquem finem esse debere (Sen. Dial. would have thought there ought to be some end to his grief.
6,
13),
you
NOTE
3.
The
subjunctive with forsitan does not differ in meaning from the is really an Indirect Question ( 334. g).
potential subjunctive
protasis
is
REMARK.
protasis.
The
strictly
Sometimes the
may be
So
mind of
the speaker.
Modesty
{b,
II.
SUBJUNCTIVE OF MODESTY.
b. The Subjunctive is used in cautious, modest, or hypothetical statements (coniunctlvus modestiae). This use is especially common in a polite wish, with velim or vellem, Thus,
311.]
e tuii
CoHitificn
Omitti-,1.
333
dixorim(Mil. 105), / sciam an (L.i-lius 51), I should inclint to tkink. tu velim sic cxistiincs (Fain, xii. 6), I should //'/< nk so. vi\ ausim credere (< >v. M. vi. 561), I should hardly dare believe. vellem adcssct M. Antonius (1'hil.i. 16), / could wish Antony ivere here. [Here vellem implies an unfulfilled wish in present time; void or nold would express a peremptory wish.] haec erant fere quae tibi nota esse vellem (Fain. xii. 5), this is about what I should like you to know. [Here vellem is simply velim transferred, to past time on account of erat (epistolary), by sequence of tenses, and does not imply an impossible wish.]
haiul
III.
VERBS OF NECESSITY.
c.
The
like,
may
Indicative of verbs signifying necessity, propriety, and the be used in the apodosis of implied conditions, either future
:
or contrary to fact
as,
. .
longum
illud
(Ses. 12), it
would
be tedious to
tell,
etc.
[Future.]
iv.
2), it
would be more
it
94),
how much
better
would have
quod centra decuit ab illo meum [corpus cremari] (Cat Maj.), whereas on the other hand mine ought to have been burnt by him. ipsum enim exspectare magnum fuit (Phil.ii. 103), would it have been a
nam
great matter to wait for the man himself? nos decebat domum lugere ubi esset aliquis in lucem editus (Tusc. i. I 1 ^)tfor it were fitting to mourn the house where a man has been born
(but
we do
not).
. . .
nunc
nunc Saliaribus ornare pulvmar deorum tempus erat dapibus sodales (Hor. Od. i. 37. i), i.e. it would be time (if it wore for us to do it, but it is a public act).
est
bibendum
REMARK. Notice that, in this construction, the Imperfect indicative refers to present time ; the Pluperfect to simply past time, like the perfect. Thus oportebat means it ought to be [now], but is not ; oportuerat means it ought to have been,
but
iihis not.
No IK.
to the
In
many
cases
it
is
mind of
9.
Complex Conditions.
may he
a complex idea in
is
or implied qualificaIn such cases the true logical relation of the parts is sometimes
:
made with
disguised
as,
334
si
311, 312,
multa
horum
dixisset ... si
verbum de republica
fecisset
2),
plvira
if any of these had spoken in case he had said a -word about politics, he would be thought to have said muck more than he did say. [Here the apodosis of
dixisse
quam
Am.
dixisset
is
which
is itself
the whole of the following statement (si ... putaretur), conditioned by a protasis of its own: si verbum, etc.].
quod si in hoc mund5 fieri sine deo non potuit ne in sphaera quidem eosdem motus sine divino ingeniS potuisset imitari (Tusc. i. 63), now if that cannot be done in this universe without divine agency, no more could [Archimedes] in his orrery have imitated the same revolutions
without divine genius. [Here si potuit (a protasis with nothing implied) has for its apodosis the whole clause which follows, but potuisset has a contrary-to-fact protasis of its own implied in sine . . . ingeniS.] peream male si non optimum erat (Hor. Sat. ii. I. 6), confound me (may I perish wretchedly) if it wouldn't be better. [Here peream is apodosis to the rest of the sentence, while the true protasis to optimum erat.
contrary to fact,
is
omitted.]
10. Particles of
312. The
si,
quasi, acsi,
if),
Comparison (Conclusion Omitted). tamquam, tamquam particles of Comparison and utsl, velutsT, veluti, poetic ceu (all meaning
si (than if)
as
and quam
Subjunctive, unless the sequence of tenses requires the Imperfect or Pluperfect. Thus,
tamquam clausa sit Asia (Fam. xii. 9), as if Asia were closed. tamquam si claudus sim (Plaut. Asin. ii. 4, 21), just as if I were lame (i.e. just
ita
as it would be if I should be lame), hos [honoris] petunt, quasi honeste vixerint (Jug. 85), they seek them (offices) just as if they had lived honorably. quasi vero non specie visa iudicentur (Acad. ii. 58), as ifforsooth visible
me roges
(N.
S.
iii.
aeque ac
si
mea
own
velut
si
business.
coram adesset (B. G. i. 32), as if he were present in person. ceu cetera nusquam bella forent (^En. ii. 438), as if there were no fighting elsewhere. [But sometimes with indie, in poetry, as yEn. v. 88.] magis quam si domi esses (Att. vii. 4), more than ifyou were at home. REMARK. The English idiom would lead us to expect the Imperfect and
Pluperfect Subjunctive with these particles; but the point of view is different in the two languages. Thus the second example above is translated just as if I were as if it were a present condition contrary to fact; but it really means/#.r/ lame, as [it would be] if I should [at some future time] be lame, and so is a less vivid
future condition requiring the present subjunctive. Similarly quasi honeste vixerint, as if they had lived honorably, is really as [they would do in the future] ifthey should have lived honorably, and so requires the Perfect Subjunctive ( 307. c.\
313.]
Concessive Clauses.
335
NOTE. These subjunctive clauses are really future conditions with apodosis implied in the particle itself. Thus in tamquam si claudus blm the protasis is introduced by si, and the apodosis implied in tamquam.
11. Concessive Clauses.
313. The
quamvis,
etiamsi.
particles of
granting that)
are
quantum
the following quamquam, quamlibet, vis, ut, n5, cum, licet, etsi, tametsi,
Some
tive.
Thus,
Quamvis,
ut, and ne* take the Subjunctive (
266. c)
:
a.
as,
quamvis ipsi Infantes sint, tamen . . . (Or. 76), however incapable of speaking they themselves may be, yet, etc.
ut neminem alium rogasset (Mil. 46), even if he had asked no other. ne sit sane summum dolor: malum certe est (Tuscul. ii. 14), suppose pain
is
still it
surely
as
is
an
as
evil.
NOTE.
above,
let
Quamvla means
is
literally,
much
you
will.
Thus
in the
example
The
subjunctive with
quam-
vis and ne
b.
Ut
of uncertain origin.
junctive (
licet
331.0
in
as,
omnes
all terrors
(Rose.
Am.
31),
though
NOTE. The subjunctive with licet limited to the Present and Perfect tenses.
c.
necessarily
vi. 18),
is
-wanting.
etsi
nunquam dubium fuit (id. v. 19), although it has never been doubtful. statueram (id. v. 5), though I had determined. nihil aliud abstulissetis (Sull. 90), even ifyou had taken aivay nothing
else.
non habebis, scribito tamen (Fam. xvi. 26), even if have nothing to write, still write. sed ea tametsi vos parvi pendebatis (Sail. Cat. 52), but although you regarded those things as of small account.
etiamsi
quod
scribas
you
[shall]
d.
Cum
326)
it
as,
though
had not
entirely
my
mindj.
336
NOTE.
tive: as,
nil
313, 314,
cum (quom)
quom
nothing
e.
est nil dent tamen (Ter. Eun. 243), while is Tvanting. 326, note 3.] [See also
I have
nothing,
still
Quamquam
tive: as,
omnibus
his disasters,
f.
Quamquam
as,
76),
quamquam haec quidem tolerabilia videbantur, etsi, etc. (Mil. yet these, in truth, seemed now bearable, though, etc.
g.
and
poets and later writers frequently use quamvis and quamconnecting them with the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to the nature of the condition. Thus,
The
quamquam moveretur
Pollio
was moved.
iii.
musam
(Eel.
my
NOTE.
as,
had come.
with the Subjunctive:
quamquam
coitionis
habuerit (Plane.
53), though
not even that raisedjany suspicion of a coalition. h. The Relative pronoun qui is often used with the Subjunctive to 320. e). express concession (see i. Concession is often expressed by the Hortatory Subjunctive without a particle ( 266) as,
:
vir egregius profecto inter horum laudes aliquid loci nostrae gloriae (Catil. iv. 21), let Scipio be renowned, let Africanus be honored with especial praise, let Paulus be regarded as a remarkable man, [still]
Paullus
erit
the praises
of these
men.
12. Proviso.
as,
dum metuant
valetudo
(Off. i. 97), let them hate, if only they fear. sit (Brut. 64), provided the health is good.
te
murus intersit
(Cat.i. 10),
provided only
the
314,315.]
Proviso; SI
n5
is
337
modo ne
ill
sit ex
peciulum genere(Of.
105),
not of the herd of cattle. facial sarpe, dum ne lassum fiat (Cato R. R. idrd he tt'i't's >n>t gef tired.
}
4), let
him do
this often,
dnmmodo
\
i.
i),
provided only
it (strict-
tantum ne noceat (Ov. M. ix. 21), only let it do no harm. N< 'IE. The Subjunctive with modo is hortatory ($ 266. d) that with
;
dum and
in temporal the use of the Subjunctive with 328 (compare the colloquial, so long as my health is good I don't care).
',
dum
The Hortatory
sint Maecenases, non deerunt, Flacce, Marones (Mart. be Maecenases, Virgils will not be lacking.
NOTE.
319.
b.
13. Use of Si and its Compounds. 315. The uses of some of the more common Conditional Particles may be stated as follows a. i. Si is used tor affirmative, nisi (nl) and si non for negative
:
conditions. With nisi (generally unless) the apodosis is stated as universally true except in the single case supposed, in which case it is (impliedly) not true. Thus,
nisi
Con on adest maereo, unless Conon is here, I mourn (i.e. I am always in a state of grief except in the single case of Conon's presence, in which case I am not).
si
With
si
non
(if not} the apodosis is only stated as true in the (negabut as to other cases no statement is made. Thus,
is
not here,
I mourn
(i.e. I
mourn
in
the single case of Conon's absence, nothing being said as to other cases in which I may or may not mourn).
NOTE.
is
It often,
made.
2.
NT
is
in
reappearing in poets
and
later writers.
if,
Sometimes nisi
noli putare
si,
except
unless, occurs
as,
me
b.
longiorcs epistulas scrlbere, nisi si quis ad plura scripsit (Fam. xiv. 2), except in case one writes more to me.
me ad quemquam
Nisi v6ro and nisi forte regularly introduce an objection or exception ironically, and take the Indicative: as,
338
315.
nisi ver5 L. Caesar crudelior visus est(Cat.iv. 13), unless indeed L. Ccesar
volumus Epjcureorum opinionem sequi (De Fato, we choose to follow the notion of the Epicureans.
:
37), unless to
NOTE.
Nisi alone
nisi
is
This is the regular way of introducing a reductio ad absurdum in Latin. sometimes used in this sense as,
363), unless
unum hoc faciam ut in puteo cenam coquant (Plaut. Aul. / do this one thing, [make them] cook dinner in the well.
. .
. . . sive or, introduce a condition (seu), whether . form of an alternative. They may be used with any form of condition, or with different forms in the two members. Often also they
c.
Sive (seu)
in the
Thus,
uti,
nam
illo
sive quid
ii.
(De Leg.
i),
for
quid
that
/ am
thinking by myself, or
am
either writing or
reading.
NOTE.
d.
Sive
is
. .
. .
sive are
late or poetic.
Nisi
in the sense of
only: as,
ecce autem de integro:
nisi quidquid est volo scire (Ter. Ad. 153), but
there it is again ; only whatever it is
/ want to know
it.
316.]
Relative Clauses.
339
CHAPTER
V.
I.-
Dependent Constructions.
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
The Relative, being in origin a weak demonstrative (or possibly, in some cases, an interrogative), may be used indifferently with either the indicative or the subA simple relative, introducing a merely descriptive fact, takes the junctive. Indicative, as any demonstrative would do. Thus, tellus quae fuerat rudis. But many relative constructions take the subjunctive to indicate a closer logical connection between the relative clause and the main clause. These constructions have grown up from the future meaning of the subjunctive, each with its own special development. In general they are of two kinds, which are not, however, very distinct in meaning: i. clauses where the implied logical connection is that of Purpose; 2. clauses which express more or less distinctly some Characteristic of the antecedent. Of these last the most common is the ordinary clause of Result. Besides these two classes, however, there are general relatives of Protasis, in which the indefinite relatives whoever, whenever, etc., are
regarded as conditional expressions, equivalent to, if any one, if at any time, Dependent Relative Clauses may be thus classified:
1. 2.
etc. 1
3.
Conditional Relative Clauses ($ 316). Clauses of PURPOSE (Final Clauses) ($ 317). Clauses of CHARACTERISTIC, including
a.
b.
c.
Simple Result (Consecutive Clauses) ( 319). Clauses of Characteristic (including cause and hindrance"} Clauses of Time ( 322 ff.).
1.
320, 321).
316.
Relative
and take any of the constructions of Protasis 1 ( qui enim vitiis modum apponit, is partem suscipit vitiorum
he
who [only]
sets
and he who
faciet.]
[=
si
quis
quisquis hue venerit vapulabit (Plant. Am. 153), whoever comes here shall get a thrashing. [= si quis venerit.]
1
As
in
the Greek
t>s
anil
in
st.itutrs
in
Knglish,
where the
phrases // any person shall and whoever shall are used indifferently.
340
316, 317,
possit
degere (Cat. Maj. 2), philosophy, which IF anyone should obey, he "would be able to spend his whole life without vexation. [= si quis
pareat.]
quaecumque causa
vos hue attulisset, laetarer (De O. ii. 1 5), / should be had brought you here (i.e. if any other, as well as
[
si
. . .
attulisset.]
NOTE.
The
meaning, and
usually inform.
a. The special constructions of General Conditions are sometimes found in Conditional Relative Clauses: viz.,
1 The Second Person Singular of the Subjunctive in the protasis with the Indicative of a general truth in the apodosis ( 309. a) as,
. :
bonus segnior
fit,
less diligent
when you
2.
protasis
in the apodosis (
309. b)
vi.
as,
quocumque
8), wherever
The
309. c}
as,
ad villam veni, hoc ipsum nihil agere me delectat (De O. ii. 24), whenever I come to the villa, this very doing nothing delights me (whenever I have come, etc.). [Present General Condition.] cum rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever he saw (had seen) a rose, then he thought spring was beginning.
cum
of Purpose.
Subjunctive clause of Purpose has arisen either from the originalfuture meaning of the subjunctive, or from its hortatory use. Either affords a satisfactory analysis. If developed from the hortatory subjunctive, the Subjunctive of Purpose has come through a kind of indirect discourse construction (for which see 340). Thus naisit legates qui dlcerent means either he sent ambassadors who would say (future use), or, he sent ambassadors who should say, i.e. let them say
NOTE.
The
266. <?, and hortatory clauses in Indirect (cf. hortatory subjunctive in past tenses, Discourse, 339). As ut (uti) is of relative origin, the construction with ut is the same as that of relatives. That with ne is, no doubt, in origin, a hortatory subjunctive.
317.
Clause,
is
called a
FINAL
317.]
Clauses of Purpose.
341
Final clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut us (ut n6), or by a Relative pronoun or (uti), negative
adverb.
Final clauses
Substantive.
1.
may be
They express
clause.
Pure Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti) or ng. the purpose of the main verb in the form of a modifying
2. Relative Clauses of Purpose are introduced by the Relative pronoun qui, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc. The antecedent is expressed or implied in the main clause. 3. Substantive Clauses of Purpose are introduced by ut (uti), negative
nS.
a substantive.
from Pure final Clauses in having the construction of (For Substantive Clauses of Purpose, see 331.) Examples of Pure and Relative clauses of purpose are
They
differ
ab aratro abduxerunt Cincinnatum, ut dictator esset (Fin. ii. 12), they brought Cincinnatus from the plough that he might be dictator. ne qua eiua adventus procul significatio fiat (B. G. vi. 29), that no sign of his arrival may be made at a distance. ut ne sit impune (Mil. 31), that it be not wifh impunity. scribebat orationes quas alii dicerent (Bru. 206), he wrote speeches for other
men
nihil
to deliver.
habeo quod scribam, I have nothing to write. eo exstinctS fore unde discerem ncminem (Cat. Maj. 12), that when he was dead there would be nobody from whom (whence) / could
learn.
huic ne ubi consisteret quiclem contra te locum reliquisti (Quinct. 73), you have left him no ground even to make a stand against you.
iv.
6),
I had
[a retreat] whither
I mi^ht
NOTE.
(cf. \
The
is
sponding demonstrative.
319. note).
Thus qui
= utjia^jetc.^
equivalent to
ubi^=
a correlative in the
servi
sumus, ut
liberl esse
reason
.
.
we are
we may
eo consilio . ut (regularly), with this design, ea causa . . ne.yfrr this reason, lest, etc.
.
that, etc.
hoc consiliS
ut
purpose, that
montium tegerentur altitudine (Nep. Milt. 5), with thy might be protected by die height of the mountain*.
this
342
b.
317, 318.
final
quo (= ut eo)
quo impunius
is
:
used as a conjunction in
as,
of
he might bluster
dicax esset (Quinc. IT), he took advantage "with more impunity (by which the
introduces a subjunctive clause
more
easily).
NOTE
NOTE
quo
c.
i.
So
after verbs of
2.
final clauses
comparative: as,
sibi
army
u), in order
to
make
is
the
The
Principal clause,
on which a
Thus,
final clause
depends,
often
to
[Strictly, in
... iussimus (Cat. iii. io),and not to be tedious, we ordered, order not to be tedious, I say, we ordered^
sed ut ad Dionysium redeamus (Tusc. v. 63), but to return to Dionysius. sed ut eodem revertar, causa haec fuit timoris (Fam. vi. 7), but, to return
to the
same point,
this
12), it
was
the act
of one
(some-
to
REMARK.
times ne),
By a
.
still less,
. .
used with
nedum
possimus (Clu. 95), much less could we be safe. non statim conquisituri sint aliquid sceleris et flagiti (Leg. Ag. 35), far more will they hunt up at once some sort of crime and scandal.
salvi esse
. . .
nedum
in marl et via sit facile (Fam. xvi. 8), still less is it easy at sea, and on a journey. quippe secundae res sapientium animos fatigant; ne illi corruptis moribus victoriae temperarent (Sail. Cat. n), for prosperity overmasters the soul even of the wise ; much less did they with their corrupt morals put any check on victory.
NOTE.
With
as,
quam tota Peloponnesus, nedum Patrae (Fam. vii. your refinement than all Peloponnesus, to say nothing
of Patra.
REMARK. Clauses of Purpose are sometimes rendered in English by that, or in order that, with may or might ; but more frequently by the Infinitive with TO.
For negatives, see
319. d. R.
in various
318. The Purpose of an action is expressed in Latin ways but never (except rarely in poetry) by
;
273).
The
may be
rendered
318.1
343
[Final clause with ut ( 317).] (1) venerunt ut pfirrm peterent. [l-ina! clause with Relative ( 317).] (2) vcnerunt jui p.u-ein pctcrcnt. (3) [venerunt ad pcteiukim })ficein.] (Not found with transitive verbs ( 300,
note), but cf. ad parendum senatui.) [Gerund with ad ( 300).] (4) venerunt ad petendam pacem. [Gerundive with ad ( 300).]
(5) venerunt
(gratia).
(298-0-]
(6) venerunt pficis petendae causa (gratia).
(298.00
(7) venerunt (8) venerunt
pacem pacem
petlturi.
petitum.
293. U)
not in Cicero.]
302).]
indifferently, but
is
The
usual
unless the purpose is closely connected 'with case a relative is more common. Thus,
Arria glaclium dedit marito ut se interficeret, Arria gave her husband a sivord to kill himself (\h-3A. he might kill himself). Arria glaclium dedit marito qu5 se interficeret, Arria gave her husband a
sword to
b.
which he might,
etc.).
constructions of purpose are usually limited to short expressions, where the literal translation of the phrase, though not the English idiom, is nevertheless not harsh or strange.
c.
The Supine
in a
and
(J.
is used to express purpose only with verbs of motion, few idiomatic expressions ( 302). The Future Participle used to express purpose, is a late construc(
293.
).
3.
Clauses of Result.
of the Subjunctive to express Result comes from its use in Clauses of Characteristic. The clause of CHARACTERISTIC is a development peculiar to Latin, and has its origin in the potential use of the subjunctive ($ 311. a). A Protasis was, perhaps, originally implied, though this is not necessary to the analysis. The difference between the Subjunctive in such clauses and the Indicative of simple description is that the subjunctive expresses what would happen in
NOTE.
The use
a supposed case, while the indicative states what does or did in fact take place. The most common and obvious use of this construction is to express a quality or characteristic of an indefinite antecedent (either expressed or implied). Thus, is us] qul ponat summum bonitm in voluptate would mean, literally, a. man who would (in a." <<'>.'sablf case") make the highest good consist in pleasure. This
t f
'.
,-it.'v
serves to express a characteristic of the indefinite person referred to by i&. him one of a class; while is qul p5nit would mean the man (Epicurus)
making
who
in
fact cfOf s, etc. So, non sum ita hfbt-s Ut /A/ d'n\im would mean, literally, I am not dull in the man ier (dei'.r-'c) /;/ which I should say that. Since in these charac^ the a the form of a supposed result, the con////,:/.' struction readily passes over into l*ure Result, with no idea of characteristic as.
:
344
tantus terror
319.
so
omnes occupavit ut etiam ipse rex ad flumen perfagerit, great panic seized all that the king himselffled to the river.
319.
Au_cl3jiS_^^
secutive Clause.
ut, so
Conseculive Clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by that (negative, ut n5n), or by a Relative (pronoun or
Consecutive Clauses
adverb).
may be
317).
and Substantive
1.
(ct.
Pure Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. -They express the result of the main verb in the form of a modifying clause. 2. Relative .Clauses of Result are introduced by the Relative pronoun qul, or by the Relative adverbs ubi, unde, quo, etc. The
antecedent
3.
is expressed or implied in the main clause. Substantive Clauses of Result are introduced by ut or ut non. differ from Pure consecutive clauses in having the construction of
They
a substantive.
332.)
tanta vis probitatis est ut earn in hoste dfligamus (Lael. 29), so great is the power of goodness that we love it even in an enemy. nam est innocentia affectio talis animi, quae noceat nemini (Tus. iii. 16),
for innocence
sunt aliae causae
is
harm
to
no
one.
quae plane
such as
to
bring to pass.
celeritate
contendere (Tuscul.
etc.
43),
there is no swiftness
Relative in this construction is equivalent to ut with the corre= = sponding demonstrative. Thus, qui ut is (etc.). ubi ut ibi^and so on (cf. 317. note). REMARK. Clauses of Result are often introduced by such correlative words
NOTE.
The
as^tam,
clause.
tails,
tantus,
ita,
to the
main
a.
negative result
similar
is
nemo and
Thus,
multis gravibusque vulneribus confectus ut iam se sustinere non posset (B. G. ii. 25), used up with many severe wounds so that he could no
nemo
longer stand. est tarn senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere (Cato Major 24), nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year.
NOTE.
nj^or
When
is
than
ut non
as,
319.]
[librum]
ita corrigas
Clauses of Result.
ne mihi noceat (Fam.
vi.
345
Itmaynotliurtme.
b.
is lUPfl in 1 nefriftint* cancn, Frequently a Clause Of Result Proviso (cf. 314) as, toji
:
amounts
hoc
Am.
55),
far tiseful that we are not utterly mocked by tfie accusers (i.e. useful only on this condition, that, etc.). nihil autem molestum quod non desideres (Cato Major 47), but nothing is troublesome which (= provided that) you do not miss.
ut eo minus) c. The subjunctive with the Relative quominus ( may be used, to express a result, after words of hindering or refusing
(cf.
317. b, note i)
as,
nee aetas impedit quSminus agri colendi studia teneamus (Cat. Maj. 60), nor does age prevent us from retaining an interest in tilling the
ground.
d. _A_rfoysft of rgsnVMsJntrorlnrpf]
quin
like.
is
Thus,
by quin after general negatives, equivalent to qul (quae, quod) non; so also after s of hindrance, resistance, doubt, hesitation* and the
[= quod non] ego ill! dixerira (Plaut Bac. iii. 9), I have not told him. non dubit5 quin, I do not doubt that (cf. the Eng., I do not doubt but that). I hardly refrainedfrom, etc. aegre (vix) abstinui quin
quin
there is nothing of this that
. .
.,
abesse non
there is nothing toprevent, etc. potest quin (Or. 233), it cannot be but that.
. .
.,
REMARK.
in the negative^
It is
to
be observed
nff,
in Latin are precisely alike in the affirmative (but see sequence, \ 287. c),
Purpose takes
Result
ut n5n,
etc.
Thus,
cust5ditus est
ne
custoditus est ut
non
effugeret,
So in Purpose clauses ne quis^ ne quid, ne ullus, ne qu5 necuDl. etc.. are almost always used in Kpsnlt rlnii^s nt. nemo,
[
11^ riibil
ut
Tims,
ut nullum
officl
Major
qui
35),
many
old
duties to society.
summum bonum
(Offic.
i.
sic instituit
5),
who has
virtue.
good that
i.
common with
cernere ne quis eos neu quis contingere posset (^En. might see them, no one touch them.
346
ne quandS
lest at
[319,320.
liberis proscriptorum bona patria reddantur (Rose. Amer. 145), some time the patrimony of the proscribed should be restored to
their children.
ipse
ne quo inciderem
revert!
Formias (Att.
viii.
3, 7), that
I might
not
come upon him anywhere. dispositis exploratoribus necubi Roman! copias transducerent (B. G. vii. 35), having stationed scouts here and there lest the Romans should lead their
troops across anywhere.
tu
tamen eas
lest
epistolas concerpito
out.
The
Infinitive with
TO
too
far azvajQ^jsee
320. c).
NOTE.
in
Result
(
is
a few passages
273.
Clauses of Characteristic.
relative clause with the Subjunctive is often 32O. used to indicate a characteristic nf the antecedent, where
there
is
no idea of Resultjsee
is
319. head-note)
the antecedent
is
This construction
otherwise undefined.
especially
common where
v. 12),
Thus,
qui nescias (Fam. for you are not such a one,
2),
neque enim
tu is es,
as not to know.
multa dicunt quae vix intellegant (Finib. iv. which (such as) they hardly understand.
paci
they say
many
things
quae nihil habitura sit Insidiarum semper est consulendum (Off. i. 35), we must always aim at a peace which shall have no plots. unde agger comportari posset, nihil erat reliquum (B. C. ii. 15), there was nothing left, from which an embankment could be got together.
a.
relative
clause_pf
sions oT^xistence or
negative.
^^Wc/^/v^
inrlnHing
gufigtinns
implying a
So
who
is
est qui, especially with sunt qui, there are [some] who*, quis there who? Thus,
sunt qui discessum animi a corpore putent esse mortem (Tus. i. 18), there are some who think that the departure of soul from body constitutes death. erant qui Helvidium miser arentur (Ann. xvi. 29), ''there were some who
[Cf. est cum ( 322. Rem.).] pitied Helvidi us. quis est qui id non maximis efferat J^udibus (Lael. does not extol it with the highest praise ?
24),
who
is there that
320.]
Hut
Clauses of Characteristic.
consul cui
to
. .
.
347
cf. ille
fuit (C'at.
iv. i. 2).
N'MK.
Tli<-s<-
A ~
may
follow
as,
nil
tum
(I lor.
Kp.
i.
6. i), to
wonder at nothing
thing that can make and ketp one happy. solus es cuius in victoria ceciderit nemo nisi armatus (Deiotar. 34), yon are the only man at whose victory no one has fallen unless armed.
c.
(rarely with
quam
maiores arbores
quam ut, quam qui may be used after comparatives as, caedebant quam quas ferre miles posset (Liv. xxviii. 5),
alone),
:
what a
Canachi slgna rigidiora sunt quam ut imitentur veritatem (Brut. 70), the statues of Canachus are too stiff to represent nature (stiffer than
that they should).
NOTE.
d.
to,
invenerim (Brut.
of Cato,
any
junctive (
313.
//,
321. b)
as,
virum simplicem qui nos nihil celet (Or. 230), oh ! guileless man, who kida nothingfrom us! [Causal.] peccasse mihi videor qui a te discesserim (Fam. xvi. i), I seem to myself to have done wrong because I have left you. [Causal.] egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem tamen complures Athems dies sum commoratus (De O. i. 82), I myself though I began Greek literature
late, yet, etc.
(lit.
[a
man] who,
is
:
etc.).
[Concessive.]
NOTE
equivalent to
cum
is, etc.
It is
often
as,
nee consul, ut qui id ipsum quaesisset, moram certamini fecit (Liv. xlii. 7), nor did the consul delay (he /i,^if, since he had sought that very //;<
(as [being one] who had sought, etc.). ea nos, utpote qui nihil contemnnre soleamus, non pertimescebanms (Alt. ii. 24, 4), as bting men who are accustomed to despise not/a
348
convlvia
320, 321.
cum patre non inibat, quippe qui ne in oppidum quidem nisi perraro veniret (Rose. Am. 52), since he did not even come, etc.
NOTE 2. The Relative of Cause or Concession is merely a variety of the Characteristic construction. The quality expressed by the subjunctive is connected with the action of the main verb either as cause on account of which (SINCE) or as
hindrance in
f.
spite
of which (ALTHOUGH).
aj
:
Dignus, indignua,
as,
quibus elaborarent (Tuscul. i. i), (things) worth spending their toil on (worthy on which they should, etc.). digna res est ubi tu nervos intendas tuos (Ter. Eun. 312), the affair is worthy of your stretching your sinews (worthy wherein you should,
etc.).
it
to
do a wrong (you
were unworthy who should, etc.). idoneus qui impetret (Manil. 57), fit to obtain. indlgni ut redimeremur (Liv. xxii. 59), unworthy
to be
ransomed.
:
NOTE.
With
as,
nomen
24), worthy to be stigmatized. idoneus (Hor. Ep. i. 16, 12), a source Jit to give
3,
name
to
a stream.
a time of life
soft
and easy
to be
guided.
5.
Causal Clauses.
Causal clauses take either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, according to their construction the idea of Cause being contained, not in the mood itself, but in the form of the argument, or in the connecting particles.
;
NOTE.
the Indicative, when the reason is given on the authority of the writer or speaker; the Subjunctive, when the reason is given on the authority of another: as,
1.
Indicative:
tibi
cum
agam
gratias
quod me
iii.
3),
when I may
thank you that you have forced me to live. quia postrema aedificata est (Ver. iv. 1 19), because it was built last. quoniam de utilitate diximus, de efficiendi ratione (Or. Part. 95), since we have spoken of its advantage, let us speak of the method of effecting it.
2.
Subjunctive:
mihi gratulabare quod audisses me meam pristinam dignitatem obtinere (Fam. iv. 14, i), you congratulated me because [as you said] you had
fuard,
etc.
321, 322.]
Causal Clauses
Relations of Time.
349
Themistoclcs used
sleep.
to
quod somnum capcrc non j)ossct (Tusc. iv. walk about at night because [as he said] he
Cistell. 101),
could not
mea mater
is
Iruta est
/',v,.'/nv
nn^ry
my
mother
UDII quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. i. 24), not that this is necessary. NOTE i. The Subjunctive in this use depends on the principle of Intermediate
NOTE
2.
Under
this
circumstances
may have the Subjunctive ($ 341. d. Rem.) as, ego laeta visa sum quia soror venisset (Plaut. Mil. 387), / seemed dream) glad because my sister had come.
(in
my
So
with
quod
quod
in the Subjunctive
(Off.
i.
as,
rediit
40), he
returned because
he said he
NOTE 3.
quando
rare.
The
causal particle
quando
may
you
so wish,
REMARK.
quia,
non quoniam,
introducing a reason
quo and non quin introduce expressly to deny it, take the Subjunctive. a Result clause, but with nearly the same meaning ($ 341. d. Rem.). Thus,
pugiles ingemiscunt, non quod doleant, sed quia omne corpus intenditur (Tusc. ii. 56), boxers groan not because they are in pain, but because etc.
,
Non
n5n quia
(id.
i.
philosophy
cannot be acquired.
non quoniam hoc sit necesse (Ver. ii. 1.24), not that this is necessary. non quin enitendum sit (De O. ii. 295), not that pains must not be taken.
a. Causal Clauses introduced
by quod, etc., take the Subjunctive in any other dependent clause (see 336). Relative, when used to express cause, regularly takes the Sub-
320. e). junctive (see causal takes the Subjunctive (see c. 326). NOTE. In early Latin cum causal takes the Indicative
Cum
6.
Relations of Time.
particles which are almost all of are construed like other relative clauses, except where they have developed into special idiomatic constructions. (For list of Temporal Particles, see p. 124.)
NOTE.
relative origin.
They
particles ubi, ut, cum, quando, either alone or with -cumque, may be used as Indefinite Relacompounded constructions of protasis (cf. and have the tives, 316). Thus,
322. The
350
cum
id
322-24.
negas (Tusc. ii. 29), when you (the individual dis be an evil. 306).] [Present, nothing implied (cf. quod profecto cum me nulla vis cogeret, facere non auderem (Phil. v. 51), which I would surely not venture to do, as long as no force compelled
putant) deny
it to
me.
cf.
308.]
cum
id
dolore non frangi (Tus. D. ii. 66), when you see that those are not broken by pain, etc. [General condition : cf 309. a.~\
videas e5s
(Liv. i. 32), said this, he ttsed to cast the spear into their territories. action see 309. b.~\
in fines
eorum emittebat
when he had
[Repeated
cum
he
rosam viderat, turn incipere ver arbitrabatur (Verr. v. 27), whenever had seen a rose he thought spring had begun. [Past general con:
dition
cf.
309.
c.~]
REMARK.
sions like
The phrases est cum, fuit cum, est qui, sunt qui ( 320. a) as,
:
etc.,
ac
fuit
quidem cum mihi quoque initium requiescendi fore iustum arbitrager (De Or. i. i), and there was a time when I thought a beginning of rest would be justifiable on my part.
a
:
1. They themselves define (with reference to the time of the speaker) the time of the clause on which they depend. 2. They describe by its circumstances the time of the main clause,
which
is
itself.
Thus, in When did the Emperor Frederick die ? He died while the people were still mourning the death of his father, the time of the main clause, he died, is definitely fixed by the temporal clause, while the people] etc., as is seen by the fact that the temporal clause answers the question, WHEN did he die ? But in The Emperor Frederick died while the people were still mourning the death of his father, the time
:
is not defined by the temporal clause, but is regarded as sufficiently definite in itself (or from the context). The temporal clause is added to describe that time by the circumstances of the people's grief.
These two sorts of temporal clauses the Romans distinguished by means of the mood, invariab>y using the Indicative in the first and the Subjunctive in the second. They commonly also used the particles and
the tenses in accordance with this division.
I.
POSTQUAM,
UBI, ETC.
particles postquam (posteaquam), ubi, ut (ut priut mum, semel), simul atque (simul ac, or simul alone) take the Indicative (usually in the perfect or the historical present}', as,
1 The terms Absolute and Relative Time naturally applied to these two uses have been abandoned in this book because they have given rise to misapprehension and have often been used by learners as pigeon-hole expressions to conceal a want
324. The
324.]
militcs
(
POSTQUAM,
//,
etc.
35
'at.
postqunm victoriam adept! aunt, 1), when the armies had won the
1
vanquished.
posteaquam forum
forum.
attigisti
(Fam.
xv.
16),
since
you came
to
the
ubi onincs idem sentlre intellexit (B. G. iii. 23), when he understood that all agreed (thought the same thing). Catilina ubi eos convenisse videt sececlit (Sail. Cat. 20), -when Catiline sees they Jiave come together, he retires. quod (sc. agmen) ubi pergerc vident (Q. C. v. 3, 18), and -when they see
that
it is
advancing.
acie excessit (B. C.
iii.
94),
army.
particles are appropriated to time defined, and take the historiset forth in they take 323. the descriptive tenses (see a, below), they do not describe the time by its circumstances, but still define it, referring it to a then-existing state of things {Imperfect) or cal tenses in
When
a.
These
particles less
indicative.
commonly take the Imperfect or Pluperfect The Imperfect in this case denotes a state of things the
;
Pluperfect,
an action completed
instruct!
in past time.
Thus,
postquam
i.
utrimque stabant, duces in medium procedunt (Liv. array on both sides, the generals advance into
posteaquam bis consul et censor fuerat (Div. in Csec. 69), when Africanus had been (i.e. had the dignity of having been) twice
consid
and censor.
postquam id difficilius visum est, neque facultas perfkiend! dabatur, ad rompeium transierunt (B. C. iii. 60), when this seemed too hard, and no means of effecting it were given, they passed over to
Pompey. post diem quintum
quam
barbari
(=
victi
sunt), legal! a Boccho veniunt (Jug. no), the fifth day after the barbarians were beaten the second time, envoys come from Bocchus.
haec iuventutem, ubi familiares opes defecerant, ad facinora incendebant (Sail. Cat. 13), when their inherited resources had given out. ubi pencula virtute propulerant (id. 6), when they had dispelled the dangers
by their valor.
b.
as,
posteaquam maximas aedificasset ornassetque classes (Manil. 9), having built and equipped mighty fleets (after lie had, etc.). [But the more
approved editions have postea cum.]
352
325.
CUM TEMPORAL
325. Cum (quom), TEMPORAL, meaning when, takes the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses
in the Indicative.
Thus,
30),
cum
servili bello
the load
of the
when
she
(Italy)
was under
id nuntiatum esset, maturat (B. G. i. 7), when this had been reported, he made (makes) haste. cum occiditur Sex. Roscius, ibidem fuerunt send (Rose. A. 120), -when Roscius was slain, the slaves were on the spot. nempe eo [lituo] regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit (Div. i. 30), he traced with it the quarters [of the sky] at the time he founded the
city.
cum
NOTE.
The
quam, etc. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are, from their nature, than to define the time.
a.
fitter
to describe
Cum,
cum
great hazard.
quern quidem
cum
iii.i6),
when I was trying to force him (conative imperfect) from the city, I looked forward to this. fulgentes gladios hostium viclebant Decii cum in aciem eorum inruebant (Tusc. ii. 59), the Decii saiv the flashing swords of the enemy when
turn
they rushed upon their line. cum in Asia res magnas permulti
amiserant (Man.
19),
at that time,
In required for
when many had lost great fortunes in Asia. The distinction explained in 9 323 is unknown NOTE.
to early Latin.
is
Plautus always has the Indicative unless the Subjunctive some other reason.
b.
quom
When
the clauses are inverted, so that the logical temporal clause clause, and the main clause becomes the temporal
as,
nondum decem
killed,
cum
ille
iamque
[Instead apparebat cum procedit ad milites (Q. C. vii. 8, was already dawning when he appears before the soldiers.
liix
had not yet passed, when the other infant of, when ten days had not yet passed, etc.]
3),
and day
325,326.]
hoc faccre
noctii
CUM Causal
apparabant,
(!'..<
'..
ncrssive.
procurrerunt
when
c.
the
women
matres familiae repente in publicum were preparing to do this by night, suddenly ran out into the streets.
vii.
cum
26), they
To
cum
Indicative: as,
nun dubitabo dare operam ut tc videam, cum id satis commode facere potero (Fam. xiii. i), I shall not hesitate to take tains to see you, when I can do it conveniently. longum illud tempus cum non ero (Att. xii. 18), that long time when 1 shall be no more. cum veneris, cognosces (Fam. v. 7), when you come (shall have come},
out.
III.
CUM CAUSAL OR
CONCESSIVE.
:
cum
solitudo
. .
sit
(Fin.
i.
of treachery and fear. [Causal.] cum initio non amplius duSbus milibus habuisset (Sail. Cat. 56), though at the start he had had not more than two thousand. [Concessive.]
is full
cum
primi ordines
vii.
(B. G.
had fallen,
still the
others resisted
vigorously.
[Concessive.]
in these uses is often
NOTE
i.
Cum
as,
praesertim:
nee reprehendo:
(Att. x. 3),
ipse istam reprehensionem non fugerim since I myself did not escape that blame.
NOTE 2. These causal and concessive relations are merely variations of the idea of time. The attendant circumstances are regarded as the cause of the action, or as tending to hinder it (cf. qui causal and concessive, $ 320. e). NOTE 3. In early Latin (quom) causal and concessive usually takes the Indicative: as,
.
cum
quom
property
note.]
tua res distrahitur, utinam videam (Plaut. Trin. 573), since your is torn in pieces, oh ! that I may see, etc. 313. </, [See also
REMARK.
a.
Cum causal
;
may
usually be translated
by
since ;
cum
concessive
by although or while
either, occasionally,
by
?<//<;/.
Cum
in the sense of
:
the Indicative
gratulor
tibi
as,
cum
ix.
14),
I congratu-
REMARK. This tis~ of thr: indicative appears to be a colloquial relic of the old Indicative construction with ^see note 3, above).
cum
354
b.
326-2a
Cum
but
. . .
tive
turn, signifying both . . . and, usually takes the Indicathe sense of while or though, it may
Thus,
illud in
many things I do not approve, cum res tota ficta sit pueriliter,
while the whole thing
primis (Fin. i. 18), while there are there is this in chief. But,
turn
ne
efficit
quidem quod
vult (ib.),
is childishly
make
his
antequam tuas legi litteras (Att. ii. 7), before I read your letter. neque ante dimisit eum quam fidem dedit adulescens (Liv. xxxix. 10), she did not let the young man go fill he pledged his faith.
antequam homines
nefarii
donian! perrexi (Plane. 98), before those evil coming, I arrived in Macedonia.
The idea of purpose regularly requires the subjunctive: as, nunprius discessit quam ad flnem sermo esset perductus, i.e. he -waited for the conversation to be finished.
NOTE.
quam
a.
priusquam de
3), before
ceteris rebus
ii.
I reply to the rest, I will say a little offriendship. non defatigabor antequam illorum ancipites vias perceperS (De 145), I shall not weary till I have traced out their doubtful ways.
antequam veniat
a
b.
letter.
iii.
litteras mittet
(Ag.
ii.
53), before
is
found with
antequam
and priusquam
in
309. a)
as,
est praeparatiS in all undertakings before you proceed to
73),
must
be used.
V. DUM, DONEC, AND QUOAD. 328. Dum, donee, and quoad, implying purpose, doubt,
Subjunctive
as,
exspectas fortasse
dum
him
to
say
(till
dicat(Tus. he say).
ii.
17),
328. 329.]
iratis
Substtnifii'f Clauses.
in
355
s
subtrahend! sunt
el
qiifls
colligant (Tusc.
lelves).
iv.
come
to
suslinuit dura genitor protectus abiret (./En. x. 800), he kept sF.neas in check till his father could get away in safely. et diixit loti^c donee curvata coirent inter se capita (id. xi. 860), ami drew it (the bow) until tJie curved tips toucJicd.
Aenean inorando
Epaminimdas exereebatur plurimnm luctando ad euin finem quoad stans complecti posset atque contendere (Nep. Epam. 2), Ep&tninondat trained himself in wrestling so far as to be able to grapple standing
andfight
2.
hoc
dum
it
licuit, intermisl
quoad non
licuit (Phil.
iii.
33),
I did this
so
long as
was
allowed,
I discontinued it so
long as
it
was
not.
dum pelago desaevit hiemps (/En. iv. 51), weave excuses for delay until t)ie storm upon the sea hath spent its rage. dSnec rediit silentium fuit (Liv. xxiii. 31), there was silence till he. returned.
causas innecte morandl
quoad potuit
restitit (Cat.
Major
1),
NOTE
i.
Quamdiu
as,
quamdiu in provincia Parthi 19), he kept himself within the town so long as the the province,
2.
NOTE
a.
For
314.
of 'while usually takes the Present Indicative to indicate a continued action in. past time, if that time is not contrasted with any other
(
and note)
i.
as,
dum
junctive
NOTE. Dum, d5nec, and quoad in later writers sometimes take when the classical usage would require the Indicative: as,
nee
obstitit falsis donee tempore ac spatio vanescerei^t (Tac. Ann. ii. 82), nor did he contradict the falsehoods until they died out from lapse of
time.
nihil sane trepidabant elephant!
donee continent!
velut ponte
agerentur
long as
went
the elephants showed no alarm whatever so over the continuous bridge, as it were.
RKMAKK.
ing on
P. 378.)
With all temporal particles the Subjunctive is often found dependsome other principle of construction. (See Intermediate Clauses below,
II.
-SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.
is
329.
Clause.
called a Substantive
356
329, 330.
may be used
as the Subject or
Nom-
NOTE. Many ideas which in English take the form of an abstract noun may be rendered by a substantive clause in Latin. Thus, he demanded an investigation, may be postulabat ut quaestio haberetur. The common English expression
it
FOR
remains for
with the infinitive also corresponds to a Latin substantive clause as, me to speak of the piratic war, reliquum est lit de bello dicam
:
piratico.
REMARK.
it is
When
a Substantive Clause
is
INFINITIVE CLAUSES
*
:
j
(.
b.
..OfPur P ose(command,wish,fea r)
b'
f
Result
haPP en
effect '
hinder )
<$ 332).
3.
4.
INDIRECT QUESTIONS:
1.
Subjunctive, introduced
by
Interrogative
Word.
Infinitive Clauses.
33O. A. The Infinitive with Subject-Accusative may be used as the subject of sum and of many impersonal verbs
(see
B.
1
270).
The
Of
all
object
i.
telling,
and
272).
ii.
me
67),
I trust I have
been freed
is
from fear.
dlcit
montem
i.
i The accusative with the infinitive is found with about 80 verbs and verbal phrases, the most common being (i) accipio, affirmo, animadverts, arbitror, audio, censeo. cogitS, dico, dispute, doceo, exlstimo, fama est,
:
fateor, intellego, memini, narro, nego, puto, recorder, rumor est, sentiS, spero, suspicor, traditur, verum est, vide5, videtur (2) iubeo, veto, patior, cogo, sin5 (3) cupio, void, n515, malo (4) decet, iuvat, aequum est, oportet, opus est, placet, fas est, nefas est, interest.
;
330.]
Infinitive Clauses.
357
2. Of iube6 and veto, and rarely of other verbs of commanding, requesting admonishing, and the like ( 331. a). Thus,
publicum redigi (Liv. ii. 4), they forbade the return of the goods (that they ho returned), etc. Labienum iugum montis adscendere iubet (B. G. i. 21), he orders Labienus
to
hill.
3.
331. b}
1 1
as,
to
iudicem
me
7), / wish
be a judge, not
a.
teacher.
REMARK.
is
The
though not
strictly
a Clause,
may be
treated as such.
a. If the
1.
The
:
becomes
tion}
main verb is changed to the Passive, either subject of the infinitive (like other objects of active verbs) nominative, and the infinitive is retained {Personal Construcmountain
is
as,
dicitur ab hqstibus teneri, the
mons
said
is
to be
held by the
to
ordered
ascend
of the
is
hill.
The
passive
its
montem ab
enemy.
hostibus teneri,
it is
is
held by
the
nuntiatur piralarum naves esse in portu (Verr. v. 87), ships of the pirates are in port.
b. i. Verbs of saying, thinking, etc., may take in the Passive either But the Personal conthe Personal or the Impersonal construction. struction is more common and is regularly used in the tenses of in-
complete action.
Thus,
I seem
to
Epaminondas
fidibus praeclare cecinisse dicitur (Tuscul. das is said to have played excellently on the lyre.
4),
Epaminon-
many
[Active dicunt multos facturos (esse).] primi traduntur arte quadam verba vinxisse (Or. 40), they first are related to have joined "words with a certain skill.
marmore (Archias
22), he
it
is
thought
to
have
Bibulus audiebatur esse in Syria (Att. v. 18), lus was in Syria (Bibulus was heard, etc.).
was heard
ii.
that Bibu-
358
330.
videmur enim quieturi fuisse nisi essemus lacessiti (De O. ii. 230), it seems that we should have kept quiet if^ve had not been molested (we seem, nisi essemus lacessiti.] etc.). [Direct: quievissemus
. . .
2.
passive: as,
iussus es renuntiari
(Phil.
ii.
79),
you were
tinder orders to be
declared consul.
Nolani muros portasque adire vetiti sunt (Liv. xxiii. 16), the were forbidden to go to visit the walls and gates.
c.
men of Nola
imperis
In the
compound
is
sonal construction
lar: as,
regu-
traditum
too,
est
that
a tradition,
ubi tyrannus
ibi
non
iii.
rempublicam (Rep.
vitiosam, sed dicendum est plane nullam esse 43), where there is a tyrant, it must be said,
is evil,
but that
it
The
to verbs
poets and later writers extend the personal use of the passive which are not properly verba sentiendi, etc. as,
:
colligor dominae placuisse (Ov. Am. ii. 6, 61), memorial] that I pleased my mistress.
e.
it is
gathered [from
this
The
strictly
336,
f. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, and the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse,
as,
:
minatur sese abire (Plaut. Asin. 604), he threatens to go away. [Direct abeo, / am going away.~\ ex quibus sperant se maximum fructum esse captures (Lsel. 79), from which they hope to gain the utmost advantage. [Direct: capiemus.]
quern inimicissimum futurum esse promitto ac sponde5 (Mur. 90), who I promise and warrant will be the bitterest of enemies. [Direct:
erit.]
v. 76),
pain threatens
Infinitive
[Direct: debilitabo.]
(^ 271).
NOTE. These verbs, however, often take a simple Complementary So regularly in early Latin (except spero). Thus,
to give hostages. pollicentur obsides dare (B. G. iv. 21), they promise [Compare the Greek aorist infinitive after similar verbs],
I promised
to
give a jar
331.]
359
NOTE.
same verbs
in
sive ($ 331. /i). a.s \vcll as of certain impersonal verbs and verbal phrases (\ 311. (3) in apposition with another substantive, or as predicate nominative, etc.
/')
Such are, verbs meaning to admonish, ask, bargain, command, decree, determine, permit, persuade, resolve, urge, and wish. Thus, monet ut omnes suspiciones vitet (id. 20), he warns him to avoid all
suspicion.
te
xiii.
66),
beg
to
his ut conquirerent imperavit (B. G. i. 28), he ordered them to search. persuadet Castico ut regnum occuparet (B. G. i. 3), he persuades Casticus
to
a.
Accusative
330. B. 2)
as,
liberos ad se adduci
to
iussit
(B. G.
ii.
him.
20),
he
had forbidden
the
NOTE
tive
:
i.
Some
etc.,
as,
haec facere imperatum est, orders were given to do this. res monet cavere (Sail. Cat. 52), the occasion warns us
b.
to be
on our guard.
Verbs of wishing take either the Subjunctive or the Infinitive. The Infinitive is more common when the subject remains the same; the Subjunctive, when it changes. Thus, 1. Subject of dependent verb same as that of main verb
:
quos non
2.
ii.
17),
whom I
do not
care so
much
to
punish as
Subject of dependent verb different from that of main verb cupio ut impetret (Plaut. Capt. 102), I wish he may get it.
(Tus.
i.
12),
/ would
See
p. 362, foot-note
i.
Such Verbs or verbal phrases are id ago, ad id venio, cave6 (ne). censeS, c5go, coucedS, c6nstitu5, ciiro, decerno, ed!c5, flag-its, hortor. imperS, InstS, mand5, metuo (ne), moneo. negrotium d5, operam do, oro, persuaded. pet5. postu!5. praecipio, precor, pronuntiS, quaero, rogo, seised, timed, vereor (ne), vide5. vo!6.
2
360
331.
NOTE. Volo and cupio, however, tend to take the Accusative and Infinitive rather than the Subjunctive, even when the subject changes. When it remains the same, the subject-accusative is rarely found. Thus,
(Sestius 92),
we
down.
cupimus (Brutus
331),
we wish you
to
ofyour virtue. iudicem me esse, non doctorem volo (Orat. 117), / wish to be a judge, not a teacher. cupio me esse clementem (Cat. i. 4), / desire to be merciful. [But regularly, cupio esse clemens (see 271. a).]
c. Verbs of permitting take either the Subjunctive or the Fatior takes regularly the Infinitive with Subject Accusative
Infinitive.
;
so often
sin5.
Thus,
ut partes faceret (De O. ii. 366), permitted him to make divisions. concedant ut boni viri-fuerint (Laelius 18), let them allow them to have been good men. nullo se implicari negotio passus est (Lig. 3), he suffered himself to be entangled in no business. vinum importarl non sinunt (B. G. iv. 2), they do not allow wine to be
permisit
imported.
d.
as,
Cat. 43), they
had determined
ii. 8), he determined to refuse battle. de bonis regis quae reddi censuerant (Liv. ii. 5), about the king's goods, which they had decreed should be restored. decernit ut consules delectum habeant (Sail. Cat. 34), decrees that the consuls shall hold a levy. edicto ne quis iniussu pugnaret (Liv. v. 19), having commanded that none shouldJight without orders. pacto ut victorem res sequeretur (id. xxviii. 21), having bargained that the property should belong to the victor.
NOTE
NOTE
I.
construction.
2.
Different verbs of these classes with the same meaning vary in their For verbs of bargaining with the Gerundive, see 294. d. Verbs of decreeing and voting often take the Infinitive of the Second
:
Periphrastic conjugation
as,
Regulus captives reddendos [esse] non censuit (Off. i. 39), Regulus voted that the captives should not be returned. [He said, in giving his for-
mal opinion
'(k
i.
captivi
non reddendi
sunt.]
conor,
commonly
effort take the Subjunctive with ut. takes the complementary Infinitive. Thus,
10), let
But
cura ut
me know
as soon as
331.]
361
have (give
their
impellere ut acs.ir iiorninaretur (id. 49), /0 induce them to (that Ca-sar should he named),
si
name
Ciesar
i.
NOTE
,
CSnor
cf.
rniror
Rem.).
NOTE
317)
:
2.
Ut ne
(cf.
as,
ei
dealt
( Att.
ii.
and see
that he lacks
Verbs denoting an effort to hinder take either (i) a Subjunctive with quflprin"* ? r B 6 - or ( 2 ) the Infinitive as,
;
non
deterret sapientem mors quominus prevent the wise man from, etc.
(Tusc.
i.
ne facerem impedivit (De Fat. i), prevented me from doing. ne transire copiae possent (Verr. v. 5), you opposed the passage of the troops (opposed lest the troops should cross), prohibet accedere (Csec. 46), prevents him from approaching (to approach).
obstitisti
NOTE.
to
hinder) see
,
332. g.
(VA Verbs of fearing take the Subjunctive, 1 with ne njThon or ut negative^ Thus,
affirmative
and
timeo ne Verres fecerit (Verr. v. 3), Ifear that Verres has done, etc. ne animum ofienderet verebatur (B. G. i. 19), he feared that he should
hurt the feelings, etc. metuo ne languescat senectute (Cat. Major 28), I fear the orator grows feeble from old age. vereor ut tibi possim concedere (De O. i. 35), / fear \_thaf\ I cannot grant you. toaud sane periculum est ne non mortem optandam putet (Tus. v. 118), there is no danger that he will not think death desirable.
orator
NOTE.
In this use
ne
is
commonly
to
So
fac, and
like.
particle ut is often omitted with some verbs of the above generally after verbs of ivishing, necessity, permission; after die, frequently in Indirect Discourse after verbs <5f commanding and the
Thus,
ii.
10),
I wish you
ii.
to love, etc.
to love
me ipsum ames
oportet (Fin.
S$),you ought
me.
1 With verbs of Fearing the subjunctive with ne is hortatory in origin timed ne accidat is literally 1 fear, let it not happen. The subjunctive with ut may have been either hortatory or deliberative, I fear, let it happen, or I fear; how may
:
it
happen f ** 1 hope
it
it
will not.
362
331.
fac diligas (Att. iii.), do love. die exeat, tell him to go out.
Mnesthea vocat, classem aptent socii (^En. iv. 289), he calls Mnestheus [and orders that] his comrades should make ready the fleet (cf.
339).
NOTE.
*\
Similarly
ne
is
omitted after
cave
tive instead
(D\ With any verbs of the above classes the poets of an object clause as,
:
may
hortamur far! (^En. ii. 74), we urge [him] to speak. ne quaere doceri (id. vi. 614), seek not to be told.
temptat praevertere
h.
(id.
i.
to
turn, etc.
Substantive clause of Purpose used as the object of a verb beis put in the Passive. Thus,
facerent, it was ordered that they should march. ut Irent, permission was given that they should go. mihi persuadetur ut exeam, / am persuaded to go out (it is persuaded to
est
/. The impersonals licet and oportet take as subject either a Substantive clause of Purpose, or an Infinitive with or without subject-
accusative.
licet
Thus,
ire, it is
me
allowed
i.
queramur
must
exist.
NOTE
(see
i.
The
Subjunctive with
in later writers
33i-/ Rem.).
2.
NOTE
NOTE
cession (see
Licet may take (i) the Subjunctive; (2) the Simple Infinitive; 3. or (4) the Dative and the Infinitive. (3) the Infinitive with Subject Accusative; Ire, or licet mihi Ire. Thus, / may go is licet earn, licet ire, licet
me
3.
Clauses of Result.
may be used substantively.i (j) a s the object of the passive, as well (2)*as the subject of these same verbs in 332) as of other verbs and verbal phrases ($ 332. a, d) (3) in apposition with another
NOTE.
Clauses of. Result
;
facio,
etc.
332. /).
In
all
is
not
strictly subject
or object.
conveyed a meaning complete in itself, and the result clause was merely the main verb appended. This is seen by the frequent use of ita and the like with In like manner purpose clauses are only apparently subject (ita accidit ut, etc.) or object of the verb with which they are connected.
originally
.
332.]
363
accomplishment of an effort^
Such are especially facio and
Thus,
ut intellegatis (Cluent. 7), I will make you understand (lit. effect [So, faciam ut intellegatis (id. 9).] commeatus ut portari possent efficiebat (B. G. ii. 5), made it possible that
efficiam
compounds
supplies could be brought. quae libertas ut laetior esset regis superbia fecerat (Liv. ii. i), the arrogance of the last king had made this liberty more welcome. evincunt instando ut litterae darentur (id. 4), by insisting they gain their that letters should be sent. [Here evincunt = efficiunt.] point,
fol-
lowing
1.
passive verbs denoting the accomplishment of an effort: as, impetratum est ut in senatu recitarentur (litterae) (B. C. i. i), they succeeded in having the letter read in the senate (it was brought about
that, etc.).
2.
Of
Of Impersonals meaning
it is 2 added, and the
it
happens,
:
it
remains,
it
follows,
it is
necessary,
accidit
like
as,
ut esset luna plena (B. G. iv. 29), it happened to be full moon (it that it was, etc.). [Here ut esset is subject of accidit.] reliquum est quarta virtus ut sit ipsa frugalitas (Tus. D. iii. 17), it remains that the fourth virtue is thrift. [So also restat.] sequitur ut doceam (N. D. ii. 81), the next thing is to show (it follows that I should show).
happened
NOTE.
3.
est
Of est in the sense of it is the fact that, etc. (mostly poetic) as, ut viro vir latius ordinet arbusta (Hor. Od. iii. 1.9), it is the fact that one man plants his vineyards in wider rows than another.
b.
quam,
all
after a
336.
c,
note 2)
as,
ii.
quam indicaret
(Tusc.
52), he
endured
1 Verbs and phrases taking an ut-clause of result as subject or object are accedit, accidit, additur. altera est res. commltto, cSnsequor, contingit, efflcio, evenit, facio, fit, fieri potest, fore, impetro, integrum
est,
mos
est,
munus
est,
necesse
est,
prope
est,
rectum
est, relinothers.
quitur, reliquum est, restat, tanti est, 2 See the impersonate in the list above.
tantum
364
c.
332.
A result clause,
is
The
question
may be
te ut ulla res frangat (Cat. i. 22), yet why do 1 speak? [the idea] that anything should bend you! egone ut te interpellem (Tusc. ii. 42), what, I interrupt you ? te videre
ego
noluerim (Q.
Infinitive, in
Fr.
i.
3),
REMARK.
d.
The
;
actually occurring
so
regularly takes
result with
one
is
subject of abest;
tantum.
Thus,
tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut usque eo difficiles ac morosi simus, ut nobis non satisfaciat ipse Demosthener: (Or. 104), so far from admiring my own works, I am difficult and captious to that degree, that not Demosthenes himself satisfies me. [Here the first ut-clause is the sub332. a); the second, a result clause, after tantum ject of abest (
(
e. The expressions facere ut, committere ut with the subjunctive, often form a periphrasis for the simple verb: as,
invitus f eci
luctance that
was with
re-
NOTE.
With
future infinitive
288./).
as a result, and is f. Rarely, a thought or an idea is considered ut the accusative and ininstead of with the subjunctive expressed by
finitive (
336. i).
as,
praeclarum
illud est,
ut eos
amemus
(Tusc.
iii.
73), this is
it is
noble
thing, that we should love, etc. verisimile non est ut ille antepSneret (Verres iv.
n),
he preferred.
x A Relative
Uinns
facere
r>f
fLJndtrinft
and the
.
like
quin is used after verbs or other when these are negatived, i'hus,
n5n possum quin (Att. xii. 27), / cannot avoid, etc. quin scribam . . (Q. F. iii. 3), I have left nothing undone
.
.
iv. 2),
that
I might be hindered by
(Sail.
nothing
from,
etc.
non humana
ulla
human
332.)
NOTF.
.
Substantive CJausts
I.
>
<\f
Result.
365
(as in
--.I (.is in tin; Th- n<-i;;itiv in rxamplos above) or n. quis impedit quin earn, who (i.r. nobody hinders me Jtom
j
')
not doubt,
This usage is found especially with the phrase KI.MAKK. and similar expressions as,
:
n6n dubito,
/ do
el
crederemus
(Alt.
vi.
2), he
v.
I will do
quis ignorat quin (Flacc. 64), -who is ignorant that, etc.? neque ambigitur quin Brutus pcssimo publico id facturus fuerit si priorum regum alicui regnum extorsisset (Liv. ii. i), nor is (here any question that Brutus, if he had wrested the kingdom from any one of the former kings would have done it with the worst results to the state.
y
[Direct statement
fecisset.]
NOTE
Infinitive,
2.
dubitS. in the sense of I do not hesitate, commonly takes the but sometimes quin with the subjunctive. Thus,
i),
Non
and
not
to hesitate to
ii.
2), he
did not
h. Some verbs and expressions may be used either as verbs of saying or as verbs of commanding, effecting, and the like. These take as their object either a Substantive clause of Purpose or Result
or an
Infinitive
with
subject
accusative,
according
to
the
sense.
Thus,
sequitur ilico ease causas immutabiles (Fat. 28), it follows directly that there are unalterable causes. [Result clause, the regular construction with sequor when used of a logical sequence.]
laudem
maximam
(Div. v. 13),
/ hold
of wisdom is the greatest. statuunt ut decem milia hominum mittantur (B. G. vii. 21), they resolve that 10,000 men shall be sent. 331. </ ] [Purpose clause, cf. res ipsa monebat tempus esse (Alt. x. 8), the thing itself warned that it
was
that.
lime.
[Cf. monere ut, warn to do something.] persuasum (N. D. i. 75), suppose that I am persuaded of
18), persuades
him
to
The infinitive with subject accusative in this rnnstrtirfion is Indirect NOTE. Discourse, and is to be distinguished from the simple infinitive sometimes found with these verbs instead of a subjunctive clause.
366
333.
peculiar form of Substantive Clause consists of with the Indicative. causal quod
333.
The
alter
is
used when
the statement
regarded as a fact :
as,
um
est vitium,
i.
19), it is
quod quidam nimis magnum studium conferunt (Off. another fault that some bestow too much zeal, etc. [Here ut
conferant could be used, meaning that some should bestow; or the accusative and infinitive, meaning to bestow (abstractly) ; quod makes
it
a fact that
men
et
do bestow, etc.]
interest,
inter
inanimum
ii.
(Ac.
quod
iii. 1 1
1),
admodum
scitum
that he
est,
cum
vidisset
51),
'tis
see
336.]
Like other substantive clauses, the clause with quod may be used as subject, as object, as appositive, etc., but it is commonly^either the subject or
in apposition with the subject.
a. In colloquial language, the clause with quod sometimes appears as an accusative of specification, corresponding to the English WHEREAS
(cf.
326. a)
as,
scribis (Fam. xiv. 2), as to what you write of the hotise. nostro statu gratularis, minime miramur te tuis praeclaris
i. 5), as to your congratulating me on our conno wonder you are pleased with your own noble works.
b. Verbs of feeling and the expression of feeling take either quod, quia (Causal), or the accusative and infinitive (Indirect Discourse)
as,
quod
scribis
facio libenter
quod
gaudeo (Q. F. iii. i), I am glad that you write. earn non possum praeterire (Leg. i. 63), I am glad that
it by.
I cannot pass
that this
I greatly
rejoice
REMARK.
with
si. 1
Miror and
is
This
similar expressions are sometimes followed by a clause 331. e. i. note i). apparently substantive, but really protasis (cf.
Thus,
l Cf.
the
Greek 6avpdfa
ei.
333, 334.]
miror
si
Indirect Questions.
(Loci. 54),
367
I wonder if he could
at
'/.]
evfr have
friend.
/wonder
5.
Indirect Questions.
is any sentence or clause which is introduced by an Interrogative word (pronoun, adverb, etc.), and which is itself the subject or In object of a verb, or depends on any expression implying uncertainty or doubt. Ui.immatical form, exclamatory sentences are not distinguished from interrogative
NOTE.
An
Indirect Question
example below).
334.
junctive
An
:
its
as,
quid ipse sentiam exponam (Div. i. 10), / will explain what I think. [Direct: quid sentio?] id possetne fieri consuluit (id. 32),^ consulted whether it could be done.
[Direct: potestne?]
sis audax omnes intellegere potuerunt (Rose. Am. 87), all could understand how bold you are. [Direct quam es audax !] doleam necne doleam nihil interest (Tusc. ii. 29), it is of no account
quam
rogat
I suffer or not. [Double question.] me quid sentiam, he asks me what I think. tiam, he asks me my opinion."}
whether
est,
[Cf.
rogat
me
senten-
uter nostrum sit verecundior (Academ. ii. 126), this is which of ns two is the more modest. incerti quatenus Volero exerceret victoriam (Liv. ii. 55), uncertain how far Volero would push -victory. [As if, dubitantes quatenus, etc.]
doubtful,
hoc dubium
NOTE. An Indirect Question may be the subject of a verb (as in the fourth example), the direct object (as in the first), the secondary object (as in the fifth),
an appositive (as
in the sixth).
The use
of tenses in Indirect
:
Question
is illustrated
by
the following examples dico quid faciam, I tell you what I am doing. dic5 quid facturus sim, / tell you what I will do. dico quid fecerim, I tell you what I did {have done, was doing, had done}. dixi quid facerem, / told you what I was doing. dixi quid fecissem, I told you what I had done. dm quid facturus essem, I told you what I would do (was going to do). dixi quid facturus fuerim, I told you what I would have done.
a. Indirect Questions referring to future time take the subjunctive of the First Periphrastic conjugation as,
:
sint
(Div. in Csec.),
I foresee what
throngs
be [Direct
qui erunt?]
:
quid
sit futurum eras, fuge quaerere (I lor. Od. i. 9), forbear to ask what will be on the morrow. [Direct quid erit or futurum est?J
368
334.
NOTE. This periphrastic future avoids the ambiguity which would be caused. by using the present subjunctive to refer to future time in such clauses. 268 and examples) remains b. The Deliberative Subjunctive (see
unchanged
in
in tense
as,
[quaeritur] utrum Carthago diruatur, ar Carthaginiensibus reddatur (De Inv. i. 17), [the question is] shah Carthage be destroyed, or restored to the Carthaginians.
nee quisquam satis certum habet, quid aut speret aut timeat (Liv. xxii. or fear. [Here the 7), nor is any one -well assttred what he shall hope future participle with sit could not be used.] incerto quid peterent aut vitarent (Liv. xxviii. 36), since it was doubtfut (abl. abs.) what they should seek or shun.
c.
tion
anticipation}
nosti
as,
Marcellum quam
is.
tardus
Marcellus
thee
[For nSsti
art^\
quam
(Fam. viii. 10), you know how slow tardus sit Marcellus. Cf. / know
who thou
earum rerum quare futurae sint ulla esse praesensio (Div. $),can there be, then, any foreknowledge as to those things, why they will occur ? [A similar use of the objective genitive.]
REMARK. In some cases the Object of anticipation becomes Subject by a change of voice, and an apparent mixture of relative and interrogative construction
is
the result
as,
quidam saepe
is
often seen, in
quam sint leves (Lsel. 63), it trifling matter of money, how unprincipled some people are often seen through, how unprincipled they
quemadmodum Pompeium oppugnarent a me indicati sunt (Leg. Ag. i. 5), it has been shown by me in what way they attacked Pompey (they have been shown by me, how they attacked).
d. Indirect Questions often take the Indicative in early Latin
and
in
poetry:
as,
Am.
what a
6), in
vineam quo in agro conseri oportet sic observato (Cato R. R. what soil a vineyard should be set you must observe thus.
few interrogative expressions are used parenthetically in an e. indefinite sense and do not take a subjunctive. Such are
nescio quis (and kindred forms),
I know
etc.
mirum (nimirum) quam, marvellously (marvellous how), mirum quantum, tremendously (marvellous how much), immane quantum, monstrously (monstrous how much),
sane quam, immensely.
valde
quam?
enormously*
334.]
.
Imtinrt
:
l)i.\conrse.
Examples are
(jui ist.un
quam indolcntiam magnopere laudant (Tu^. greatly extol that freedom from pain, whatever that is.
nescid
iii.
12),
who
ii. i), it helped prodigiously. nesci5 quo contigisse arbitror (Fam. xv. 13), I think it happened so by some fatality or other. nam suos valde quam paucos habet (Fain. xi. 13), for he has uncommonly
few of his own. quam sum gavisus (id.), I <*s immensely glad. vino et lucernis Medus acinaces immane quantum discrepat (Hor. Od.
sane
5), is
i.
27.
monstrously at -variance.
f. An indirect question is occasionally introduced by si in the sense of whether (like if in English, cf. 333. b. Rem.) : as,
vi.
37),
enemy pour round [to see] if they can find entrance. visam si domi est (Ter. Heaut. 118), I -will go see if he is at home.
the
NOTE.
the clause
This
is strictly
is virtually
is
thought
of,
and
g. Forsit, forsitan, forsan, fortasse, fortasse an, perhaps, are often followed by the Subjunctive as,
:
forsitan
(Rose.
Am.
2),
in-
tion.
Subjunctive Clause in this case was originally an Indirect QuesFortasse is also followed by the etc. Infinitive with Subject Accusative in Plautus.
NOTE.
The
it
Thus,
III.-INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
of the Accusative and Infinitive in Indirect Discourse (oratio obllqua) is a comparatively late form of speech, developed in the Latin and Greek only, and perhaps separately in each of them. It is wholly wanting in Sanskrit and Zend, but some forms like it have grown up in English and German. The essential character of Indirect Discourse is, that the language of some other person than the writer or speaker is compressed into a kind of Substantive Clause, the verb of the main clause becoming Infinitive, while modifying clauses, as well as all hortatory forms of speech, take the Subjunctive. The person of the verb is
NOTE.
The use
is not limited to reports other than the speaker; it may be used to express what any one whether the speaker or some one else says, thinks, or perceives, whenever that which is said, thought, or perceived is capable of being expressed in the form of a complete sentence. For anything that can be said, etc., can also be reported indirectly as well as directly. The use of the Infinitive in the main clause undoubtedly comes from its use as a case-form to complete or modify the action expressed by the verb of saying, etc.,
necessarily conformed to the new relation of persons. The construction of the Indirect Discourse, however,
of the language of
some person
and
its
object together.
as.
and
in fact
37
to all intents
335, 336.
became, the subject of the infinitive. A transition state is found ip it has no indirect discourse proper, yet allows an indirect predication after verbs of saying and the like, by means of a predicative apposition, " in such expressions as, The maids told the king [that] his daughter [was] bereft
Sanskrit, which, though
of her senses."
The simple form of indirect statement with the accusative and infinitive was afterwards amplified by introducing dependent or modifying clauses and in Latin it became a common construction, and could be used to report whole speeches, etc., which in other languages would have the direct form. (Compare the style of reporting speeches in English, where only the person and tense are changed, as is also occasionally the case in Sanskrit.) The use of the Subjunctive in dependent clauses in Indirect Discourse probably
;
came from regarding the statements contained in them as not absolutely true, but as conditioned upon the trustworthiness of the original speaker; that is, as Apodosis with an implied Protasis (if we may believe the speaker, or the like). So the French " " conditional is often equivalent to it is said : as, ainsi il aurait apeu pres double, " " would have it is said to have nearly doubled," lit. doubled," i.e. if we should " he is said to be sick," lit., believe the report. Cf. in German, Er soil krank sein " he ought to be sick, unless the story is false."
t
is
The Subjunctive standing for hortatory forms of speech in Indirect Discourse simply the usual hortatory subjunctive, with only a change of person and tense
necessary), as in the reporter's style,
(if
and
in Sanskrit.
335.
An
or writer to the construction of the sentence in which they are quoted. REMARK.
senses.
(oratio obliqua) is
used
in
includes
all
clauses
of whatever kind
two which
express the words or thought of any person indirectly ; that is, in a form different from that in which the person said the words or conceived the thought. In the narrower sense the term Indirect Discourse is restricted to those cases in which some complete proposition is cited in the form of an Indirect Quotation, which may be extended to a narrative or an address of any length, as in the speeches reported by Caesar and Livy. In this book the term is used in the restricted sense.
I.
336.
ing,
1
Verbs and other expressions of knowing, thinktelling, and perceiving?- govern the Indirect Discourse.
I.
Such are: (i) knowing, sci5, cognSsco, compertum habeo, etc.; puto, existimo, arbitror, etc.; (3) telling, dico, nuntio, refero, polliceor, promitto, certiorem facio, etc.; (4) perceiving, senSo in general any word that denotes tio, comperio, video, audio, etc. thought or mental and visual perception or their expression may govern the
(2)
thinking,
Indirect Discourse.
336.]
2.
Indirect />/-
Subject Accusative.
371
of a De-
main clause
claratory Sentence
Accusative.
tive.
sper5
put Subject All Subordinate clauses take the Subjunc[esse] de metu (Tusc.
in
the
Infinitive with
Thus, me liberatum
ii.
67),
trust
I have
been
quorum auctoritas plurimum valeat (B. G. i. 17), he says there are some, whose influence most prevails. [In direct discourse sunt nonnulli valet.]
:
.
facturum [esse]
arbitrabatur (Ver.ii.
1.
123),^
:
thought he should incur guilt, unless he should take the oath. nisi iuraverS, faciam.]
Stoici
[Direct
negant
quidquam
68), the Stoics assert that nothing is good but what is right. nego is used in preference to died with a negative.]
[esse] bonum, nisi quod honestum sit (Fin. ii. [The verb
NOTE i. In the statement of all speech or thought, the Romans tended to use the Indirect Discourse, etc., with verbs of the classes mentioned, but: inquam, said I (etc.), is appropriated to the Direct Discourse except in poetry. NOTE 2. The verb of sayingfzlc., is often not expressed, but implied in some word or in the general drift of the sentence : as,
c5nsulis alterius
nomen invisum
civitati
fuit:
adsuesse
(Liv.
ii.
initium a Frisco factum; regnasse dein Ser. Tullium, etc. 2), the name of the other consul was hateful to the state ; the
;
Tarquins
power,
etc.
(they thought)
had become
too
much accustomed
this
to royal thought is
added
aid to
lost.
the cities
iam enim agrSs deploratos esse opem praying that the senate would at least bring for the fields [they said] were already given up as
and and
NOTE 3. Verbs of promising, hoping, expecting, threatening, swearing, the like, regularly take the construction of Indirect Discourse (see 330.^
note).
1. a.
larly
i.
Subject Accusative.
wanting in the direct
The
be expressed, even
as,
is
orator sum,
/ am an
an
orator.
NOTE.
often omitted,
if
easily
understood:
as,
iv.
27), he said he
pardoned
thei*
rogavi pervenissentne Agrigentum: dixit pervenisse (Verr. iv. 27), / asked whether they (the curtains) had come to Agrigentum ; he answered that they had.
372
REMARK.
:
336.
relative,
it
or
quam
is
usually omitted,
and
its
subject
attracted into
eisdem rebus quibus meipsum commoveri (Cat. Maj. i), pect that you are disturbed by the same things as I.
sus-
2.
When
i.
may be
NOTE
the verb &t saying, etc., becomes passive, the construction either Personal or Impersonal.
For
NOTE
2.
An
begun
may be
Subordinate Clauses.
omnia quae vidimus deorum potestate administrari (Cat. deny that all these things we see are ruled by the power
'
cuius ingenio putabat ea quae gesserat posse celebrari (Arch. 20), by whose genius he thought that those deeds ivhich he had done could be celebrated.
fact expressed by quae gesserat, though not explanatory, is be true without regard to the quotation quae gessisset would mean, what Mariu's claimed to have done.]
[Here the
felt to
NOTE. It often depends merely upon the feeling of the writer whether he shall use the Indicative or Subjunctive in such clauses (cf. 340-342).
c.
is
equivalent to a demon-
and hence
iSo.f)
:
and
Infinitive in Indirect
Discourse (see
Marcellus requlsivisse dicitur Archimedem ilium, quern cum audisset interfectum permoleste tulisse (Ver. iv. 131), Marcellus is said to have sought for Archimedes, and when he heard that he was slain, to have been greatly distressed.
unumquemque nostrum censent philosophi mundi esse partem, ex quo [= et ex eo] illud natura consequi (Fin. iii. 64), the philosophers say that each one of us is a part of the universe, from which this naturally
follows.
NOTE
i.
quemadmodum
si non dedatur obses pro rupto se foedus habiturum, sic deditam inviolatam ad su5s remlssurum (Liv. ii. 13), [he says] as in case the hostage is not given up he shall consider the treaty as broken, so ifgiven up he will return her unharmed to her friends.
336.]
373
NOTE
with
The
as,
quara:
addit so prius occlsum Irl ah eo quam me violatum iri (Att. ii. 20), he adds that he himself will be killed by him, before I shall be injured.
NOTE
d.
3.
The
ut
quam
(see
the Indicative
when
\.\\tfact is
.
emphasized:
.
.
as,
et
cum, Cimbris
ipse
Teutonls
pulsis,
non
min5rem laudem
(B. G.
the
i.
army
imperator meritus videbatur 40), that a trial of this enemy had been made when, etc., seemed, etc.
exercitus
quam
3.
Tenses of the
Infinitive.
In-
used in Indirect Discourse, according as the time indicated is present, past, or future with reference to
the verb of saying,
is
etc.,* by
introduced.
**&, I am
cadebam,
Thus,
dixit J
)
,.
fatting: J
f
i
*
!'
sa
is
I was falling
I hadfatten
(
cecidi, //,//
Jcit dlxlt ;
sE cecidisse>
he says he sald
cecideram,
cadam, Ishattfatti J
cecidero,
* ci
}se dixit J
cSsurum [esse], J
\
(
he was falling,
had fallen.
sh
I shall
have fallen
he says he shall have fallen. dixit fore ut cecidisset [rare], he said he should have fallen.
by
All varieties of past time are usually expressed in Indirect Discourse the Perfect Infinitive, which may stand for the Imperfect, the Perfect, or the
I.
NOTE
Pluperfect Indicative of the Direct. But sometimes continued or repeated action is expressed by the Present Infinitive, which in such cases stands for the Imperfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse, and is often called the Imperfect
in past time
Infinitive (so regularly after
te
meminl)
thus,
said.
[Direct: dicebas.]
Infinitive, see $ 147. c.
NOTE
336. B. The tenses of the Subjunctive in Indirect Discourse follow the rule for the Sequence of Tenses ( 286). They depend for their sequence on the verb of saying, etc.,
by which the Indirect Discourse
is
introduced,
374
Thus
in
336, 337
Romam
iturum ut consulem
in order that he might see the consul, videret follows the sequence of dixit without regard to the
Rome
it
directly depends.
This rule applies not only to the subjunctive in subordinate clauses in indirect discourse, but also to that which stands for the imperative, etc. (see exi.
NOTE
to that in questions ( 338). subjunctive depending on a Perfect Infinitive is commonly in the Imperfect or Pluperfect, even if the verb of saying, etc., is in a primary tense
amples in
339),
and
NOTE
287
2.
(cf.
i).
Thus,
Tarquinium dixisse ferunt turn exsulantem se intellexisse quos fidos amicos habuisset (Lael. 53)> they tell us that Tarqidn said that then in his exile he had found out -what faithful friends he had had. [Here the main verb of saying, ferunt, is primary, but the time is carried back by dixisse and intellexisse, and the sequence then becomes secondary.] tantum profecisse videmur ut a Graecis ne verborum quidem copia vinceremus (Nat. D. i. 8), we seem to have advanced so far that even in fulness of words we ARE not surpassed by the Greeks.
a.
The
Present and Perfect Subjunctive are often used in dependent when the verb of saying, etc., is
as,
dicebant
totidem Nervios (polliceri) qui longissime absint (B. G. ii. 4), ~~ they said that the Nervii, who live farthest off, promised as tnany.
. .
.
NOTE i. This construction comes from the tendency of language to refer all time in narration to the time of the speaker {Repraesentatio}. In the course of a long passage in the Indirect Discourse the tenses of the subjunctive often vary,
sometimes following the Sequence, and sometimes affected by Repraesentatio. Examples may be seen in B. G. i. 13, vii. 20, etc.
NOTE 2. Certain constructions are never affected by Repraesentatw. Such are the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive with temporal, antequam,
cum
and priusquam.
5.
The
is
junctive.
2. The Apodosis, if independent and not hortatory or optative, is always in some form of the Infinitive. a. The Present Subjunctive in the apodosis of less vivid future conThus there is no disditions ( 307. b} becomes the Future Infinitive.
tinction
between more or
Discourse.
337.]
375
Bl
Discourse
306).
(dixit)
ipsc populo
uterctur,
non oportere
(B. G. i. 36), he they should use their rights, he ought not to be interfered with by the Roman people in the exercise of his rights. [Direct: si non prae-
Romano non praeacriberet quemadmodum suo iure sesc a populo Romano in suo iure imped iri said that if he did not dictate to the Roman people hoio
scribS
n5n oportet.]
praedicavit ... si pace uti velint, iniquum esse, etc. (B. G. i. 44), he asserted that if they ivished to enjoy peace, ft was unfair, etc. [Direct: si volunt . . est. Present tense kept by Rcpraesentatio ( 336. B. a,
.
note i).]
2. Simple Past Condition ( 306). non dicam ne illud quiclem, si maxime
hominem
in culpa fuerit Apollonius, tamen in honestissimae civitatis honestissimum tarn graviter animad-
able
man
.
.
non oportuisse (Verres v. 20), I will not say even if Apollonius was greatly in fault, still an honorought not to have been punished so severely, etc. [Direct:
si fuit 3.
n5n oportuit.]
(
Future Conditions
307).
Aeduis se obsides redditurum non esse, neque els ... bellum illaturum, si in eo manerent, quod convenisset, stipendiumque quotannis penderent si id non fecissent, longe eis fraternum nomen populi R5mam abfuturum (B. G. i. 36), he said that he would not give up the hostages to the sEdui, but ivould not make war upon them if they observed the agreement, etc., and paid tribute yearly j but if they should not do this,
:
the
them.
si
name of brothers to the Roman people would be far from aiding Inferam ... si manebunt [Direct reddam pendent:
: .
. .
.
non fecerint
aberit.]
(dixit)
quod si praeterea nemo sequatur, tamen se cum sola decima legione iturum (B. G. i. 40), but if nobody else should follow, still he would go
with the tenth legion alone.
[Direct
in
:
si
sequetur
ibo.
Present
si
[esse] ut ceteri consilium sequantur (N'ep. Dat. 6), if it should get abroad that he had been abandoned by a man so closely connected with him, everybody else ^uould follow his example.
[Direct: si exierit . . . sequentur.] (dixerunt) nisi me civitate expulissent, obtinere se non posse licentiam cupiditatum suarum (Alt. x. 4), tJiey said that unless they drove me out
futurum
of the state, they could not have free play for their desires. (Ciceronem) expulerimus, obtinere non poterimus.]
b. In changing a Condition contrary to fact Discourse, the following points require notice.
[Direct
nisi
376
1.
337
form, made by in -urus the with fuisse. Participle combining 3. If the verb of the Apodosis is passive or has no supine stem, the periphrasis futurum fuisse ut (with the Imperfect Subjunctive) must
2.
be used.
4.
An
becomes Perfect
Infinitive.
Examples are
nee se superstitem
filiae futurum fuisse, nisi spem ulciscendae mortis eius in auxilio commilitonum habuisset (Liv. iii. 50), and that he should not now be a survivor, etc., unless he had had hope, etc. [Direct : non
illud
superstes essem, nisi habuissem.] Asia cogitet, nullam a se neque belli extern! neque discordiarum domesticarum calamitatem abfuturam fuisse, si hoc imperio non teneretur (Q. Fr. i. I, 34), let Asia (personified) think of this, that no disaster^ not held by this government. etc., would not be hers, if she were
:
[Direct abessem, si non tenerer.] quid inimicitiarum creditis excepturum fuisse, do you think (Q. C. vi. 10, 18), what enmities
si
Insontes lacessissem
I should have
incurred
si laces-
if I
had wantonly
[excepissem ...
sissem.] invitum se dicere, nee dicturum fuisse, ni caritas rei publicae vinceret (Liv. ii. 2), that he spoke unwillingly and should not have spoken (at ? [Direct: nee dixisall), did not love for the commonwealth prevail
sem
quorum
ni vinceret.]
aetas potuisset esse longinquior, futurum fuisse ut omnibus iii. 69), if life perfectis artibus hominum vita erudiretur (Tuscul. could have been longer, human existence would have been embellished by
si
every art in
si
its
perfection.
[Direct
erudita esset.]
Cn. Pompeius privatus esset, tamen erat deligendus (Manil. 50), if P. were a private citizen, still he ought to be chosen, would become deli-
Discourse Present Conditions contrary to fact are not distinguished in the apodosis from Past, but the protasis may keep them distinct.
choice
NOTE 3.
to express the
periphrasis futarum fuisse Ut is sometimes used from no necessity for resorting to it. Very rarely the Future Infinitive is used in the Indirect Discourse
is
Apodosis of a Present Condition contrary examples of this use occur in classic authors as,
:
to fact.
Only four or
five
Titurius clamabat
si
etc.,
neque Eburo-
nostra ad castra ventur5s esse (B. G. v. 29), Titurius cried out that if Casar were present, neither would the Carnutes, etc., nor would the Rburones be coming to our camp with such contempt. [Direct si adesset . . . venirent.]
nes tanta
cum contemptione
338, 339.]
6.
Questions
(Vi</
Commands.
377
338.
i-ii
Question
the
Indirect
Discourse
may
be
he
vellet? cur in suas possessiones venlret (B. G. i. 44), ivhat did he come into his territories? [Real question. Direct quid vis ? cur venis ?]
sihi
num
recentium iniuriarum
Direct
num
memoriam [se] deponere posse (id. i. 14), memory of recent wrongs? [Rhetorical Quespossum ?]
quern signum daturum, fugientibus ? quern ausurum Alexandro succedere (Q. C. iii. 5), who will give the signal on the retreat? who will dare succeed Alexander ? [Rhetorical. Direct: quis dabit ... au debit.]
sharp line can be drawn between the Subjunctive and the InfiniWhether the question is to be regarded as rhetorical or real often depends merely on the writer's point of view. Thus,
i.-
NOTE
No
utrum partem
regni petiturum esse, an totum erepturum (Liv. xlv. 19), will you ask part of the regal power (he said), or seize the whole? quid tandem praetori faciendum fuisse (id. xxxi. 48), what, pray, ought
NOTE 2. Questions coming immediately after a verb of asking are treated as Indirect Questions and take the Subjunctive (see 334). This is true even when the verb of asking serves also to introduce a passage in the Indirect Discourse.
The question may be
either real or rhetorical.
See quaesivit,
i.
NOTE 3.
is
always
cnr aliquos ex suis amitteret (B. C. i. 72), why (thought he) should he lose some of his men ? [Direct: cur amittam?]
7.
Commands
Discourse
in Indirect Discourse.
as,
i.
13),
remember
[Direct: reminiscere.]
let
finem faciat
(id.
20),
him make an
end.
[Direct: fac.J
378
339. 340.
them help.
6), let
let
REMARK.
This rule applies not only to the Imperative of the direct discourse,
NOTE
Though
when noli
ne perturbarentur (B. G. vii. 29), do not (he said) be troubled. [Direct: nolite perturbari. But sometimes nollet is found in Ind. Disc.]
illustrates
principles in
INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Si
DIRECT DISCOURSE.
Si
Helvetiis faceret, in earn partem ituros atque ibi futures Helvetios, ubi
Helvetiis faciet, in earn partem ibunt atque ibi erunt Helvetii, ubi eos tu
eos Caesar constituisset atque esse voluisset: sin bel!5 persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur et veteris
et pristi-
Helvetiorum.
Quod
im-
proviso
cum
ei
auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut suae magno opere virtuti
pagum adortus es, cum ei qui flumen transierant suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob earn rem aut tuae
magno opere
virtuti
:
nos despexeris
nos
maioribusque nostris didicimus, ut magis virtute quam dolo contendamus, aut insidiis nitamur. Quare
noli committere, ut hie locus ubi constitimus ex calamitate populi R5-
tur.
Quare ne committeret,
ut is
populi
tus
mani
et internecione exercitus
nomen
capiat, aut
memoriam prSdat.
prdderet.
13.
II.
INTERMEDIATE CLAUSES.
34O.
when
(2)
it
Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive, (i) expresses the thought of some other person than
(Informal Indirect Discourse), or
it is
when
equivalent Infinitive
1
(Attraction).
at
See note
p. 369.
341.]
Informal
1.
Intlirrct Disco-
379
subordinate clause takes the subjunctive when expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker. Thus
341.
it
In subordinate clauses in formal indirect discourse ( 336) also in Informal Indirect Discourse in the following cases (b-d)'
a.
b.
but
When
tnand, or a question expressed indirectly, though not strictly in the form of Indirect Discourse : as, animal sentit quid
that is fit.
sit
quod deceat
(Of.
i.
14),
an animal feels
-what it is
hunc
sibi
evellatis postulat (Rose. Am. 6), he begs this doubt that goads and slings him day
tive clause is
ex animo scrupulum, qui se dies noctesque stimulet ac pungat, ut you to pluck from his heart
and
night.
[Mere the
relais
not a part of the Purpose expressed in evellatis, but an assertion made by the subject of postulat.]
c.
When
saying, or
si
is
merged
in the
verb of
quid de his rebus dicere vellet, feci potestatem (Catil. iii. n), if he wished to say anything about these matters, I gave him a chance. tulit de caede quae in Appia via facta esset (Milon. 15), he passed a law concerning the murder which (in the language of the bill) took place in the Appian Way.
nisi
eis
restituissent statuis, vehementer eis minatur (Verr. ii. 1 62), he threatens them violently unless they should restore the statues. [Here the main " that he will inflict clause, punishment," is contained in minatur.] auxilium suum pollicitus si ah Suevis premerentur (B. G. iv. 19), he promised them his aid if they should be molested by the Suevi. [= pollicitus se
auxilium laturum,
etc.]
prohibitio tollendi, nisi pactus esset, vim adhibebat pactioni (Ver. iii. 37), the forbidding to take away unless he came to terms gave force to the
bargain.
d.
When
quod
or by
(rarely
12)
which (he said) his father had left. REMARK. Under this head even what the speaker himself thought under other circumstances may have the Subjunctive. So also with quod even the verb of saying may be in the Subjunctive. Here belong also non quia, nSn quod, introducing a reason expressly to deny it. (See $ 321. Rem. and note a.)
all the books
1
me
in
main
subject.
Apodosis, the condition being the supposed (See Indirect Discourse, Note, p. 370.)
380
2.
342.
342. clause depending upon a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if 1 regarded as an integral part of that clause : as, imperat, dum res adiudicetur, hominem ut adservent cum iudicatum sit,
:
ad
se
adducant (Verr.
iii.
man ;
he orders them, till the affair should be when he is judged, to bring him to him.
55),
etenim quis tarn dissoluto ammo est, qui haec cum videat, tacere ac neglegere possit (Rose. Am. 32), for who is so reckless of spirit, that, when he sees these things, he can keep silent and pass them by ? mos est Athenis laudari in contione eos qui sint in proeliis interfecti (Or. 151), it is the custom at Athens for those to be publicly eulogized who have been slain in battle. [Here laudari is equivalent to ut
laudentur.]
But a dependent clause may be closely connected grammatically with a Subjunctive or Infinitive clause, and still take the Indicative, if
a.
it is
as,
quodam modo
nus (Att.
called,
si
quemadmodum
x. 4),
in a
manner
a tyrant.
ponderari solent, verecundius a te
mea
in te essent officia
quam a me
if my good services to
solum tanta quanta magis a te ipso praedicari . . . peterem (Fam. ii. 6), you were only so great as they are wont rather to
be called by you than to be estimated by me, I shotild, etc. natura fert ut els faveamus qui eadem pericula quibus nos perfuncti
sumus
nature prompts us to feel friendly towards those who are entering on the same dangers which we have passed through. ne hostes, quod tantum multitudine poterant, suos circumvenire possent (B. G. ii. 8), lest the enemy, because they were so strong in numbers, should be able to surround his men.
ingrediuntur (Muren.
4),
NOTE.
The use
size the fact, as true independently of the statement contained in the subjunctive or infinitive clause. But in many cases no such distinction between the Indicative
and Subjunctive
1
is
perceptible.
is in
The
dependent clause in a clause of Purpose is really a junctive in the main clause. part of the purpose, as is seen from the use of should and other auxiliaries in English.
In a Result clause this
characteristic, to
is less clear,
is
a branch of the
when
it
It is
takes the Subjunctive. often difficult to distinguish between Informal Indirect Discourse
and the
Integral Part.
Thus
in
may stand for sunt, and then will be Indirect Discourse, being a part of the thought, but not a part of the order; or it may stand for erunt, and then will be Integral Part, being a part of the order itsell
381
A noun used
to describe another,
it
apves with
2.
in
Case
183).
3.
Adjectives, adjective pronouns, and participles agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case ( 1 86). Relative pronoun agrees with its Antecedent vn. gender and number,
but
its
case depends
in
which
it
4.
5.
its Subject in number and person ( 204). Superlatives (more rarely comparatives) denoting order and succession also medius, ceterus, reliquus usually designate not "what object,
6.
The
The
but what part of it, is meant ( 193). Personal Pronouns have two forms for the genitive plural, that in urn being used partitivcly, and that in -1 oftenest objectively ( 194. 3).
7.
8.
Reflexive pronoun (si), and usually the corresponding possessive (suus), are used in some part of the predicate to refer to the subject of the sentence or clause ( 196). The Possessive Pronouns are used instead of the genitive of a personal pronoun: (i) always instead of the possessive genitive, (2) rarely in-
9.
stead of an objective genitive ( 197. a}. Possessive representing a genitive may have a genitive in apposition
(
197-
0-
to modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs ( 207). of simple fact, requiring the answer YES or NO, is formed by adding the enclitic -ne to the emphatic word ( 210. a). as in nonne, 12. When the enclitic -ne is added to a negative word, an
10.
11.
A question
The particle num suggests a negaaffirmative answer is expected. tive answer ( 210. c). 173. a'}. 13. The subject of a finite verb is in the NOMINATIVE ( noun used to limit or define another, and not meaning the same person 14.
15.
The
is put in the GENITIVE ( 213). Subjective Genitive is used with a noun to denote (i) the Author or Owner, (2) the Source or the Material, (3) the Quality ( 214).
or thing,
6.
1 7.
are followed by the genitive of the Whole to which the part belongs {Partitive Genitive, 216). Nouns of action, agency, and feeling govern the genitive of the object
(Objective Genitive,
18.
217).
Adjectives denoting* desire, knowledge, memory, fulness, f(ni't'r, sharing, guilt, and their opposites; verbals in -ax, and participles in -ns when
19.
used as adjectives, govern the Genitive ( 218. a, 6). Verbs of remembering, forgetting, take the Genitive of the object when they are used of a continued state of mind, but the Accusative when
used of a single act (
219).
382
20.
Verbs of accusing, condemning, and acquitting take the Genitive of the Charge or Penalty ( 220). 21. The DATIVE is used of the object indirectly affected by an action {Indirect Object, 22.
224).
to favor, help, please, trust,
and
their contraries;
also,
to believe, persuade,
command,
pardon,
23.
and spare, take the Dative ( 227). Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro, sub, super, and some with circum, are followed by the Dative
24.
Many
of the indirect object ( 228) . verbs of taking away, and the like take the Dative (especially of a person) instead of the Ablative of Separation ( 229).
is
25.
The Dative
(
231).
26.
The Dative
of the Agent
is
person on whom the necessity rests ( 232). 27. The Dative is used to denote the Purpose or End, often with another Dative of the person or thing affected ( 233. #).
28.
is
and their opposites ( 234. a). often required, not by any particular word, but by the general meaning of the sentence {Dative of Reference, 235). 30. The Direct Object of a transitive verb is put in the ACCUSATIVE (
ness, service, inclination,
is
29.
237)31.
32.
A neuter
238).
Verbs of naming, choosing, appointing, making, esteeming, showing, and the like, may take a Predicate Accusative along with the direct
object ( 239. a). Transitive verbs compounded with prepositions sometimes take (in addition to the direct object) a Secondary Object, originally governed by
33.
the preposition
34.
239. 3).
Verbs of asking and teaching may take two Accusatives, one of the person, and the other of the thing ( 239. *).
35.
36.
The
(
subject of an Infinitive
is
in the Accusative (
173. 2).
37. 38.
The VOCATIVE is the case of direct address ( Words signifying separation or privation are
241).
40.
Opus and usus, signifying need, are followed by the Ablative The ablative, with or without a preposition, is used to denote
from which anything
(
is
243. e).
the source
it
consists
244).
383
The
(
is
245)-
42.
laetus, praeditus,
etc.,
245. a).
43.
44.
The Voluntary Agent after a passive verb is put in the ab ( 246). The Comparative degree is followed by the Ablative
(
Ablative with
or
(signifying
THAN)
is
247).
45.
followed by
quam,
than.
When quam
used,
46.
the two things compared are put in the same case ( 247. a}. The manner of an action is denoted by the Ablative, usually with unless a limiting adjective is used with the noun ( 248).
cum,
(
47.
Accompaniment
248. a}.
is
cum
48.
The
Ablative
c.
is
248.
49.
I).
The deponents,
50.
utor, fruor, fungor, potior, and vescor, with several of their compounds, govern the Ablative ( 249). With comparatives and words implying comparison the Ablative is used
to denote the degree
of difference ( 250). quality of a thing is denoted by the Ablative with a modifier, usually an adjective or limiting genitive ( 251). 52. The/rzV^ of a thing is put in the Ablative ( 252). 53. The Ablative of Specification denotes that in respect to which anything is
51.
The
or
54.
is
done
253).
participle,
may be
An
55.
adjective, or a second noun, may take the place of the participle in the ablative absolute construction ( 255 and a).
Time
is
how
long in the
Accusative (
56.
256).
The
place from which is denoted by the Ablative with ab, de, or ex; the place to which (the end of motion), by the Accusative with ad or in
of towns or small islands from which, as also domtlS and rfls, are put in the Ablative without a preposition ($ 258. a). The names of towns or small islands to wAicA, as also domus and rfls, are
Theft/ace where
five Ablative}
is
;
but
(
denoted by the Ablative with the preposition in (&*:<* names of towns and small islands are put in the
258. c}.
is
Locative Case
The
Locative Case
also preserved in
doml,
belli, mllitiae,
humi,
foris, rtlil,
terra marlque
($ 258. </).
384
58.
The
may be used
with
est
similar verbs (i) as the subject, (2) as in apposition with the subject, or (3) as a predicate nominative ( 270).
59.
and
The
Infinitive, without a subject accusative, is used with verbs which imply another action of the same subject to complete their meaning ^Comple-
mentary
60.
Infinitive ,
The
Infinitive,
61.
The
Infinitive is often
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. In complex sentences, a primary tense in the main clause is followed by the Present or Perfect Subjunctive; a secon-
63.
The
64.
286). ( tenses of the Infinitive denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the time of the verb on which they depend ( 288). PARTICIPLES denote time as present, past, or future with respect to the
290).
the
GERUNDIVE
(
many
297).
66.
(in -urn)
is
302).
is
67.
The
nouns
68.
used only with a few adjectives, with the rarely with verbs, to denote an action
is
asserted (
303)
69.
The Hortatory SUBJUNCTIVE is used to express an exhortation, a command, a concession, or a condition ( 266). The Subjunctive is used to express a wish. The present tense denotes the
wish as
possible, the imperfect as Tinaccomplished in present time, the pluperfect as unaccomplished in past time (Optative Subjunctive, 267). 70. The Subjunctive is used in questions implying doubt, indignation, or an impossibility of the thing being done (Deliberative Subjunctive^
71.
268). Prohibition
is regularly expressed in classic prose (i) by ne with the second person of the Perfect Subjunctive, (2) by n5li with the Infinitive, (3) by cave with the Present or Perfect Subjunctive ( 269. a).
72.
Potential Subjunctive is used to denote an action not as actually per formed, but as possible ( 311. a). 73. Dam, modo, dummodo, and tantum, introducing a PROVISO, take the
The
74.
FINAL
Subjunctive ( 314). clauses take the Subjunctive introduced by ut (uti), negative (lit ne), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) ( 317),
R9
385
clauses take the Sul)junctive introduced by ut, so that (negut non), or by a Relative (pronoun or adverb) ( 319). 76. Dignus, imlignus, aptus, and idoneus, take a clause of result with a
CoNSFcrnvF,
ative,
77.
Particles
reason
is
320. /). quod, quia, and quoniam take the Indicative given on the authority of the speaker or writer;
the Subjunctive
when
the reason
is
78.
79.
the Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Subjunctive, other tenses in the Indicative ( 325). CAUSAL or CONCESSIVE takes the Subjunctive ( 326).
81.
main clause of a Declaratory Sentence is put in the Infinitive with Subject Accusative. All subordinate clauses take the Subjunctive ( 336. 2). In the Indirect Discourse a real question is generally put in the SubjuncIn the INDIRECT DISCOURSE the
tive;
a rhetorical question
in the Infinitive (
338).
82.
course
83.
A A
( 339). Subordinate clause takes the Subjunctive when it expresses the thought of some other person than the writer or speaker (Informal Indirect
Discourse,
84.
341).
clause depending on a Subjunctive clause or an equivalent Infinitive will itself take the Subjunctive if regarded as an integral part of that
clause {Attraction,
342).
their cases, see
152, 153.
For CONDITIONAL Sentences, see 304. ff. (Scheme in For ways of expressing PURPOSE, see 318.
305.)
386
343, 344.
CHAPTER VI.
Order of Words.
the arrangethe ideas in
Latin differs from English in having more freedom in NOTE. ment of words for the purpose of showing the relative importance of
a sentence.
343. As
first,
the Predicate
Thus,
varius in
omni genere
vitae
NOTE. This happens because from the speaker's ordinary point of view the subject of his discourse is the most important thing in it, as singled out from all other things to be spoken of.
There
the verb
is
in Latin,
itself last
however, a special tendency to place of all after all its modifiers. But many
writers purposely avoid the monotony of this arrangement by putting the verb last but one, followed by some single word of the predicate.
344. In connected discourse the word most prominent first, and so on in order
in
of
prominence. This relative prominence corresponds to that indicated in English by a graduated stress of voice (usually called
emphasis).
or emphasis, however, in English does not necessarily show words in the sentence, but is infinitely varied, constantly increasing and diminishing, and often so subtle as to be unnoticed except in careful study. So, as a general rule, the precedence of words in a Latin sentence is not mechanical, but corresponds to the prominence which a good speaker would mark by skilfully managed stress of voice. A Latin written sentence, therefore, has all the clearness and expression which could be given to a spoken discourse by the
NOTE.
This
stress
any
REMARK.
Some
first
later.
chapter of Caesar's Gallic War rendered so as to bring out so far as possible the shades of emphasis, would run thus
Thus the
344.]
:/>/Y7.<7>.
387
i
GAUL, 1
vided
2
is
di-
into three
A///V which
are
trcs,
one 6 by the
aliam Aquitani, tertiam qui ipsurum lingua Ccltae, nostra Galli ap.
tur.
Hi omnes
bus inter se
Aquitanis
Gallos
ab
in their
Garumna
flumen, a
Matrona
et
The
GAULS H
Sequana di^dit.
Ilorum
prop-
(proper) are
omnium
terea
12 from the Aquitani by separated the river Garonne, from the Belgians
by the
Marne and
Seine.
Of THESE 18 (TRIBES)
away from
title
the CIVILIZA-
GAUL:
or the
like.
that the country called Gallia by the Romans is one. This appears more clearly from the fact that Caesar later speaks of the Galli in the narrower sense as distinct from
Divided opposed
who
omnis)
* Parts : continuing the emphasis begun in to any other number, but into parts at all.
4
divisa.
Not
three parts as
opposed
Inhabited: emphatic as the next subject, The inhabitants of these parts are, etc." One given more prominence than it otherwise would have on account of its close connection with quarum.
6
:
"
6 I 8
Another,
Their
<>zcw,
etc.
opposed
:
to one.
ours
:
THESE
(tribes)
strongly opposed to each other. the main subject of discourse again, collecting under
one head
the
" Language, etc.: these are the most prominent ideas as giving the striking points which distinguish the tribes. The emphasis becomes natural in English ii we say " these have a different language, different institutions, different laws"
10
adjective, as
II
All of them the emphasis on all marks the distributive character of the " if it were every one has its own, etc." GAULS emphatic as referring to the Gauls proper in distinction from the
:
other tribes.
Separated : though this word contains an indispensable idea in the connection, yet it has a subordinate position. It is not emphatic in Latin, as is seen from the fact that it cannot be made emphatic in English. The sense is : The Gauls lie between the Aquitani on the one side, and the Beiges on the other.
18
14
12
OF THESE:
All
:
emphasizing the superlative idea in bravest they, as Gauls, are assumed to be warlike, but the most so of all of them are the Belgians. 16 Farthest away: one might expect absunt (are away) to have a more emphatic place, but it is dwarfed in importance by the predominance of the main It is idea, the effeminating influences from which the Bclgne are said to be free.
not that they live farthest off that is insisted on, but that the civilization of the province, etc., which would soften them, comes less in their way. It is to be noticed also that absunt has already been anticipated by the construction of cultd and
still
of the sentence.
soften
more by longrlsslmS, so that when it comes it amounts onlvto a formal part Thus because the civilization, etc., of the province (which would
them)
is farthest
from them.
338
344.
TION and REFINEMENT of the Prov16 ince, and because they are LEAST of all of them subject to the visits of 1 traders? and to the (consequent) im18 tend to portation of such things as
19 their warlike spirit; and are soften also nearest 20 to the Germans, who
live
across 'the
Rhine^ and
with
whom
they are incessantly^ at war. For the same reason the HELVETII, as well, are superior to all the other
quoque reliquos Gallos virtute praecequod fere cotidianis proeliis cum Germanis contendunt, cum aut
Gauls in valor, because they are engaged in almost daily battles with the Germans, either defending their own boundaries from them, or themselves
eorum finibus bellum gerunt. Eorum una pars, quam Gallos obtinere dictum est, initium capit a flumine Rhodano; continentur Garumna flumine, Oceano, finibus Belgarum; attingit etiam ab Sequanis et Helvetiis flumen Rhenum; vergit ad septentri5nes. Belgae ab extremis Galliae finibus oriuntur : pertinent ad inferiorem partern fluminis Rheni ; spectant in septentrionem et orientem solem.
tania a
making war on those of the Germans. Of ALL THIS country, one part, the
one which as has been said the Gauls (proper) occupy, BEGINS at the river Rhone. Its boundaries are the river Garonne, the ocean, and the confines of the Belgians. It even REACHES on the side of the Sequani and Helvetians the river Rhine.
direction
is
Aqui-
Its
general
Garumna
BELGIANS begin
its of Gaul; they reach (on this side) as far as the lower part of the Rhine.
They spread to the northward and eastward. AQUITANIA extends from the Garonne
part of the ocean that lies towards Spain.
to
It
the
Pyrenees,
off
and
that
runs
westward and
northward.
!6
order,
/ P. 39o).
17
member
manitate.
is Such thing's as: the importance of the nature of the importations overshadows the fact that they are imported, which fact is anticipated in
traders"
19
cf. what is said in note 15. They are brave because they have them, their native barbarity being assumed. 28 Nearest: the same idiomatic prominence as in 16, but varied by a spc cial usage (see / p. 390) combining chiasmus and anaphora.
Soften;
less to soften
21 22
i.e.
and so are
perfect savages. of the warfare becomes the .all-important day passes in which they are not at war
with them."
344.]
389
The mote important word is never placed last for KK.MAKK. emphasis. The apparent cases of this usage (when the emph, not misconceived) are cases where a word is added as an afterthought,
either real or attected,
and so has
hut, as
it
which
a.
it is
appended,
and most
significant
word comes
1.
Adjective and
Noun
omnes homines
EVERY man ought (opposed to some who do not). Lucius Catilina nSbili genere natus fuit magna, vi et animi et corporis sed ingenio malo pravoque (Sail. Cat. 5), Lucius Catiline was born of a NDI-.I.E family, with GKK.VT force of mind and body, but with a NATURE that was mil and depraved. [Here the adjectives in the first part are the emphatic and important words, no antithesis between the nouns being as yet thought of; but in the second branch the noun is meant to be opposed
clecet,
to those before mentioned, and immediately takes the prominent place, as is seen by the natural English emphasis, thus making a chiasmus.'}
2.
Word
Epaminondam, Thebanorum imperatorem, quam victSriae Thebanorum consulere decuit (Inv. 1.69), what should Epaminondas, commander of the THEBANS, have aimed at more than the VICTORY of the Thebans? lacrima nihil citius arescit (id.i. 109), nothing dries quicker than a TEAR. nemo fere laudis cupidus (De Or.i. 14), hardly any one desirous of GLORY (cf. Manil. 7, avidi laudis, EAGER for glory}.
b. Numeral adjectives, adjectives of quantity, demonstrative, relative, and interrogative pronouns and adverbs, tend to precede the word or words to which they belong as,
:
perturbatione (Of. i. iyj},ivilh SOME disturbance. hoc uno praestamus (De Or. i. 32), in THIS one thing ive excel.
cum aliqua
ceterae fere
artes, the
OTHER
arts.
This happens because such words are usually emphatic; but oft words connected with them are more so, and in such cases the pronouns, etc., the emphatic place as,
:
NOTE.
yiclvi
1.250),
WOT* CASE.
see pas-
tuus (id.
i.
sage).
Romam
c.
quae asportata sunt (Ver. iv. 121), contrast to what remained at Syracuse).
is
(in
When sum
first,
(
:
172, note),
as,
it
regu-
larly stands
subject
it is
est
viri
82),
the duty
cf a great
man
to
punish
390
d.
344.
first,
emphatic:
idem fecit adulescens M. Antonius (id. ii. 49), the same thing was DONE by M. Antonius in his youth. [Opposed to dixi just before.] facis benigne (Lael.), you ACT kindly. [Cf. benigne facis, you are very
KIND (you
act KINDLY).]
is
emphatic
as,
REALLY DESERVE
their
misfortune.
praesertim
cum
scribat (Panaetius)
(id.
iii.
8), especially
when he DOES
SAY
[Opposed
to
may be emphatic
ii.
as,
fuimus Troes, fait Ilium (^En. is now no more. loquor autem de communibus
now,
etc.
325),
we have ceased to
iii.
be Trojans,
Troy
amicitiis (Off.
45)> but
I am
speaking
e. Often the connection of two emphatic phrases is brought about by giving the precedence to the most prominent part of each and leaving the less prominent parts to follow in inconspicuous places as,
:
plures solent esse causae (Of. i. 28), there are USUALLY SEVERAL reasons. quos amisimus civis eos Martis vis peiculit (Marc. 17), WHAT fellow-citizens we have LOST, have been stricken down by the violence of war.
maxima's
tibi
omnes
thanks.
est
gratias
the
WARMEST
Ccesar
obiurgationes etiam nonnunquam incidunt necessariae (Of. i. 136), OCCASIONS FOR REBUKE also SOMETIMES occur which are unavoidable.
f. Antithesis between two pairs of ideas is indicated either (i) by placing the pairs in the same order (anaphora} or (2) in exactly the opposite order (chiasmus *)
.
iii.
125),
ABUNDANCE of
iii.
(2) leges supplicio improbos afficiunt, defendunt ac tuentur the laws VISIT PUNISHMENTS upon the WICKED, but the
bonos (Fin.
5),
GOOD
they
DEFEND
and PROTECT.
i
Greek
letter
(chi),
on account of the
criss-cross arrange-
ment.
Thus
x.
344.]
r..
Sf>i'ciiit
AW
,/</:
391
in
"
Chiasmus
construction.
s
is
in.utiln.-i.il
and seems
might hear,
fact tho
more
The woin
est (Lael. 14),
all
Jrswufd, they
ired the
non
amicitiam consecuta
not then that friendship has followed upon advantage, but advan;<pon friendship. [Here the chiasmus is only grammatical, the ideas heim: in the parallel order.] (See also in the example from
Caesar, p.
388
g.
modifier of a phrase or
:
some
part of
it is
often
embodied within
to the
the phrase
i.
59),
in.
regard
UNIVERSAL
memory of man.
h. favorite order with the poets is the interlocked, by which the attribute of one pair comes between the parts of the other (synchysis} as, et superiecto pavidae natarunt aequore damae (Hor. Od. i. 2. n).
:
NOTE.
This
is
chiasmus:
as,
ii.
arma nondum
/.
I.
5).
Frequently unimportant words follow in the train of more emphatic ones with which they are grammatically connected, and so acquire a prominence out of proportion to their importance as,
:
emere
velle
(Offic.
iii.
wanted
to buy some gardens. [Here aliquos emere, but precedes it on account of the emphasis on hortulos.]
j. The copula is generally felt to be of so may come in anywhere where it sounds well
little
as,
consul ego quaesivi, cum vos mihi essetis in consilio (Repub. iii. 28), as consul I held an investigation in which you attended me in council.
ii.
Many
as,
res publica;
viri.
These had, no doubt, originally an emphasis which required such an NOTE. arrangement, but in the course of time have changed their shade of meaning. Thus, senatus populusque Romanus originally stated with emphasis the official bodies, but became fixed so as to be the only permissible form of expression.
a fondness for emphasizing persons, so that a or a pronoun often stands in an emphatic place as, [dixit] venalis quidem se hortos non habere (Offic. iii. 58), [said] that he didn't hare any gardens for sale to tie sure,
/.
: t
name
sensim sine scnsu aetas senescit (C. M. 38), thus gradually, without j old. being perceived, nun.
392
345, 346.
special rules of
arrangement
Prepositions (except tenus and versus) regularly precede 2. but a monosyllabic preposition is often placed between their nouns
a noun and
quern ad
its
as,
coplis;
nulla in re (cf.
b. Itaque regularly autem, vero, quoque, if the second word is emphatic word ne
;
comes
never
first
first,
enim,
but usually second, sometimes third emphatic; quidem never first, but after the quidem include the emphatic word or words.
c.
Inquam,
more words.
inquit, are always used parenthetically, following one or So often credo, opinor, and in poetry sometimes precor.
d. The negative precedes the word it especially affects ; but if it belongs to no one word in particular, it generally precedes the verb ; if it is especially emphatic, it begins the sentence. (See example, 344. /, note.)
e.
first
in Latin,
In the arrangement of clauses, the Relative clause more often comes and usually contains the antecedent noun : as,
vis perculit (Marc. 17), those citizens
whom
"
High on a throne of royal state, which far Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, Satan exalted sat." Paradise Lost, Book II.
1-5.
But in argument or narrative, the best English writers more commonly give short clear sentences, each distinct from the rest, and saying one thing by itself. In Latin, on the contrary, the story or argument is viewed as a whole; and the
logical relation
among
all its
parts
is
carefully indicated.
Hence
a. In general the main subject or object is put in the main clause not in a subordinate one (according to 344) as,
:
346. J
Structure:
the Period.
foetus cst,
393
when Hannibai
<
had
reviewed,
Volsci I'xif-iuun spcin in annis, alia undique abscissa, cum tentassent, praetor cetera adversa, loco quoquc iniquo ad pugnam eon^n ssi, iniquiore
ad fugam, ruin
dedito im;
al>
omni
parte caederentur,
a<l
j
iu^um
inissi,
cum
singulis vesti-
mentis, ignominiae cladisque pleni dimittuntur (Liv. iv. 10). [Here the main fact is the return of the Volscians. But the striking circumstances of the surrender, etc., which in Mulish would be detailed in a
number of
brief independent sentences, are put in the several subordinate clauses within the main clause, so that the passage gives a com-
plete picture in
b.
one sentence.]
Clauses are usually arranged in the order of prominence in the mind of the speaker so, usually, cause before result ; purpose, man;
ner,
c.
and the
like,
omitted (asyndeton}.
In co-ordinate clauses, the copulative conjunctions are frequently In such cases the connection is made clear by
antithesis indicated
some
d.
by the position of words. change of subject, when required, is marked by the introduction of a pronoun, if the new subject has already been mentioned. But
such change
less important
often purposely avoided by a change in structure, the being merged in the more important by the aid of partias, ciples or of subordinate phrases
is
:
incendium effugisse viderunt, tells eminus emissls interfecerunt, when the barbarians saw that he had escaped, THEY threw darts at HIM and killed HIM. celeriter confecto negotio, in hlberna legiones reverterunt, the matter was
quern ut barbari
soon finished,
e.
it, is
AND
repetition of a noun, or the substitution of a avoided unless a different case is required as,
:
So the
pronoun
the
for
dolorem
si
non potero frangere occultabo, if I cannot conquer [Cf. if I cannot conquer I will hide the pain .]
pain,
/. The Romans were careful to close a period with an agreeable succession of long and short syllables. Thus,
quod
is
of no
use,
quod necis multum obest (Or. l66),tnio/ JWtt kmni< what you do not knwu does great harm.
PART THIRD.
PROSODY (RULES OF
VERSE).
CHAPTER
NOTE.
I.
Quantity.
The
been somewhat
like
poetry of the Indo-European people seems originally to have our own, depending on accent for its metre and disregarding
;
the natural quantity of syllables. The Greeks, however, developed a form of poetry which, like music, pays close attention to the natural quantity of syllables and the Romans borrowed their metrical forms in classical times from the Greeks. Hence
Latin poetry does not depend, like ours, upon accent and rhyme ; but is measured, musical strains, by the length of syllables. Especially does it differ from our verse in not regarding the prose accent of the words, but substituting for that an entirely different system of metrical accent or Ictus (see 358. a). This depends upon the character of the measure used, falling regularly on certain long syllables. Each
like
syllable is
erally
counted as either long or short in Quantity l and a long syllable is genreckoned equal in length to two short ones (for exceptions, see 355. c-e).
;
The
in
mater
as of short a in pater or of long quantity of radical or stem-syllables can be learned only by observation and practice, unless determined
by the general
rules of quantity. Most of the rules of Prosody are only arbitrary rules devised to assist the memory the syllables being long or short because the
;
actual practice of the Romans in regard to the quantity of syllables is ascertained chiefly from the usage of the poets ; but the ancient grammarians give some assistance, and in some inscriptions the long
ancients pronounced
them
so.
The
vowels are distinguished in various ways, by marks over the letters, for instance, or by doubling. Since Roman poets borrowed very largely from the poetry and mythology of the Greeks, numerous Greek words, especially proper names, make an important part of Latin poetry. These words are generally employed in accordance with the Greek, and not the Latin, laws of quantity. Where these laws vary in any important point, the variations will be noticed in the rules below.
1.
General Rules.
of Quantity
(cf.
'):a.
VOWEL.
is
short
as, via,
traho.
1 The terms long and short, when used of Latin when used of English sounds, to their quality.
347.]
INS.
i.
1
lies
of Quaii'
is
395
long, except usually
in alterius.
made
short in verse
2.
83.
l>).
In the genitive and dative singular of the fifth declension, e is long but it is short in fidSI, r6i, spel. as, dig!
: ;
in these also
as,
plenu8
also long before I in the old genitive of the first declension as, aulSI. In the conjugation of fI6, i is long except when followed by er. 3. Thus, fio, fiebam, flam, but fieri, fierem so also fit, by 354. a. 3. 4. In many Greek words the vowel in Latin represents a long vowel
is
:
its
as,
TrSes
(Tpuics),
Thalia (oAeia), heroas (rjpwas), agr (arjp). NOTE. But many Greek words are more or less Latinized in this respect as, Academla, chor6a, MalSa, platSa. and sometimes in Diana and She the first 5. In gheu and dlus,
:
vov.-el is
long.
b.
DIPHTHONG.
Diphthong
:
is
EXCEPTION.
(id. v. 186).
The
preposition prae in
as,
compounds
vii.
is
generally
prae-ustls (/En.
524),
pr&e-euute
NOTE.
vowel (see
c.
make a diphthong
with a following
4. n. 3).
CONTRACTION.
from nihil
;
is
long
as, nil,
parl6tlbls
But often two syllables are united by Synaeresis without contraction: as when is pronounced paryedbus.
A vowel, though short, followed by two consonants d. POSITION. or a double consonant, makes a long syllable : as, adventus, cortex. But if the two consonants are a mute followed by 1 or r the syllable
may be
XoTE
either long or short
(common}
i
patris
or p&tris.
i.
Any vowel
before
all
cf.
So
also
note 2. X<>TE2. The compounds of iaciO, though written with one 1, commonly retain the long vowel of the prepositions with which they are compounded, as i: bfforo a consonant, and lengthen the short as if by Position. (But how the
(from rS-iacio),
syllables
were pronounced
is
uncertain.)
Thus,
gblcis hostl (at the end of a hexameter, /n. iv. 549) . jnicit 8t salttl (at the beginning of a hexameter, vEn. ix. 552). proice tela mantt (at the beginning of a hexameter, ,-En. vi. 836),
396
Prosody
Quantity.
347,
34a
The later poets sometimes shorten the preposition in trisyllabic forms, and the prepositions ending in a vowel are sometimes contracted as if the verb began with a vowel. Thus :
(1) turpe pujtas Sbijcl (Ov. Pont.
ii.
3,
37).
iv.
cur an|nos 5bi|cis (Claud. Cons. Hon. (2) reice ca]pellas (Eel. iii. 96, at end).
364).
REMARK. The y or sound resulting from synceresis has the effect of a consonant in making position: as, abietis (abyetis), fluviorum (fluvydrum). Conversely, when the semivowel becomes a vowel, position is lost: as, sfluae, for silvae.
e.
In early Latin, B at the end of words was not sounded, and hence
REMARK.
is
said to be long
as in
docetne.
The
rules of Position
do
not, in
Final Syllables.
348. The Quantity of Final Syllables is determined by the following Rules 1. Words of one syllable ending in a vowel are long as, me, tu,
: :
hi, ne.
The
shqrt
is
;
attached particles
seis
-ne', -que',
-v, -c,
-ptg,
Thus, secedit, exercitumquS reducit. But relong. often long in religio (relligio), retuli (rettuli), repuli (reppuli). 2. Nouns and adjectives of one syllable are long: as, sol, 6s (oris),
fel,
lac, mel,
os (ossis),
Most monosyllabic
as,
But
hue,
ac, eras, cur, en, non, quin, sin sic are long.
4. Final
with adverbs in c
as, hie,
in
is short,
singular of the
first
in all other
(abl.)
words
;
is
long.
Thus,
stellS. (nom.),
cum
ea stella
frustra,
voca
(imperat.),
is
saep.
Except
In nouns of the
(hoi die), quare (qua re). 2. In Greek neuters plural of the second declension
:
3. In adverbs formed from adjectives of the first and second declenas, alte, misere, aperte, saepissime. sion, with others of like form So fere, ferine, probably of same origin.
348.]
4.
-ntity
the
of I -'in at Syllables.
conjugation:
397
as,
In
imperative
vidg.
Ex<
6.
To
i is
3:
To
4: some-
Final
it
long
as in turri,
in
fill,
audi.
;
But
is
common
and short
in nisi,
Alexl.
7. Final o is common; but long in datives and ablatives, also, almost invariably, in verbs, and in nouns of the third declension.
ilic6,
prefects,
dummodd, imm6,
is
long.
Final
y
;
is
;
short.
;
long final is, us, ys, are short as, nefas, rupes, servos (ace.), honos hostis, amiciis, Tethys. EXCEPTIONS, as is short in Greek plural accusatives, as lampadSs
;
and
in anas.
es is short in nouns of the third declension (lingual) having a short vowel in the stem 1 as, mile's (-Itis), obsgs (-idis), except abies, in the prepoaries, parigs, pes in the present of esse (gs, adgs)
:
;
pengs, and in the plural of Greek nouns, as herogs, lampadgs. os is short in compo's, imp6s in the Greek nominative ending, as barbit6s also, in the old nominative ending of the second declension, as serv6s (later servus).
sition
; ;
ia
in plural
cases
is
long, as
in
(accusative plural). is is long in fis, sis, vis (with quivis, etc.), veils, malls, noils ; in the second person singular of the fourth conjugation, as audis
and sometimes in the forms in -eris was originally long. us is long (by contraction) in the genitive singular and nominative, accusative, and vocative plural of the fourth declension and in nouns of the third declension having u (long) in the stem as, virtus (-utis), incus (-udis). But pecus, -tidis.
(where
it
is
the stem-vowel);
it
10.
Of
are short.
other final syllables, those ending in a consonant, except -c, Thus, am&t, amStur; but, istuc, alec.
The
may be
398
3.
Prosody : Quantity.
Penultimate Syllables.
349, 350.
349.
any case
gular.
A
it
noun or adjective is said to increase, when in has more syllables than in the nominative sinsaid to increase,
verb
is
when
In such words as stellarum, corpSris, amatis, tegltis, the penultimate syllable is called the increment?- In itineribus, amavSritis,
the syllables marked are called the of the noun or verb.
first,
In such words as Itippiter, lovis senex, senis, the syllables whose NOTE. vowel-quantity is marked are called increments. These forms must be referred to lost nominatives from the same stems (cf. 60, 61, foot-note). So itineribus has really only two increments as from fitinus.
;
350. In increments
are generally long;
aetas, aetatis
ris
;
;
Adjectives, a and o e, i, u, y, generally short: as, honor, honoris servos, servorum opus, opgof
; ; ;
;
Nouns and
carmen, carmmis murmur, murmuris pecus, pecuc'ds chlamys, chlaniydis. Exceptions are a: short in baccar (-aris), hepar (-atis), iubar (-aris), lar (-l&ris), mas (maris), nectar (-Sris), par (paris), sal (salis), vas (v&dis), daps (dapis), fax (facis), anthrax (-acis). o short in neuters of the third declension (except os, oris) as, corpus (-8ris) also in arbor (-6ris), scrobs (scr&bis), ops (Spis), bos (b8vis), memor (-6ris), luppiter (I6vis), Hector (-8ris), and compounds of -pus (as, tripus, -p8dis).
;
: : :
long in increments of
fifth
declension
as, dies,
diel
also in
heres
(-edis), lex (legis), locuples (-etis), merces (-edis), plebs (plebis), quies (-etis), rex (regis), ver (veris), crater (-eris). But see 347. 2. i: long in most nouns and adjectives in ix: as, felicis, radicis
(except filix, nix, strix) also in dis (ditis), glis (gliris), vis (vires), Quirites, Samnites. u long in forms from nouns in -us as, palus, paludis ;
;
: :
lis (lltis),
tellfls, tel-
luris; virtus, virtutis; also in lux, lucis; [frux], frugis; fur, furis.
l The rules of Increment are purely arbitrary, as the syllables are long or short according to the proper quantity of the Stem or of the formative terminations. The declension (see \ 67) quantity of noun-stems appears in the schedule of the third and the quantity of inflection-endings is seen under the various inflections, where
;
it is
better to learn
it.
63.
351, 352.]
Penultimate Syllables.
the
399
:551.
In
2.
3.
conjugation a: as, amare, amatur. In the second conjugation 5: as, monSre, monStur. In the third conjugation 8, I as, tegSre, tegitur.
In the
first
:
4.
KXCFPTION. dp and
it.
circumdabat
a
e
is
is
always long
:
as,
monearis, tegamus.
long as, tegSbam, audiebar. But e is short before -ram, -rim, -ro in the future personal endings NOTE. -beris, -bSre and sometimes in the perfect -8runt (as st8t6runtque comae,
;
JEn.
ii.
774).
:
long in forms which follow the analogy of the fourth conjugation also in the petivi, lacessitus (in others short as, monitus) subjunctive present of esse and velle (simus, velimus) and (rarely)
i is
as,
It is
found only in imperatives, and is always long as, moneto, etc. short in suinus, volflmus, quaesttmua in the Supine and its derivatives it is long as, soluturus.
is
:
is
b.
Perfects
as, iuvi,
iutum (iuvo),
visum (video)
fugi (fflgio).
cltum,
datum, Itum, Htum, qultum, ratum, rutum, satum, situm, statum. In some compounds of sto, statum is found (long), as prdstatum.
c. In reduplicated perfects the vowel of the reduplication is short the following syllable is, also, usually short as, c6cldi (c5do), didicl
;
:
(disco),
ptipugi
m8mordi (mordeo).
vowel.
1.
(pungo), cucurri (curro), tgtendl (tendo), But cgcldi from caedS, pepgdi from pdo.
vectTgal, pulvinar.
EXCEPTIONS, animal, capital, iubar. 2. -brum, -crum, -trum: as, lavacrum, dSlubrum, vSratrum. as, formido, auriga, imago. 3. -do, -ga, -go EXCEPTIONS, cado, divide, Sdo, mddo, s61Ido, spado. trSpIdo callga, fuga, t6ga, plaga ago, t6go, nggo, r6g5, harpago, llgo. So 6gS.
: ;
4.
as, aucfle,
4OO
;
Prosody : Quantity.
;
352, 353.
stSrllis
lis,
EXCEPTIONS. m&l indSles, subfiles grScIlis, hfimilis, similis, and verbal adjectives in -ills as, dficilis, facilis, terrlbi:
amabllis.
:
-mentum as, poema, flumen, iumentunr 5. -ma, -men, EXCEPTIONS, anima, lacrima, victima; tamen, colflmen; with rggimen and the like from verb-stems in e-.
6. -mus, -nus, -rus, -sus, -tus, -neus, -rius as, extremus, stlpinus, octoni, seVerus, fumSsus, pgritus, senarius, extraneus. EXCEPTIONS. (# .) i before -mus as, fmitimus, m&ritimus (except
: :
bimus, trimus, quadrimus, opimus, mimus, ITmus) and in superlatives (except imus, primus) also, dSmus, httmus, nSmus, calamus, thalamus. (.) i before -nus as in crastinus, fraxmus, etc. (except .divinus, mStutinus, vespertmus, rgpentinus) acinus, asmus, cominus, c8phiiius, gminus, dbminus, facinus, fraxinus, protmus, terminus, vaticmus also, manus, oceanus, plStanus genus, Venus. So 6 in bSmis, onus, sonus, tdnus. as, merus, hgdera (except proce(c.} S before -rus (-ra, -rum) rus, sincerus, severus). In like manner, barbarus, ch6rus, nurus, pirus satira, amphSra, anc6ra, lyra, pyra, purpura f6rum, supparum, garum, pSrum. (d.) latus, metus, vetus, anhelitus, digitus, servitus, splritus quStus, totus arbtttus, habitus, and the like.
; :
:
7.
as,
carina,
mane,
inanis.
angina, domina, femma, machina, mina, ggna, pagina, patina, sarcina, trutlna, and compounds with -gena bne, sine c&nis, cinis, iuvgnis. 8. -re, -ris, -ta, -tis as, altare, salutaris, mSneta, immitis. EXCEPTIONS, mare, hilaris, rSta, nSta, satis, sitis, p6tis, and most nouns in -ita.
EXCEPTIONS,
advgna,
;
9.
quercetum,
EXCEPTIONS,
Igvis (light}
stStim;
;
mvis
(nix)
brgvis,
grSvis,
fSveo)
10.
also,
-ginti, -ginta
353, 354.]
1.
Penultimate Syllables.
401
dus, -lusj as, rfiatlcua, calldus, gladiolus. Spacus, Smicua; anticua, apricua, flcus, mendlcus, poaticus, pudicua fidua, nidua, aidus and u before -dua us. crudus, nudua g before -lua, as phasglua (except gSlua, scSlus) aailua; lucus.
-CUB,
IONS.
:
2.
quSror. EXCEPTIONS, divmo, featmo, prfipino, aagino, Spinor, iucliiio dSclaro, apero, spiro, oro, duro, miror.
:
as, faba, blbo, Itipa, crgpo. 3. -ba, -bo, -pa, -p5 EXCEPTIONS, gleba, scriba bubo, nubo, acrlbo papa, pupa, ripa, scopa, stupa capo, repo, stipo. as, clvltaa, fortl4. -taa (in nouns), -ter and -tus (in adverbs)
;
;
ter, pgnltus.
5.
as, faaciciilua,
Scellua, lucii-
lentus, naagnitudo.
Forms from
the
as,
Smo,
as,
in Plautus
3.
hondr. (But this shortening is comparatively late, so that and inscriptions these nominatives are often found long.)
or
-t
Many verb-forms with vowel originally long shorten it before final -r as, am6r, dicergr, amSt (compare amgmua), dicergt, audit, fit.
The
final syllable in -t
NOTE.
long, but to
4.
few long stem-syllables are shortened, apparently under the influence of accent as, acer, Scerbus. So de-iSro and pg-igro, weak:
ened from iuro. b. Forms from the same ROOT often show inherited variations of quantity (see 10) : as, dlco (cf. maledlcus), duco (duels), fido (perfidus), vocia (vSco), Iggis (ISgo).
c. COMPOUNDS retain the quantity of the words which compose them: as, oc-cldo (cado), oc-cido (caedo), in-Iquus (aequus). d. Greek words compounded with as, prSphgta, irpo have o short
:
pr816gus.
uequis,
Some
cor, pr6fiteor.
Latin compounds of pro have o short: as, prSficisCompounds with n vary: as, uSfas, uggo,
402
Prosody: Rhythm.
355.
CHAPTER
NOTE.
II.
Rhythm.
in poetry is the regular recurrence of syllables than those intervening. To produce this effect in its perfection, precisely equal times should occur between the recurrences of the stress. But, in the application of rhythm to words, the exactness of these intervals is sacrificed somewhat to the necessary length of the words and, on the other hand, the words are forced somewhat in their pronunciation, to produce more nearly the proper intervals of time. In different languages these adaptations take place in one language disregarding more the intervals of time, another different degrees the pronunciation of the words. The Greek language early developed a very strict rhythmical form of poetry, in which the intervals of time were all-important. The earliest Latin, on the other as in the Saturnian and Fescennine verse, was not so restricted. But hand, the purely metrical forms were afterwards adopted from the Greek, and supplanted the native forms of verse. Thus the Latin poetry with which we have to do follows for the most part Greek rules, which require the formal division of words
The
essence of
Rhythm
stress
The strict (like music) into measures of equal times, technically called Feet. rhythm was doubtless more closely followed in poetry that was sung than in that which was declaimed or intoned. In neither language, however, is the time perand there are some cases in which the fectly preserved, even in single measures regularity of the time between the ictuses is disturbed. The Greeks and Romans distinguished syllables of two kinds in regard to the time
;
required for their pronunciation, a long syllable having twice the metrical value of a But it must not be supposed that all long syllables were of equal length, or even that in a given passage each long had just twice the length of the contiguous shorts. The ratio was only approximate at best, though necessarily more exact in singing than in recitation. Nor are longs and shorts the only forms of syllables that are found. In some cases a long syllable was protracted, so as to have the time of three or even of four shorts, and often one long or two shorts were pronounced >n less than their proper time, though doubtless always distinguishable in time from
short one.
one short (see d}. Sometimes a syllable naturally short seems to have 355. been slightly prolonged, so as to represent a long, though in most (not all) cases the apparent irregularity can be otherwise explained. In a few cases, also, a pause takes the place of one or more syllables to fill out the required length of the measure. This could, of course, take place only at the end of a word hence the impor,
358).
Measures.
of the division of musical
sound
MEASURES Or FEET.
natural division of musical time
is
The most
into meas-
But the ures consisting of either two or three equal parts. ancients also distinguished measures of five equal parts.
355, 356.J
Measures.
The
divisions of musical time are
403
marked by a
stress of voice
REMARK.
on
or
This
Ictus
(b fat),
called a
is
one short
syllable.
This
is
the sign
or in musical nota-
tion
b.
by the quaver
A long syllable
_,
by the sign
c.
is
represented
long syllable
may be
;
equal to four, by
L_I
(or F).
of a short one.
e.
A A
sometimes represented by the sign >. short syllable may be contracted so as to occupy less than one
pause sometimes occurs at the end of a verse or a series of fill up the time. pause of one mora in a measure is indi-
mora.
f.
verses, to
one of two mores by the sign 7\ cated by the sign g. One or more syllables are sometimes placed before the proper beginning of the measure. Such syllables are called an ANACRUSIS or
j .
preluded
The
anacrusis
is
regularly equal
to
measure.
in Latin
(f).
TROCHEE
IAMBUS
w
(w
_
as *
rgs
2.
=P
P)
as, diices.
:
3.
TRIBRACH 8 (^
ww =ff
f)
as, htimtnts.
1 The same thing occurs in modern poetry, and in modern music any unaccented syllables at the beginning are treated as an anacrusis, i.e. they make an incomplete measure before the first bar. This was not the case in ancient music. The ancients seem to have treated any unaccented syllable at the beginning as belonging to the following accented ones, so as to make with them a foot or measure. Thus it would seem that the original form of Indo-European poetry was iambic in its structure, or at least accented the second syllable rather than the first.
2 8
Called diplasic, the two parts (Thesis and Arsis) being in the ratio of 2 to I. Not found as a fundamental foot, but only as the resolution of a Trochee o*
Iambus.
404
b.
Prosody: Rhythm.
356.
(f).
1.
DACTYL
(+.
w w= w
__
PP)
f)
:
as, consults.
2.
ANAPAEST (w
= PP
as,
monitos.
3.
SPONDEE
(_
=P
P)
as,
r^r.
c.
SIX-TIMED MEASURES
(
\j
(f).
:
1.
IONIC a maiore
IONIC # minore
w
=
f f f f) f f f f) f)
as, confec$rat.
2.
(w w
as, retulissent.
3.
CHORIAMBUS
(_ w w
_ = f PP
as, contulerant.
d.
1.
(f).
CRETIC
PiEOKprfmtts
(_
\j
=f
f f)
as, consults.
as, cons&ttb&s*
2.
(_ w w w = f f f
i*)
3.
P.EON quartus (w
w w
= fff
f)
:
as, r/r^rf.
4.
BACCHIUS
Several
(w
=f
f f)
as,
dmicos.
are mentioned by the grammarians, w), Proceleusmatic (^ \j \j w ), the 2d and 3d Pceon, having a long syllable in the 2d and 3d places, with three short ones 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th Epitritus^ having a short syllable in the 1st, 2d, 3d, and 4th places, with three long ones. None of them, however, are needed to explain rhythmically all the forms of ancient
e.
compound measures
(
viz.,
Antibacchlus
verse.
/. Feet with these apparent quantities do not always occupy the in the measure, but may be contracted or prolonged to suit
same time
the series in which they occur. They are then called irrational, because the thesis and arsis do not have integral ratios. Such are :
IRRATIONAL SPONDEE
CYCLIC DACTYL:
_>
= -ww =
^
Js
3
^ (or nearly N
M.
i to 1$,
or of 3 to
2.
356, 357.]
Measures.
:
405
reversed.
CYCLIC ANAPAEST
IRRATIONAL TROCHEE:
NOTE. and
\
verse,
assuming
3, 8*
Of feet and combinations of feet (sometimes extending to an entire controlled by a single leading accent), the following are recognized, to be the unit of musical time:
4^ 8*
r,^
8*
G^ 8*
O
f
!Of 8*
12 ? 8*
16^
8*
lG 8*
f
18f 8*
2O^
26.
8*
8*
Narrative poetry was written for rhythmical recitation, or Chant, with instrumental accompaniment; and Lyrical poetry for rhythmical melody, or singing. It which in this differs widely from must be borne in mind that in ancient music the rhythm of the melody was identical with the rhythm oi the text. modern The lyric poetry was to be sung; the poet was musician and composer, as well as " author. To this day a poet is said conventionally to sing."
Thus a correct understanding of the rhythmical structure of the Verse gives us the exact time, though not the tune, to which it was actually sung. The exact time, however, as indicated by the succession of long and short syllables, was varied " according to certain laws of so-called Rhythmic," as will be explained below. In reading ancient verse it is necessary to bear in mind not only the variations in the
relative length of syllables, but the occasional pause necessary to fill out the measure ; and to remember that the rhythmical accent is the only one of importance,
carefully,
Do
of the
substituted for each other, a long syllable taking the place of two short ones, or two short ones the place of one long
one.
is
:
said to
be contracted;
be
resolved.
)
Thus
Spondee
( )
;
may
w w)
or an
anapaest
and a Tribrach (^ ^ w) may take the place of a The optional substitution of Trochee ( \J) or an Iambus (^ ). one long syllable for two short ones is represented by the sign <so. b. Another form of dactyl when substituted for a trochee is repre-
(^
sented thus,
\3^>>
A
c.
for
a trochee,
is
represented
thus, __
>
a long syllable having the Ictus ( 358. a) is resolved, the belongs to both the resulting short syllables ; but for
is
When
ictus properly
placed on the
cor
acr*'
first
as,
situ' acetu
tibi
in
pectore.
auh. 405.
406
2.
Prosody: Rhythm.
35a
of the
of voice (the musical accent) 'is called the unaccented part is called the ARSis. 1
upon the Thesis thus: marked jL w (deaf). b. The ending of a word within a measure
a.
stress
;
the
The
is
It is
is
called
CESURA.
When
this coincides
it is
the verse, and is of main importance as affecting the melody or rhythm. c. The coincidence of the end of a word with that of a measure in
Prosody
1
is
called
DLERESIS.
\he putting down (fleVts, from riOri/LLi) of the foot march or dance ("downward beat"), and the Arsis, the raising (apvis, from aet/xw) of the foot ("upward beat "). By the Latin grammarians these terms were made to mean, respectively, the ending and beginning of a meas-
ure.
By a misunderstanding which has prevailed till recently, since the time of Bentley, their true signification has been reversed. They will here be used in accordance with their ancient meaning, as has now become more common. This
metrical accent, recurring at regular intervals of time, is what constitutes the essence of the rhythm of poetry as distinguished from prose, and should be constantly kept
in
mind.
The
definition
error mentioned arose from applying to trochaic which was true only of iambic or anapaestic
and
dactylic verse
359.1
The
Verse.
407
CHAPTER
III.
1.
Versification.
The Verse.
that
is
is,
359.
a series of meas-
ures set in a
NOTE.
recognized order
called a
VERSE. l
stichs),
Most of the common verses originally consisted of two series (hemibut the joint between them is often obscured. It is marked in Iambic verse by the Diaeresis, in Dactylic Hexameter by the Ccesura.
a.
A
is,
that
is
having a pause to
is
called
CATALECTIC,
when
called
pause.
To
its
and
versification, is called
REMARK. In reading verse rhythmically, care should be taken to preserve the measure or time of the syllables, but at the same time not to destroy or confuse the words themselves, as is often done in scanning.
c.
interjection) is partially suppressed when the next word begins with a vowel or with h. This is called ELISION (bruising). 2
an
In reading it is usual entirely to suppress elided syllables. however, they should be sounded lightly.
Strictly,
REMARK.
Elision
is
(smearing) . Rarely a syllable is elided at the end of a verse a vowel: this is called Synapheia (binding).
when
1 The word Verse (versus) signifies a turning back, i.e. to begin again in like manner, as opposed to Prose (prorsus or proversus), which means straight ahead. 2 The practice of Elision is followed in Italian and French poetry, and is some-
th*
unwary
sense.
Comus
538.
letter
In early Latin poetry a final syllable ending in s often loses this a consonant (cf. $ 13. b) as,
scnid coniectu1 quiescit.
even before
Ennius (C. M.
14).
408
d.
Prosody :
Versification.
359-62.
A final -m,
ner
when
the next
with the preceding vowel, is suppressed in like manword begins with a vowel or h: 1 this is called
:
as,
sEn.
Final
iii.
658.
has a feeble nasal sound, so that its partial suppression before the initial vowel of the following word was easy.
(plural) are
is
-m
The monosyllables do, dem, spe, spem, sim, sto, stem, qui never elided ; nor is an iambic word elided in dactylic verse. Elision often evaded by skilful collocation of words.
e.
REMARK.
Elision
is
a special emphasis, or
called
sometimes omitted when a word ending in a vowel has is succeeded by a pause. This omission is
in such cases.
f.
A final syllable,
:
pause
9 it is
regularly short, is sometimes lengthened before a then said to be long by Diastole: as,
nostr5r* g.
obruimur,
The
last syllable
of any verse
may be
(syllaba anceps).
its dominant or fundamental measure as, Dactylic, Iambic, Trochaic, Anapcestic ; and from the number of measures (single or
360.
A verse
which
receives
:
double)
it
contains
as,
Hexameter,
Tetrameter,
by
Iambic, and Anapsestic verses are measured not by Iambi make a Trimeters
361. Stanza, or Strophe, consists of a definite number of verses ranged in a fixed order. Many stanzas are named after some eminent poet as,
:
Sapphic (from Sappho), Alcaic (from Alcaeus), Archilochian (from Archilochus), Horatian (from Horace), and so on.
1.
Dactylic Hexameter.
Verse, consists
:
It may be represented thus theoretically of six dactyls. 1 Hence a final its vowel, syllable in -m is said to have no quantity of itt own in any case, being either elided or else made long by Position.
2 This usage is comparatively rare, most cases where it appears to be found being caused by the retention of an originally long quantity.
362.]
Dactylic Hexameter.
409
irtfirt; ricrircrircr
For any one of the feet, except the stituted, and must be for the last.
a.
fifth,
a spondee
may he
sub-
fifth place ; the verse is then called the verse ends with incrementum. 49 spondaic. In reality the last foot is a trochee standing for a dactyl, but the final NOTK. syllable is not measured, and the foot is usually said to be a spondee.
Rarely a spondee
is
found in the
iv.
Thus
in Eel.
b.
c&siira
sometimes
two
The principal caesura is usually after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis'} of the tJiird foot, dividing the verse into two parts in sense
and rhythm.
It
may
also
fourth foot.
parte fe
be after the thesis (less commonly in the arsis) of the In this case there is often another caesura in the second
ar
|
rox
clensqu* ocu
Us
||
et
|
sibila
colla.
|
j3Ln. v. 277.
Often the only indication of the principal among a number of caesuras is the break in the sense. caesura occurring after the first syllable of a foot is called masculine. A caesura occurring after the second syllable of a foot is called feminine (as in the caesura may also be found in any foot fifth foot of the 3d and 4th verses in c). of the verse, but a proper ccesural pause could hardly occur in the first or sixth. When the fourth foot ends a word, the break (properly a diaeresis) is sometimes
REMARK.
its
introductory verses of the yneid, divided according to the will appear as follows. The principal caesura in each rules, foregoing verse is marked by double lines
:
The
oris Tro|iae qui primus ab Itall|am fa (to profu|gus Lajvimaque vemt mult">* ill* et ter|ris alto litora, iac|tatus et
||
|
||
||
supe|rum saejvae memo|rem lujnoms ob Tram; conclcret multa quojqu' et bel|lo pas|sus dum urbem, umle La|tinum, genus infer] retque de|5s Lati|o, Roinae. Albajnique pa|tres, H at|qu* altae moenia
vi
||
|
||
[|
The feminine
ccesura
is
sEn.\\. 131. thus illustrated in English verse: " Over the sea, past Crete, on the Syrian shore to the southward, Dwells in the well-tilled lowland a dark-haired ./Ethiop people, Skilful with needle and loom, and the arts of the dyer and carver, for they know not the lords of Olympus, Skilful, but feeble of heart
|
is
4IO
;
Prosody:
Versification.
[362,363.
Lovers of men neither broad-browed Zeus, nor Pallas Athene^ Teacher of wisdom to heroes, bestower of might in the battle Share not the cunning of Hermes, nor list to the songs of Apollo, Fearing the stars of the sky, and the roll of the blue salt water."
;
Kingslcy's
2.
Andromeda
Elegiac Stanza.
363. The Elegiac Stanza consists of two lines, an hexameter followed by a pentameter. 1 The Pentameter verse is the same as the hexameter, except that it omits the last half of the third foot and
of the sixth foot.
Thus,
ri;
a.
r
is
rtrlrcrl
thus to be scanned as two half-verses* the second of which always consists of two dactyls followed by a single
verse
syllable.
b. The Pentameter has no regular Caesura but the first half-verse must always end with a word, which is followed by a pause to complete
;
The Pentameter
the measure. 2
c.
The
:
Stanza
cum cum
illi[us trls|tissima
|
qua mlhi
|
suprejmum
|
A
H
II
iam prope
finlbus
lux adejrat
J
qua
J\
||
me
dis|cedere| Caesar
(
extre|mae
iusserat
i.
3.
Elegiac Stanza differs widely in character from hexameter verse (of which it is a mere modification) by its division into Distichs, each of which must have its own sense complete. It is employed in a great variety of composiand was especially a favorite of the tions, epistolary, amatory, and mournful, poet Ovid. It has been illustrated in English verse, imitated. from the German
:
NOTE.
The
"
rises the
fountain's
|
silvery
|
column;
aye
||
falling in
melody
back."
five
feet
Called pentameter by the old grammarians, who divided it, formally, into (two dactyls or spondees, a spondee, and two anapaests), as follows
: II
ww
W
ww
W
II
\j \j
Iww
W
1
II
The
may be
li
filled
pre-
ceding
syllable, thus-
_W
_W
L-J
W W
364, 365.]
3.
Iambic Trimct
Other Dactylic Verses.
41
;5G4.
Thus ally used by the lyric poets. a. The Dactylic Tetrameter alternates with the Akmanian Strophe, as follows
:
O
mccum
|
for|tes pe|ioraque pass!, nunc vino pellite curas; saepe vi|ri eras in gens itelrabimus aequor. HOK. Od. i. 7 (so 28; Ep. 12).
|
||
NOTE.
f, note).
This verse
is
a single measure,
its
-l
($ 356.
b.
The
Dactylic
It is
Penthemim
tameter verse.
(five half-feet) consists of half a penused in combination with the Hexameter to form
:
as,
| |
m|ves
campis,
mutat
terra vi|ces
||
et
|
flumina
iv. 7.
[For the Fourth Archilochian Strophe (Archilochian Heptameter, alternating with iambic trimeter catalectic), see $ 372. n.]
4.
Iambic Trimeter.
is the ordinary verse of It consists of three measures, each dramatic dialogue. Thus, containing a double iambus (iambic dipody}.
^
It is
\j
1^;
:
\j
1^
do manus
|
scientiae
Proserpinae,
movenjda numina,
|
HOR. Epod.
17.
"
Oh stay, 'anidia, stay thy rights of sorcery, Thy charm unbinding backward let thy swift wheel
!
"
fly!
a.
is
often
used in
412
beatus
Prosody :
il|le
Versification.
negotns, mortalium,
J
365.
qui procul
|
ut prisca gens
solutus
om|m
fen ore;
|
truci,
HOR. Epod.
2.
b. In the Iambic Trimeter an irrational spondee (> ) or its equivor an apparent dactyl alent (a cyclic anapaest ( 356./)) Trimay be regularly substituted for the first iambus of any dipody. brach ( (j ) may stand for an Iambus anywhere except in the last
w w
>ww
place.
may be made
!
in
any
as,
|
lucis al
me
rector
|
]|
et
[ ||
caeli decus
|
sexaginlta natus
es.
TERENCE, Heaut.
62,
II
nz'hfl
a m?
all
I
endm
puto.
11
iambus:
^.
_ _
\j est
^.
_w_
w _ L_I _ AH
cdm
scribit:
s-?
aeque
beajtus ac poe|ma
|
tarn gatidet in
se,
tdmque
ip|se miratur.
CATULL.
d.
Catalectic
is
represented as follows
It is
372. u),
and
is
shown
urit of|ficinas.
HOR. Od.
i.
4.
"On
NOTE.
Scott.
regarded, metrically, as "a single foot" time being represented by }/), consisting of three dipodies, and having its (its on the second syllable of the verse, though this is a principal accent, probably, matter of dispute. The spondee in this verse, being a substitute for an iambus, is irrational, and must be shortened to fit the measure of the iambus (represented
366, 367.]
413
Iambic verse arc the following The Iambic TKTKAMKIKK Catalectic (Septtnarius). This confeet,
of seven iambic
It is
Trimeter.
used in
lively dialogue
|
as,
quod m*
)
quibus quidem
quam
faci|le potuerat
quiesci
The rhythm of the Iambic Septenarius may be thus represented according to our musical notation (see p. 403, foot-note i)
:
II
\j
_w
jL\j
\j
\j
__ A
II
Its
movement is like the following: " In go6d king Charles's golden days, when loyalty no harm meant," etc. Vicar of Bray.
b.
of eight meter.
Acatalectic (Octdnarius). This consists iambic feet with the same substitutions as in Iambic Tri-
It is also-
as,
hocinest
huma|num
|
mjceptw? hocmest of[f!cidm patns? deum fidem, quid est, s* hoc non con|tumellast?
|
This
may be
lectic.
1. The Iambic Dimeter Acatalectic consists of four iambic feet. It used in combination with some longer verse (see 365. a). 2. The Iambic Dimeter Catalectic consists of three and a half iambic feet It is used only in choruses as, is
:
rapitdr
quod im potent!
|
facmus parat
6.
furore?
Trochaic Verse.
367. The most common form of Trochaic verse is the Tetrameter catalcctic (Scptcndrius), consisting of four It is repredipodies, the last of which lacks a syllable.
sented metrically thus,
414
Prosody:
Versification.
367,
36a
linw_>l.w_>ll.^_>|rl w- All
or in musical notation,
ad
tz
II
consili*
atixili* expetens.
TER.
An Jr.
ii.
18.
In English verse
" Tell
me
life is
resolutions can be substituted only in the even places except in comic poetry, which allows the substitution in any foot but the last : as,
a.
its
;
itid**
atqu* ego.
malae, mentum,
si
barba, collus;
|
tergum
ci
|
catricosum,
mhil hoc
similist
|
similius.
Some
other forms of trochaic verse are found in the lyric poets, whole lines or parts of lines :
ne|qu<? atfreum.
in
non ebur
mea remjdet
domojla cunar.
HOR. Od.
7.
ii.
1 8.
Mixed Measures.
combined
is
NOTE.
ways.
simply joined to a series of another kind (compare the changes of rhythm not uncommon in modern music) or (2) single feet of other measures are combined with the prevailing measures, in which case these odd feet are adapted by changing their quantity so that they become irrational
;
in the
same verse
in
two
different
(see
356, Note).
enough measures of one kind occur to form a series, we may suppose a change of rhythm when they are isolated, we must suppose adaptation. Of the indefinite number of possible combinations but few are found in Latin poetry.
;
When
368. The following verses, combining different rhythmical series, are found in Latin lyrical poetry i. GREATER ARCHILOCHIAN (Dactylic Tetrameter; Trochaic
:
Tripody)
solvitur
II
_ oo| _ ool_c?o| _ oo _
II |
\j
_w _>
I
II
acris hi
|
ems gra|ta
vice
||
veris
et
|
Fa|voni.
HOR. Od.
i.
4.
measure
368-70.]
2.
Logaccdic
Verse.
4*5
thorn m
II
_ ww _ w w _
I | |
II
_w_
_w_
id.
II
scrlbere
versicujlos
8.
II
amore per|culsum
iuvat.
Ep.
II.
Logacedic Verse.
positions, irrational
369. Trochaic verses containing in regular prescribed measures or irrational feet, are called
1.
LOGACEDIC.
2.
3.
principal logaoedic forms are Logaoedic Tetrapody (fottrfeet) GLYCONIC. Logaoedic Tripody (three feet) 5 PHERECRATIC.
: :
The
this
may be regarded
as a short
Pherecratic.
measures are those in which the syllables do not correspond normal ratio of length (see 355) Such are the Irrational Spondee and the Cyclic DactyL This mixture of various ratios of length gives an effect approachThese measures ing that of prose hence the name Logaoedic (Atfyos, doiSr?) originated in the Greek lyric poetry, and were adopted by the Romans. All the
NOTE.
strictly to the
Roman lyric metres not belonging to the regular iambic, trochaic, dactylic, or Ionic systems, were constructed on the basis of the three forms given above viz., LogaoeThe so-called dic systems consisting respectively of four, three, and two feet. Logaoedic Pentapody consists of five feet, but is to be regarded as composed of two
:
of the others.
370. Each logaoedic form contains a single dactyl, 1 which may be either in the first, second, or third place. The verse may be catalectic or acatalectic. Thus,
Glyconic.
Pherecratic.
Hi.
_w
_
|_wl-^/w|_(w)ll-^w|_(w)ll
I
The shorter Pherecratic (dipody), if catalectic, appears to be a simple NOTE. Choriambus ( \j w A) and, in general, the effect of the logacedic forms is Choriambic. In fact, they were so regarded by the later Greek and Latin metricians, and these metres have obtained the general name of CHORIAMBIC. But
they are not true choriambic, though they may very likely have been felt to be such by the composer, who imitated the forms without much thought of their origin.
therefore, on that principle. But it is better to read that course is followed here, in accordance with subject.
Different
and so a
tated by
large number of verses arose, each following the Romans as distinct metres.
strict law,
41 6
Prosody :
Versification.
371.
GLYCONIC (Second
Glyconic, catalectic)
Romae
In English
:
prmcipis
urbilum.
man."
Shelley.
is
In this and most of the succeeding forms the first foot irrational in Horace, consisting of an apparent spondee ( >).
NOTE.
always
2.
temperat
ora
frenis.
Hor.
NOTE.
It is
made
3.
ADONIC
rr^rrMJf
Terruit
|
urbem.
Hor.
Or perhaps
"-'- Ai
r3cir
:
4.
Hor.
Pherecratic, both cata-
lectic):
Maecenas
6.
Hor.
GREATER ASCLEPIADIC
:
Dipody
inter-
posed)
tu
7.
ne quaesiens
scire nefas
tibi.
Hor.
place)
l!_w|_>l-^w!_wli_|wAH
integer vitae scelerfsque purus.
Hor
371, 372.]
Metres of Horace.
Or
in
English:
" Brilliant hopes,
all
woven
in
gorgeous tissues."
l-'irst
I
Longfellow.
8.
Phcrecratic)-.
||_W|_>|-V^W|L_||--^W|_ w
dcos oro Sybarin
H cfir
L_
wAU
two
tro-
propcras amandS.
Hor.
dactyls,
9.
chees)
\j \j
ww
\j
II
Hor.
Atalanta in Calydon.
10.
GREATER ALCAIC
and dactyl
iust
crusis,
llw:__w|__>l-^wl_w)wAH
e*t
NOTE.
n. PHALJECIAN
place)
:
agit praecipit^w fn
xl.
In English
"
12.
Gorgeous flowerets
Longfellow.
:
||
Catull. xvii.
Metres of Horace.
varieties of
these are
ALCAIC, consisting of two Greater Alcaics (10), one Trochaic Dimeter with anacrusis, and one Lesser Alcaic (9) l : as,
iust* et tenacem propositl virtira non cfvi* ardor prava iubentidm non vdltus tnstantis tyranni
mente
quatit solida
nequ' Adster.
37;
Od.
ii.
in. 3.
(Found
in Od.
i.
i, 3, 5, 7, 9, iv. 4, 9,
u,
i, 2, 3,
29;
14, 13.)
The
($ 371).
4i 8
NOTE.
Prosody:
The
Versification.
'j$
372.
Alcaic Strophe was a special favorite with Horace, of whose Odes It is sometimes called the Horatian Stanza. The
;
verses were formerly described as, i, 2. spondee, bacchius, two dactyls bacchius, two trochees ; 4. two dactyls, two trochees.
3.
spondee,
2. SAPPHIC (minor) 9 consisting of three Lesser Sapphics (7) and v one Adonic (3) : as,
iam
satis terns nivis atque dirae gran dim's misit pater et rubente dextera sacras iaculatus arces terruit drbem. Od. i. 2.
(Found
iii.
in
1
Od.
8,
i.
2,
10,
ii.
2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 16;
8,
n,
14,
n.
Carm. Sac?)
The Sapphic Stanza is named after the poetess Sappho of Lesbos, NOTE. and was a great favorite with the ancients. It is used by Horace in twenty-five more frequently than any other except the Alcaic. The Lesser Sapphic Odes verse was formerly described as consisting of a Choriambus preceded by a trochaic dipody and followed by a bacchius.
3.
SAPPHIC
(major'), consisting of
:
as,
Lydia dfc, per o'mnes deos oro, Sybarm cur properas amando.
I.
Od.
i.
8.
4.
(5)
ASCLEPIADEAN as,-
(tntnor), consisting
of
Lesser Asclepiadics
Od.
iii.
30.
(Found
5.
in
Od.
i.
iii.
30;
iv. 8.)
ASCLEPIADEAN
II.,
:
consisting of
as,
Navis quae tibi creditdm f inibus Atticfs debes Virgilidm, reddas incolumem, precor, dimididm meae. et serves animae
Od.
28;
i.
3.
(Found
in Od.
i.
3, 13, 19,
36;
iii.
iv. i, 3.)
III.,
:
as,
sit
Quis deaderio
cantus,
cui liquidam pate"r Melpomene, vocem cdm cythara dedit. Od. i. 24.
i.
(Found
in
Od.
1
6, 15, 24,
33;
ii.
12;
iii.
10, 16;
iv. 5, 12.)
372.]
7.
Metres of Horace.
419
ASCLEPIADEAN
as,
fdns Uaiulusiac splendidior vitro, ddlci dignc Micro, non sine floribds,
eras donSberis hae*d5
cui frons tdrgida cornibds.
Od.
iii.
iii.
13.
iv.
(Found
8.
in
Od.
i.
5, 14, 21,
23;
ii.
7;
7, 13;
13.)
ASCLEPIADEAN V. (major)
(6):
as,td
scire nefas
Ledconoe
Od.
in
i.
tibl
n.
i.
(Found
9.
Od.
II, 18;
iv.
10.)
with Tetrameter
ALCMANIAN, consisting of Dactylic Hexameter ( 362) alternating ( 364. a}. (Od. i. 7, 28; Epod. 12.) 10. ARCHILOCHIAN I., consisting of Dactylic Hexameter alternatPenthemim, see
364.
).
iv. 7.)
(Od.
ir.
ARCHILOCHIAN
368.
IV.,
i),
(heptaineter^
(
S^S' ^)-
The
solvitur acris
||
Od.
i.
4.
14.
Iambic Trimeter alone (see 365). (Ep. 17.) Iambic Strophe (see 365. a). (Ep. i-io.) Dactylic Hexameter alternating with Iambic Dimeter
nox
erat, et caelo fulgebat
as,
luna sereno
laesura deorum,
inter
minora
sfdera,
cum
in
lu,
magnorum numen
Epod.
15.
(So in Ep.
(
14.)
15.
365); as,
iam
sufs et ipsa
Roma
viribus ruit.
Epod. 16.
16.
as,
|
|
cst
nequ<f amori dare ludum neque dulci luver^ aut c\|animari mctucnles. Od. iii. 12.
|
I
42O
Prosody:
(
Versification.
Dactylic
372.
365)
Penthemim
364. U)
Pect! nihil
me
scribere versiculos
amore perculsdm
gravi.
Epod. n.
Dactylic
18. Dactylic
(
Hexameter;
Iambic Dimeter;
Penthemim
364. 6)
as,
horrida tempestas caeldm contraxit, et imbres nivesque deducdnt lovem ndnc mare, ndnc siliiae.
:
Epod.
19.
3.
Trochaic Dimeter,
catalectic
(see
367. b}.
Maecenas
atavis
:
4.
2.
lam
satis terris
:
2.
3. 4.
5. 6.
Sic te diva
5.
Dianam
24.
:
Quis desiderio
6.
:
6. 9.
7.
8.
Laudabunt
alii
Parcius iunctas
2.
Musis amicus
Natis in
i.
:
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
usum
i.
2.
Te
30. 31.
I.
Cum
tu Lydia: 5.
:
14.
15.
16. 17.
O navis
Pastor
7.
cum
traheret
i.
:
6.
6.
:
I.
I.
i.
:
5.
18. 19.
8.
Nunc
est
bibendum:
:
i.
5.
Persicos odi
a.
LIB.
1.
II.
Motum
ex Metello :
:
i.
n. Quid
12.
bellicosus
:
i.
2.
Nullus argento
2.
Nolis longa
Ille et
6.
:
3.
4. 5.
6.
13.
nefasto
I.
14.
15. 16. 17.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Septimi Gades: 2. O saepe mecum : I. Ulla si iuris 2. Non semper imbres Rectius vives: 2.
:
i.
18.
:
Non
ebur
19.
I.
19.
Bacchum
in remotis: x,
i.
20.
Nonusitata:
372, 373.]
Index
to
Metres of Horace.
Li I!. III.
421
1. 2.
I.
16. 17.
I.
Inclusam Danae'n
6.
Adi
vctust'*: i.
:
3.
.}.
ct tfii; icom:
>:
:
18. 19.
I.
I.
2.
5.
Caelo tDnantem
Delicta
Non
6.
maiorum:
:
I.
i.
7.
8.
Quid
fles
7.
:
Montium
custos: 2.
:
Miirtiis caelebs
2.
Caelo supinas
i.
Donee
Intactis opulentior: 5.
Quo me Bacche
Vixi puellis:
:
5.
Mcrcuri
nam
te: 2.
I.
12. 13.
14.
Miscrarum
est: 16.
fons Bandusiae: 7.
:
28.
29.
2.
Ilerculis ritu
2.
:
15.
Uxor pauperis
5.
30.
4.
LIB. IV.
1. 2.
9.
Ne
forte credas
i.
:
10.
5.
crudelis
adhuc
:
8.
2.
:
3.
4.
5.
6.
Quern tu Melpomene Qualem ministrum i. Divis orte bonus 6. Dive quern proles 2.
:
11. 12.
13.
Est mihi
nonum
lam
veris comites
6.
14.
15.
7.
8.
Diffugere nives
10.
:
Donarem
pateras
4.
EPODES.
1.
Ibis Liburnis
13.
10.
11.
Mala
Quid
soluta: 13.
tibi vis: 9.
2. 3.
Beat us
ille
13.
:
Pectinihil: 17.
Parentis olim
13.
12. 13.
4.
5.
6.
Horrida tempestas:
Mollis inertia : 14.
18.
Noxerat:
Altera iam
14.
:
7.
8. 9.
Quo quo
scelesti
:
13.
Iam iam
15. efficaci
12.
13.
373. Other
lyric poets
above-mentioned verses.
a. Glyconics with
Thus,
:
as,
in fide
|
integri
integri
| |
CATULL.
34.
as,
an Adonic:
An
Manes
J
infe[rorum
422
fugit
Prosody
I
Versification.
373, 374.
tela Poe|as; hume| risque et no|tas popu|lis phajretras gestat Herculis heres. SEN. Here. (Et.
quern
tu|lit
|
1 600-6.
(id.
Here.
10. Miscellaneous.
found
in
dramatic
may be
substituted
cupi^ e veniunt,
|
sequitur
PLAUT. Trin.
115-19.
BACCHIAC verses (five-timed) occur in the dramatic poets, very either in verses of rarely in Terence, more commonly in Plautus,
b.
two
feet
(Dimeter) or of four (Tetrameter). They are treated very measures in early Latin. The long syllables may be
multas res
simit
in
me5
cor de vorso,
|
mult*
egomet
magister
mih* exer
citor ani
c.
in the
same manner
ne fuas
|
The
|
incomplete
as,
unquam.
|
d* artibus
|
moror
faeceos
d.
SATURNIAN VERSE.
In early Latin
is
not borrowed from the Greek like the others. The rhythm is Iambic Tetrameter (or Trochaic with Anacrusis), but the Arsis is often syncopated, especially in the middle and at the end of the verse
:
as,
dabdnt
malum
Metellli
1|
Naevijo po|etae.
375.]
Early Prosody.
11.
423
Early Prosody.
differs in several
375. The prosody of the earlier poets 1 respects from that of the later.
a.
not
At the end of words a was only feebly sounded, so that it does make position with a following consonant, and is sometimes cut off
This usage continued in
all
before a vowel.
(
poets
till
Cicero's time
347- ')
b.
The
last syllable
if
the
first is
short.
;
(This
cf.
of any word of two syllables may be made short effect remained in a few words like puts,
348.)
Thus,
12); Spud {Trin. 196); soror dictast (Enn. 157^); bonas {Stick. 99); domi deaeque (Pseud. 37); dorm {Mil. 194).
I.
test
syllable
id est profecto {Merc. 372); erit et tib* exoptatum {Mil. hercle {Asin. 414); quid est s* hoc {Andria, 237).
d.
quid"
is
often disregarded. 2
Such are
Ille,
Thus,
in a
In some cases the accent seems to shorten a syllable preceding it word of more than three syllables, as in sengctuti, Syracusae. f. At the beginning of a verse many syllables long by position stand
e.
for short
ones
as,
v. i. 18). is
The
:
many
is
final syllables
retained.
Thus
1.
Final -a of the
first
declension
sit
as,
et
amic5
prosperab^ et
genio
meo mul
bona faciam
{Pf>rs.
263).
Before the Latin language was used in literature, it had become much changed by the loss of final consonants and the shortening of final syllables under the influence of accent (which was originally free in its position, but in Latin became limited to the penult and antepenult). This tendency was arrested by the study of
grammar and by litrraturo, but shows itself again in the Romance many cases this change was still in progress in the time of the early
2 Scholars are not yet
languages.
poets.
In
this irregularity.
424
3.
Prosody:
The ending -or
dict
is
Versification.
375.
as,
modo quom
fta
in
m*
The
in
miles, superstes.
5.
vowel
All verb-endings in -r, -s, and -t may be retained long where the is elsewhere long in inflection as,
:
regredior audfsse
me {Capt. 1023); 248) ; me nominal haec {Epid. 42); infuscabat, amab5 (Cretics,
(TV^r. 11.4.79).
Cist.
1.8); facial ut semper {Poen. ii, i. 21); qui amet (Merc. 1021); {Capt. 25); tibi sit ad me revisas
h.
sense, or
1
The hiatus is allowed very freely, especially when there is a change of the speaker. 1
it
at a pause in the
The extent
state of texts
MISCELLANEOUS.
1.
Reckoning
of Time.
designated, in earligr times, by the names of the Consuls but was afterwards reckoned from the building of the City (ad urbe condita, anno urbis condttae), the date of which was assigned by Varro to a period
NOTE.
;
corresponding with B.C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be subtracted from 754 : e.g. A.U.C. 691 = B.C. 63. (the year of Cicero's consulship) Before Caesar's reform of the Calendar (B.C. 46), the Roman year consisted of
355 days: March, May, Quintilis (July), and October having each 31 days; February having 28, and each of the remainder 29. As this Calendar year was too short
Romans, in alternate years, at the discretion of the Pontifices, a month of varying length (inensis intercalaris) after February 23, and " omitted the rest of February. The Julian year," by Caesar's reformed Calendar, had 365 days, divided into months as at present. Every fourth year the 24th of February (vi. kal. Mart.) was counted twice, giving 29 days to that month hence the year was called Bissextllis. The month Quintilis received the name lulius (July), in honor of Julius Caesar; and Sextilis was called Augustus (August), in honor of his successor. The Julian year (see below) remained unchanged till the adoption of the Gregorian Calendar (A.D. 1582), which omits leap-year three times in every four hundred years.
for the solar year, the
inserted
The first day of the month was called Kalendae (Calends). Kalendae is derived from calare, to call, lhe Calends being the NOTE. day on which the pontiffs publicly announced the New Moon in the Comitia Calata,
which they
did, originally,
b. On the fifteenth day of March, May, July, and October, but the thirteenth of the other months, were the Idua (/des), the day of Full Moon.
On the seventh day of March, May, July, and October, but the c. fifth of the other months, were the Nonae (Nones or ninths). d. From the three points thus determined, the days of the month
were reckoned backwards as so many days before the Nones, the Ides, or the Calends. The point of departure was, by Roman custom, counted in the reckoning, the second day being three days before, etc. This gives
the following rule for determining the date
:
426
If the
Miscellaneous.
376.
given date be Calends, add two to the number of days in the if Nones or Ides, add one to that of the day on which they fall, and from the number thus ascertained subtract the
month preceding,
given date
:
thus,
viii.
- 8) = Jan.
25.
in dates, see
The days of
January.
the
Roman month by
377-81.]
.lfe'<rsf//rs
of Value,
etc.
427
2.
Measures
of Value, etc.
of the Romans was in early times wholly of copwas the as, which was nominally a pound in weight, but It was divided into twelve unciae (ounces). actually somewhat less. In the third century B.C. the as was gradually reduced to one-half of its original value. In the same century silver coins were introduced, the Denarius and the Sestertius. The Denarius = 10 asses; the
per.
Sestertius
2>
asses.
378. The
was equivalent
Sestertius
far
as had been so
was probably introduced at a time when the reduced that the value of the new coin (2^ asses)
to the original value of the as. Hence, the Sestertius HS) came to be used as the unit of value,
and nummus,
coin, often means simply sestertius. As the reduction of the standard went on, the sestertius became equivalent to 4 asses. Gold was introduced later, the aureus being equal to 100 sesterces.
The
is
2^
10
asses
sestertius or
sestertii
I
nummus
denarius
asses or
sestertii
..."
"20
"
"
loco
sestertium
"
$50.00.
NOTE.
half.
The word sestertius is a shortened form of semis-tertius, the The abbreviation IIS or HS = duo et semis, 2%, two and a
379. The SSstertium (probably originally the genitive plural of sestertius) was a sum of money, not a coin; the word is inflected = $150.00. regularly as a neuter noun : thus, tria sestertia
When sestertium is combined with a numeral adverb, centena mtUa, hundreds of thousands, is to be understood thus deciens sestertium
:
sums sestertium
is
often omitted:
thus
scxagiens (Rose.
Am.
(6,000,000 sesterces)
$300,000 (nearly).
380.
the
money
600
in cipher, a line
above
number
and
;
hundred-thousands.
sestertii, or
Thus
;
HS. DC.
sestertii
HS.
DC = 600,000
600 sestertia
H.s. |DCJ
60,000,000 sestertii.
12 inches {unciae} = I Roman Foot (pes : 11.65 English inches). 2^ Feet- I Degree or Step (gradus). \Yi Feet- i Cubit (cttbiiitm).
5 Feet
Pace (fassus).
Mile.
428
Miscellaneous.
381-84.
The Roman mile was equal to 4850 English feet. The lugerum, or unit of measure of land, was an area of 240 (Roman)
feet
little less
than
of an English acre.
382. The
12 unciae (ounces)
= one pound
( T 2),
5
(libra,
about f
Ib.
avoirdupois).
( TV), uncia.
5.
quincunx.
9.
2. 3.
(|), sextans.
6.
7.
4.
10.
n. (^},deunx.
12. as.
8.
(raXaj/rov)
= 60 librae.
of Capacity are
i
I
= =
modius (peck).
congius (3 quarts, liquid measure).
sextarii
I
I
8 congii
amphora
(6 gallons).
and sometimes
anno
urbis.
maximus.
consul (cbnsule).
Rdmanus.
praetor.
D., dlvus.
proc., proconsul.
dedit.
D. D.,
dono
Q. B.
F.
F.
Q.
S.,
quod bonum
f'efix
fausttimque
sif.
Quir., Quirites.
resp., respublica, responded
S.,
D. M.,
eq.
dit
manes.
<?^
Rom.,
Romanus.
s. C.,
S.
D.
salutem
d'icit plurimam.
S. P.
manus.
maxima.
s.
est,
ego
valeo.
pi. tr.,
tribunus plebis.
R.), uti rogas.
N.
L.,
non
liquct.
U. (u.
GLOSSARY
OF TERMS USED
IN
NOTE. Many of these terms are pedantic names given by early grammarians to forms of speech used naturally by writers who were not conscious that they were Thus when one says, " It gave me as, indeed, they were not. using figures at all
little pleasure," he is unconsciously using Litotes; when he says, "John went 4< the street, James down," Antithesis ; when he says, High as the sky," Hyperbole. Many were given under a mistaken notion of the nature of the usage referred
no up
Thus med and ted ($ 98. c} were supposed to owe their d to Paragoge, " " BflmpsI its p to Epenthesis. Such a sentence as See my coat, how well it fits was supposed to be an irregularity to be accounted for by Prolepsis. Many of these, however, are convenient designations for phenomena which often occur and most of them have a historic interest, of one kind or another.
to.
!
385.
:
I.
GRAMMATICAL TERMS.
Anacoluthon a change of construction in the same sentence, leaving the first part broken or unfinished.
Anastrophe : inversion of the usual order of words. Apodosis : the conclusion of a conditional sentence (see Protasis). Archaism : an adoption of old or obsolete forms. Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions ( 208. ). Barbarism : adoption of foreign or unauthorized forms.
Brachylogy : brevity of expression. Crasis: contraction of two vowels into one ( 10. c). Ellipsis : omission of a word or words necessary to complete the sense
(
177. note).
Enallage : substitution of one word or form for another. Epenthesis: insertion of a letter or syllable ( \\. c).
Hellenism
Hendiadys
Hysteron proteron
This term was applied to cases where the natural sequence of events is violated in language because the later event is of more importance than the earlier ami so comes first to the mind. This was supposed to be an artificial embellishment in Greek, and so was imitated in Latin. It is still found in artless narrative ct
"
in
a Brier Bush
"
(Uncle Remus).
43
Glossary.
Metathesis: transposition of letters in a word ( n. d). Paragoge : addition of a letter or letters to the end of a. word.
Parenthesis : insertion of a phrase interrupting the construction. Periphrasis: a roundabout way of expression (circumlocution). Pleonasm : the use of needless words.
Polysyndeton
number of
copulative con-
word in the clause preceding the one where it would naturally appear {anticipation). Protasis: a clause introduced by a conditional expression (if, when, whoever), leading to a conclusion called the Apodosis ( 304). Syncope : omission of a letter or syllable from the middle of a word
(!!.).
Synesis (constructid ad sensum) : agreement of words according to the sense, and not the grammatical form ( 182).
Tmesis : the separation of the two parts of a compound word by other words (cutting).
This term came from the earlier separation of prepositions (originally adverbs) from the verbs with which they were afterwards joined so in per ecastor scitua puer, a very fine boy, egad! As this was supposed to be intentional, it was ignorantly imitated in Latin; as in cere- comminuit -bruin (Ennius).
;
Zeugma :
which
strictly applies
(yoking}.
386.
II.
RHETORICAL FIGURES.
Allegory: a narrative in which abstract ideas figure as circumstances, events, or persons, in order to enforce some moral truth. Alliteration : the use of several words that begin with the same sound.
Analogy: argument from resemblances. the repetition of a word at the beginning of successive : clauses ( 344. /). Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of parts (for emphasis 344). Antonomasia : use of a proper for a common noun, or the reverse as,
Anaphora
sint
so there be
patrons (like
Maecenas), poets (like Virgil) will not be lacking. ilia furia et pestis, that fury and plague (i.e. Clodius);
scourge of
Homeromastix,
Homer
(i.e.
Zoilus).
Aposiopesis : an abrupt pause for rhetorical effect. Catachresis: a harsh metaphor (abusid, misuse of words). Chiasmus : a reversing of the order of words in corresponding pairs of
phrases
344. /).
Glossary.
i.r:
43 1
Kupli emism
si
a gradual increase of emphasis, or enlargement of meaning. : 'he mild expulsion of a painful or repulsive ide.i:
ei acciderit, if anything
quid
:
happens
to
him
(i.e.
it
he
Euphony the choice of words for their agreeable sound. Hyperbaton : violation of the usual order of words.
Hyperbole : exaggeration for rhetorical effect. Irony: the use of words which naturally convey a sense contrary to what is meant.
Litotes: the affirming of a thing
by denying
its
contrary
209.
<:).
Metaphor: the
an object by some
resemblance.
Metonymy :
thing.
name
Onomatopojia
fitting
Oxymoron
same phrase
as,
like
sound.
344. h}.
Synecdoche: the use of the name of a part for the whole, or the reverse.
387.
III.
TERMS OF PROSODY.
(359.
a).
breaking up of rhythm by substituting different measures. Anacrusis: the unaccented syllable or syllables preceding a verse
Anaclasis
:
(355-)'
Antistrophe: a series of verses corresponding to one which has gone
(cf. strophe). the unaccented part of a foot ( 358). Basis: a single foot preceding the regular movement of a verse.
:
before
Arsis
foot
358. b).
series
making the
Contraction i the use of one long syllable for two short ( 357). Correption : shortening of a long syllable, for metrical reasons.
Diceresis: the coincidence of the
end of a
end of a word
(consonant) and
as vowels (siliia
= silva
by emphasis
359./).
432
Glossary.
Dimeter : consisting of two like measures Dipody ; consisting of two like feet. Distich : a system or series of two verses.
the suppression of a final syllable in -m before a word beginning with a vowel ( 359. */). Elision: the cutting off of a final before a following initial vowel
Ecthlipsis:
(
359-
0-
Hexapody: consisting of six feet. Hiatus : the meeting of two vowels without contraction or elision (
Ictus: the metrical accent
(
359. e).
358. a). Irrational: not conforming strictly to the unit of time ( 356. note). Logaasdic: varying in rhythm, making the effect resemble prose ( 369).
Manometer : consisting of a
Mora:
single measure.
355. a).
Pentameter . consisting of
measures.
feet.
five half-feet.
c).
extension of a syllable beyond its normal length ( 355. Resolution: the use of two short syllables for one long ( 357).
Strophe: a series of verses making a recognized metrical whole (stanza), which may be indefinitely repeated.
: i (vowel) and u becoming consonants before a vowel. Synalozpha: the same as elision ( 359. c. Rem.). Synapheia: elision between two verses ( 359. c. Rem.). Synizesis: the combining of two vowels in one syllable ( 347. c). Syncope : loss of a short vowel.
Synceresis
Tetrapody : consisting of four feet. Tetrastich: a system of four verses. Thesis : the accented part of a foot (
358).
APPENDIX.
LATIN was
Romans.
originally the language of the plain of Latium, lying
first territory occupied and governed by the This language, and, together with it, Greek, Sanskrit, Zend (Old Persian), the Sclavonic and Teutonic families, and the Celtic, are shown by comparative philology to be offshoots of a common stock, a language once spoken by a people somewhere in the interior of Asia,
whence the different branches, by successive migrations, passed into Europe and Southern Asia. This Parent Speech is called the Indo-European, and the languages
descended from it are known collectively as the Indo-European Family. By an extended comparison of the corresponding roots, stems, and
forms, as they appear in the different languages of the family, the original Indo-European root, stem, or form can in very many cases be few of these forms are given in the grammar for comdetermined.
i.
voice).
434
2.
Appendix.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
Appendix.
435
have been preserved, in inscriptions, or as cited by Roman antiquarians; and other fragments were probably incorporated in that popular or rustic dialect
Italian.
of these ancient languages of Italy were the Oscan of Campania, and the Umbrian of the northern districts. To these should be added the Etruscan, which is of uncertain origin.
Some
may be seen
in the
following
LATIN.
436
Appendix.
Latin did not exist as a literary language until about B.C. 200. strongly influenced by the writings of the Greeks, which were the chief objects of liteiary study and admiration.
The most popular plays, those of Plautus and Terence, were simply translations from the Greek, introducing freely, however, the popular
and the slang of the Roman streets. As illustrations of life and manners they belong as much to Athens as to Rome. Thus the natural growth of a genuine Roman literature was very considerably checked. Orations, rhetorical works, letters, and histories, dealing seem to be nearly with practical affairs and the passions of politics, The Latin poets of the all that sprang direct from the native soil. Empire were mostly court-poets, writing for a cultivated and luxurious
dialect
class
;
satires
and
epistles alone
Roman
manners,
and
use since the classic period, Latin is known chiefly as the language of the Civil Code, which gave the law to a large part of Europe as the language of historians, diplomatists, and philosophers
In
during the Middle Ages, and in some countries to a much later period as the official language of the Church and Court of Rome, down to the
;
present day as, until recently, the common language of scholars, so as still to be the ordinary channel of communication among many
;
hundred: of Latin especially of the descriptive sciences, so that many known must be derivative or forms, terms, familiarly to any one who would have a clear knowledge of the facts of the natural world, or be
able to recount
them
intelligibly to
men
of science.
In some of these
uses
it
may
still
as the foundation of a liberal education. tionally, it retains its place During the classical period of the language, Latin existed not only
in
its literary
known by
the col-
lective
name of lingua
Italian,
These dialects, it is probable, were the basis which has preserved many of the ancient words without aspirate or case-inflection: as, orto (hortus), gente (gentem). In the colonies longest occupied by the Romans, Latin, in its ruder and
than the classic Latin.
of
modern
more popular form, came to be the language of the common people. viz., Hence the modern languages called " Romance" or " Romanic Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and French, together with the Catalan of Northeastern Spain, the Provengal or Troubadour language of the South of France, the " Rouman" or Wallachian of the lower Danube and the " Roumansch" of some districts of Switzerland.
y/
;
(Roumania),
Appendix.
437
will
serve to illustrate that process of phonetic decay to which reference has been made in the body of this Grammar ( 8. 2), as well as the
degree in which the substance of the language has remained unchanged. Thus, in the verb to be the Romance languages have preserved from the Latin the general tense-system, together with both the stems on
which the verb is built. The personal endings are somewhat abraded, but can be traced throughout. The following table shows the forms assumed by siun in five of the Romance languages. In the others, the alterations are more marked.
LATIN.
438
es
Appendix.
Appendix.
439
C
P.
rapimus
Statius,
C. Silius Italicus,
Poem Argonautica Heroic Poems " Thebais," etc. Heroic Poem " Punica"
"
"...
.
-88
61-96 25-100 40-120 -120
D. Junius Juvenalis (JUVENAL), Satires L. Annaius Floras, Historical Abridgment M. Valerius Martialis (MARTIAL), Epigrams
....
. .
C. Cornelius Tacitus, Annals, History, etc C. Plinius Caecilius Secundus (PLINY Junior), Letters C. Suetonius Tranquillus, The Tivelvc Ccesars
"
.... ....
.
"
noabout
1
80
Marcellinus, Roman History Claudius Claud ianus (CLAUDIAN), Poems, Panegyrics, etc. . t Aurelius Prudentius Clemens, Christian Poems
Ammianus
.....
. .
.
-380
395
t Aurelius Augustinus (ST. AUGUSTINE), Confessions, Discourses, etc. f Hieronymus (ST. JEROME), Homilies, Dialogue:, Epistles, etc. Anicius Manlius Boethius, Philosophical Dialogue
. . .
Maximianus, Elegies
f Christian
writers.
INDEX OF VERBS.
IN
this index are given all the simple irregular verbs that the student will find in his Compounds are to be looked for under simple verbs. If the simple verb is given
reading.
with no mention of compounds, the compounds are conjugated like the simple verb. If to " statuo the simple verb a compound form is added (as [constituo] "), the compounds If vary from the simple verb, as may be seen under the particular compound mentioned. different compounds of the same verbs present different irregularities, several specimens are appended to the simple verb (see e.g. ago). Full-face figures (thus, 91) designate the " most important among several references. References are to sections, unless p." is used.
regular comps., see ad-igo for others, see cogo, circum-, per-, sat-ago.]
;
aio,
i8./ N. 144. a.
2, -ul,
,
-itum, 131.
albeo,
albo,
166. b.
ab-olesco,
3, -evi,
[aboleo]
i, reg.,
166. a. 2, b.
,
abs-condo,
3, -dl (-didl),
-ditum [condo].
c.
alesco, 3, -ui,
167. a.
ac-colo,
3, -ul,
[colo],
c.
131, 166. b. al-lego, 3, -egi, -ectum [lego] . al-licio, 3, -lexl, -lectum [-licio] . alo, 3, alul, altum (alitum), 123. b 132.
algeo,
2, alsl,
,
c.
ambio,
141_.
-ire,
-ii
(-Ivi),
-Itum (amblbat),
ac-cumbo,
acuo,
3,
c, 170. b.
3, -ul,
amicio,
a,
4,
amixl
(-cuT),
;
amictum,
122.
c,
133.
125. a, 126,
10. b
ad-im5,
ad-nuo,
ad-oleo,
3,
-emi,
-I,
(amat,
amarat,
ad-ipiscor,
-eptus, 135. h.
3, -nul,
-nutum [-nuo]
-ultum, 131.
amans, 113. e; amarim, ainasse, amassem, 128. a. i; amassis, 128. <?. 5; amaturus sum, amandus sum, 129, p.
157, fooj-n.). _ ante-capio, 3, -cepT, -captum [capio].
ad-olesco,
-ultum [adoleo] .
ad-spergo,
ad-sto,
3, -spersl,
,
-spersum [spargo].
3. N.
i, -stiti,
130. N.
ante-sto,
anti-sto,
i, -stetT, i, -steti,
130. N. 130. N.
135. h.
123. d, 166. a. 3.
aptus [ad-ipiscor]
3, -plausi,
ap-plaudo,
-plausum [plaudo],
-ctum
[-fligo].
ag-gredior,
agito,
i,
agnosco,
ago,
t
3, -ovi,
3, egi,
ardeo,
2, arsl,
d,
132.
arguo, 3,
-ul,
e,
4).
[For
armo,
I, reg.,
Index of Verbs.
aro,
i, reg.,
441
ar-riijf), j. -n-.xi.
!>, 3, -tixl,
certum
cico
(-cio),
citum,
assuin, late
at-tollu,
3,,
cinctum, 132.
a.
circum-ago, circum
circum-sto,
3, -i-gT,
-acturn [ago],
104-5,
circum-munio,
\\ 122.
i, -stetl (-stiti),
,
130. N.
132. a.
auxl,
auctum, 131.
clausl,
clausum
[ex-
bene-dlco,
bibo,
3, -xi,
bene-facio, 3,
3, bibl,
132. a.
132. a.
i.
co-emo,
3,
-eml,
-emptum,
bibitum, 132. f.
co-erceo,
[oc-cido], 132. 6,
2, -ui,
-itum [arce5] .
cado,
3, cecidi,
casum
caeco,
i, reg.,
130.
,
caecutio, 4,
-IvI,
133.
,
colo, 3,
10. a,
colul,
cultum
[ex-,
ac-,
in-],
caedo,
3, cecidi,
caesum [oc-cido]
132.
c.
comburo,
como,
3, -ussi,
-i,
-ustum [uro].
com-miniscor,
167. a. N.
a. N., 169. a.
-mentus, 135. h.
calefacto,
i,
169. a.
caleo,
131,
calesco,
calleS, 2, -ul,
caneo,
2, -ul,
131
cantillo,
i,
reg., 167. d.
capesso,
3,
c.
in-cipisso, 3,
b,
3, compsl, comptum, 132. a. comperio, 4, -peri, compertum, 133. comperior, -In, compertus, 135. h. N. 132. c. com-pesco, 3, -cul, com-pleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 131. com-pungo, 3, -nxi, -nctum [pungo] . con-cino, 3, -ul, f-centum [cano], con-cuplsco, 3, -cuplvi, -cupltum, 167. con-cutio, 3, -cussl, -cussum, 132. a. condio, 4, reg., 166. d. con-do, 3, -didl, -ditum, 130. N.
,
a.
100
co-necto,
3,
-nexui, -nexum,
-tull,
n.
/. N.
careo,
2, -ul,
con-fero, -ferre,
,
carpo,
3, -psl,
-ptum [de-cerpo]
cautum, 131.
124. b,
132. a.
caveo,
2, cavT,
con-gruo,
3, -ui,
[-gruo]
cedo (Imperative), cedite (cette), 144. f. cedo, 3, cessl, u./ 1, cessum, n. a. 2, 132. a; ac-cedo, ii.f.^. -ce!15, 132, c (only in comp., see percello, ex-cell5, ante-cello, prae-cello)
.
u.
b. a.
co-niveo [-niveo], n.yC N. con-stat, -are, -aturum, 145, 146. c. con-slituo, 3, -ul, -stitutum [statuo].
con-sto, i, -stitT, -stitum (-statum), 130. N. c5n-sue-facio, like facio, 169. a.
con-suesco,
con-sulo,
3,
-evi,
c. N.,
-etum (consuerat,
169. a.
c.
ccnsum,
131.
c.
-sultum, 132.
442
con-tingo, 3,
tingit,
-tigi,
Index of Verbs.
-tactum [tango] (conc).
dir-imo,
n.
a. i
impers., 146.
di-ruo, 3, -rui,
a.
.
coquo,
3, coxi,
coctum, 132.
u./
.
credo, crepo,
3, didi,
i, -ui,
[So compounds.] dis-crep5, -ui or -avi, 130. N. dis-icio, 3, dis-ieci, -iectum [iacio],
,
p. 86.
b. I, 132. c.
dis-pando,
3,
-di,
-pansum (-pessum)
.
[pando] .
di-sto, i,
133.
cubo, cudo,
i, -ui,
cubitum, 130.
,
,
cucurio, 4,
133.
,
do [DA]
foot-n.
cupio,
3, cupivi,
132. c. d, p. 86.
(duim, perduim, 128. <?. 2). -do [DHA] (put), 3, -didi, -ditum (only
.
cursum
[in-curro] , 132.
in
132^.
doceo,
doctum, 131.
-iturus.
debeo,
2, -ui,
-itum, 10. d.
-oerpsi, -cerptum,
doleo,
146.
c.
de-cerpo,
[carpoj.
3,
domo,
duco,
3,
duxi,
ductum, 132.
a, 23.
decet (impers.), decere, decuit, 146. de-fendo, 3, -di, -sum, 132. f. de-fetiscor, -i, -fessus, 132. f. N.
133.
t
de-hisco, 3, -hivi, [hisco]. delectat (impers.), 146. c. deleo, 2, -evi, -etum, 122. c 125. d, 126.
t
b. 2,
131.
4, -ivi,
,
elatum, 170. a.
dementio,
133.
egeo,
2, -ui,
131. N.
3, dempsi, demptum, 132. a. depso, 3, -sui, -stum, 132. c. de-scendo, 3, -di, -sum [scando] . de-silio, 4, -silui, -sultum [salio],
demo,
de-sino,
3, -sivi,
,
-situm [sino].
[sapio] . -stitum [sisto] .
e-mico, I, -micui, -micatum, 130. N. e-mineo, 2, -ui, [-mineo] . emo, 3, emi, emptum [ad-, co-, dir-imo],
9. a,
de-sipio, 3,
de-sisto, 3,
132.
I,
e.
, ,
-stiti,
empturio, 4,
e-neco,
167. e.
-ui (-avi),
nectum [neco],
119. a.
de-spondeo,
2, -di,
-sum [spondeo] .
[sum] .
i.
desum,
-esse, -fui
-i,
eo, ire, ivi (ii), itum, 128. e. i, 141, 158. i. b ; (abiit, etc., 128. b, 2 ; adisse, 144.
de-vertor,
-sus, 135.
dico, 3, dixi, dictum, 123. c. i, 132. a, 169. b, p. 120. (dixti, 128. b; die, 128. f).
dictito, i, reg., 167. b
itum est, 141.0; itur, impers., 146. d\ adeo (adeor), 141. a; ambio, 144.
b. R.;
;
and
N. di-latum [fero]
.
prodeo, -ire, -ii, -Itum, 144. d). escit, escunt (see sum), 119. b.
est (see
sum)
,
'st
(in
homost,
e.
etc.), 13. b.
esurio, 4,
-itum, 167.
di-gnosco,
3,
-gnovi,
[nosco] .
foot-n.
<?).
e-vado,
3, -vasi,
-vasum, 128.
c.
b.
-lutum [luo].
,
di-mic5,
i,
reg., 130. N.
ex-cludo,
a. i
3, -clusi,
-clusum [claudo],
dir-ibeo, 2,
-Itum,
n.
[habeo].
of Verbs.
ex-erceo,
explico.
2, -cul,
443
-citum [arceo]
;
I,
(un/t>/J),-\ii, -ituin
(explain)
14. c).
fore,
forem,
,
etc. (see
sum),
119. b. N.;
ex-plodo,
cxsu!5,
I,
3, -si,
-sum [phxudo].
foveo,
147.
c. a.
2, fovi,
fotum, 131.
3,
frango frem5,
[iKAC,],
e.
fregT,
fractum
[per-
fringoj, 132.
facesso, 3, facessf,
167.
c.
facessitu.m,
132.
/,
3, fremul, fremitum, 132. c. frendo, 3, fresl, fressum, 132. a. frico, i, -ui, frictum (fiicatum), 130.
facio, 3, feel,
factum, 132.
;
e,
142,
e.
170. a. N.
;
frlgeo, 2, frixi,
131.
(fac, 128. c
3
;
affici5,
ii.
/3
fritinni5, 4,
133.
,
fierl, interfiat,
superflo, 142. c
conficio
;
fruor,
-I,
fructus (fruitus)
in -ficio, 142. a
bene-
fuam,
sum),
135. b. 119. b.
^132.
fugo,
fulgeo, 2,
fulgo, 3,
e.
compounds),
falsum, 132.
169. a.
i, reg.,
166. a. I.
fallo, 3, fefelll,
farcio, 3, faisi,
-si,
,
135. h.
132.
N.
fundo [FUD]
fungor,
-T,
3, fudi,
faveo,
2, favl,
-fendo,
3,
functus, 135. h.
fendo.)
ferio,
gannio,
e,
4,
133.
123.
ef-,
latum (fer, 128. c), 23, 158. i. a [af-, au-, con-, dif-,
of-, re-fero].
-IvI,
,
in-
ferocio, 4,
133.
,
ferveo,
2,
ferbuT,
131.
N,
136
[con-
gaudeo, gaudere, gavlsus, 131, 136. gemo, 3, gemul, gemitum, 132. c. gero, 3, gessi, gestum, 132. a, p. 120. 133, 166. d. gestio, 4, -ivT, glgno [GEN] 3, genul, genitum, 9. d, 123.1. 2, 132. c.
,
fido].
gllsco, 3,
135.
,
N.
132. a.
glocio, 4,
c. 3,
-IvI,
,
133.
124.
glubo,
3,
132. /I N.
c.
N.,132./.
,
fingo [FIG]
3, finxl,
fictum,
p.
132
a, 124.^.
N
flnio,
4,
-Ivi,
-Itum,
90,
foot-n.
i,
-I, gressus [ag-gredior] grandinat (impers.), 146. a. -gru5 3, see con-, in-gruo.
gradior,
135. A.
166
d.
habe5,
2,
-ui,
-itum [in-hibeo
debeo
flecto, 3, flexl,
fleo,
2, -evi,
flexum, 132.
128. a. i).
126. 6,
131
-fllgo,
(fletis,
133.
hlberno,
i,
reg., 166. a. 2.
hiemo,
i, reg.,
,
166. a. 3.
,
floreo, 2, -ui,
fluo, 3, fluxi,
131. N.
hinnip, 4,
hirrio, 4,
,
133.
133.
132. /. N. 131. N.
,
fluxum, 132. a, 166. c. N. fodio, 3, f5di, fossum, 132. e. 126. a, 144. c, 158. i. b [for] fan, fatus,
,
hlsco.
3,
[de-hlsco]
,
horreo,
2,
horrul,
444
Ico, 3, id, ictum, 132. f.
Index of Verbs.
laedo,
.
3, laesT,
laesum
,
[il-lido]
132. a.
Ignosco,
3, -novi,
il-lido, 3, -lisi,
imbuo, im-mineo,
impero,
i,
3, -ui,
lambo,
3,
/
reg.
langueo,
langui,
131.
-ere,
reg.,
[-mineo].
2.
134.
10.
n.yC
lectum [colligo,
d; see
im-petro,
i,
e.
5).
a.
im-ping5,
im-plico, 130. N.
3,
i,
levo,
i, -avi,
-atum
libet (lubet, 10. a), -ere, -uit, 146. c. (libitum est, id. N. ; libens, id.).
licet, -ere,
in-cendo,
3, -di,
-sum, 132.
,
/
.
incesso, 3, incessivi,
in-cido, 3, -cidi,
132. d.
est, 146. c.
-licio,
c.
(licitum
-casum [cado]
[colo]
.
al-licio, e-licio,
pel-licio]
132. a.
in-cudo,
3, -cudi,
in-curro, 3,
lingo, 3, linxi, linctum, 132. a. lino [Li], 3, levi (livi), litum, 132. e.
linquo [Lie] 3,
,
[curro] .
liqueo,
liquor,
2, liqui (licui),
-i, -i,
,
131.
135.
i.
loquor,
166.
c.
-M,
133.
N.
pro-
luceo,
2, luxi,
146. a).
liido, 3, lusi, liisum, 132. a.
2, luxi, luctum, 131. luo, 3, lui, luitum [de-luo],
see fio.
-ui,
in-gruo^,
in-hibeo,
[-gruo].
lugeo,
2, -ui,
inquam,
maereo,
2,
144.
132. f.
intellego, 3, -lexl, -lectum, p. 103, foot-n. inter-do, -dare, -dedl, -datum, 130. N.
interest, -esse, -fuit
mando,
maneo,
3,
2,
mandl, mansum,
(impers.), 146.
.
c.
n.
a.
2,_i2i.
-eri,
medeor,
a.
135.
i.
inter-rumpo,
inter-sto,
3, -rupi,
,
-ruptum, 170.
meritus,
mergo,
metior,
3,
mersi,
-iri,
132. a.
h.
meto, 3, rnessui, messum, 132. c. metuo, 3, -ui, -utum, 166. c. mico, i, micui, 130. -mineo, 2, -ui, [e-, im-, pro-mineo] -miniscor, -i, -mentus, 135. h [com-, re-].
, .
minuo,
misceo,
3, -ui,
-utum
(cf.
acuo).
d,
iungo, 3, iunxl, iunctum. , 167. a. iuvenescor, 3, -venuT, iuvo (ad-), i, iuvi, iutum (-aturus), 130.
labasco, 3, labo, i, -avi,
labor,
-i,
mixtum (mistum), n.
131.
misereor, N.
.
-eri,
167. a.
miseret, 146. b.
mitesco,
molior,
3,
167. a.
123. b. 166. d.
i,
mitto, 3, misi,
missum,
132. a.
-iri, -itus,
Index of
molo,
3,
Verbs.
osurus
445
(perosus), 143.
b,
<r.
odl,
c.
moneo,
-itum. 122.
b,
c,
pp. 96-97,
I,
odisse, N.
126. b.
2,
<r,
oblatum, 170.
,
a.
mordeS,
131.
morior,
i35-_6-
2,
momordl, morsum,
(-Iri),
-I
mortuus, (moriturus),
op-pango,
movl, motum, 131 (commorat,
reg., 133.
3, -pegi,
-pactum [pango].
movro.
2,
128. a. i).
mugioi 4,
mulceo,
opperior, -Iri, oppertus, 135. h. ordior, -Iri, orsus, 135. h, 166. d. N. orior (3d), -in, ortus, (oriturus)
(so
2,
comps.), 135. h,
ovare, ovatus, 144.
p. 86.
e.
mulge5,
131-
2, -si
mulsum (mulctum),
multi-plico,
I,
reg., 130. N.
,
paciscor,
-I,
pactus, 135. h.
146.
muttio, 4,
-ivl,
133.
paenitet
b
a.
nanciscor, nascor,
-I,
-T,
pando,
pandl,
pansum (passum, n.
natus, 135. h.
2),_[dis-],
132. /._
necesse est (impers.), 146. c. neco, i, -ul, nectum, [e-neco], 130. necto [NEC], 3, nexi (nexul), nexum,
132. a.
3, pegi (pepigl), pactum, [im-pingo; op-pango], 132. b, 23. 2. parco, 3, pepercl (parsl), parsum, 132. b
pango [PAG],
neglego,
n. i.
pareo,
pario,
2, -ul,
pariturus, 131.
3,
peperl,
,
partum
(pariturus),
neo,
2, -evl,
-etum, 126.
b,
131.
nequeo,
-Ire,
nequitus, 144.
(nequitur,
etc., id.
N).
ningit (impers.), ninxit, 146. a. nltor, -I, nlsus (nixus) [co-nitor], 135. h.
pasco,
pateo,
patior,
nivco,
2, patul,
-I,
c.
no,
i, nilvl,
passus [per-petior]
pavl,
,
n.
a.
2,
nosco [GNO],
dl-,
novl,
e,
notum
143.
c.
[ag-, co-,
135. h.
paveo,
2,
Ig-nosco] 132.
3,
N. (nosse,
131.
128. a. i).
pexum,
132. a.
.
nubo,
-lectum
[-licio]
pello, 3,
pepull,
pulsum
[im-pello,
I,
re-
132.
6.
-nuo,
3, -nul,
-nuitum
ad-nu5] I32./
,
ob-llviscor,
-I,
obs-olesco,
ob-tineo,
3, -evl,
-actum, 170.
a.
N.
c.
-tentum [teneo].
-tudl,
per-fringo,
3, -fregi,
-fractum [pango]
perrexl,
ob-tundo,
3,
-tusum
(tunsum)
pergo,
3,
(n.
^),
perrectum,
.
132. a.
per-lego, 3, -legT, -lectum [lego]
per-maneo,
f. 3.
2,
-mansl,
,
-mansum fmaneo].
-casum [cado], n.
per-osus [odl]
por-prtior,
-I,
143. b.
oc-cidd, 3, -cidi, -caesuni [caedo]. occulo, occului, occult am, 132. c. oc-curro. 3, -curri (-cucurri), -cursum,
-pessus, 135. h.
N.
per-terreo,
u./.
3.
petisso, 3,
167. c.
446
Index of Verbs.
pro-video,
2, -vidT,
-vTsum, 166.
c.
tum
121.
pingo [PIG],
pinso, 3,
pio,
I,
pubesco, 3, pubul, 166. b. N. pudet (impers.), pudere, 146. b (pudendus, id. N.) puduit or puditum est. pugno, i, reg. pugnatur (impers.), -an, -atum, 145,
,
-si,
146. d.
reg., 166. a. 2.
2, -ui,
placeo,
c).
p. 120.
N.
plango, 3, planxl, planctum, 132. a. plaudo, 3, plausi, plausum [ex-plodo, etc. ap-plaudo] 132. a.
;
plexum,
123, b.
i,
132. a,
-plector,
p. 86.
quaero, 3, quaeslvl, quaesltum [re-quiro] 132. d (cf. quaeso). quaeso, -ere, 144. d (cf. quaero). quasso, i, reg., 167. b.
quatio, 3,
,
quassum
[con-cutio], 132. a.
comps.,
as com-pleo), 131.
plico,
i, -plicuT,
-plicitum, 130. N.
[com-
pounds], 130.
pluit, 3, pluit (pluvit), p. 86, unt, id. N.).
queo, quire, qulvl, quitus, 144. g. (quitur, etc., nequeo, id. N.). queror, -i, questus, 135. h. quiesco, 3, quievi, quietum, 132. c.
rabo,
3,
, ,
146.
(plu132.
/ N.
pono
c.
rado,
3, rasi,
porr-icio,
170. b.
no
perf.,
-rectum
[iacio],
posco, 3, poposci (posciturus), 132. b (so comps.). possideo, 2, sedi, sessum [sedeo]
.
re-cipio,
(re-
poto,
i,
-avi,
potum, 130.
b. i], 2, -ui,
re-fero,
-ferre,
rettull
(retull),
re-latum
praebeo [n.
prae-cello, 3,
-itum.
[-cello]
.
[fero].
re-fert, -ferre, -tulit (impers.), 146. c.
no
perf.,
no sup.
prae-fatur, 144.
c.
re-ficio, 3, -feel,
-fectum, 170.
b.
;
rego,
pergo, surgo]
reminiscor,
-I,
rectum 132. a, p.
c.
prae-sum, -esse, -fui, 137, 347. b. prandeo, 2, prandl, pransum, 131. prehendo (prendo), 3, -di, prehensum,
132-
re-pello, 3, reppull,
repulsum
[pello]
/
3,
premo,
pressi,
n./ 1, press-
[re-primo]
132. a.
re-primo,
3, -pressi,
-sivi,
-pressum [premo]
.
-itum, 144. d.
c.
re-quiro, 3,
-situm [quaero]
pro-fatus, 144.
[sapio],
.
re-spondeo,
a.
2, -di,
-sum [spondeo]
c.
N.
130. N.
pro-mineo,
-ere,
[-mineo].
pro-fill, 137.
revertor,
promo,
3,
rldeo,
2,
pro-sum, prod-esse,
rod5,
3, rosi,
rosum, 132.
a.
Index of Verbs.
rudo,
3, rudlvl,
447
,
rudltum, 132.
3, rupl,
d.
e.
sitio, 4, -Ivi,
166. d.
rumpd [KUP],
ruptum, 132.
sodrs (-si
and'"-.), 13. c.
[dl-, cor-],
124.
/,
sono,
[de-silio],
i,
saltum
130,
sopi5, 4,
sanxl, sanctum, 124. b. N.,
132. d.
-Itum, 123. a.
,
sancio [SAC]
4,
sorbeo, a.sorbul ( rarely sorpsl) sorptum (so also comps.), 131, i66./ N.
133.
sapio, 3, saplvl (sapul)
,
132. a.
sperno,
3, sprevl,
c.
spretum,
9. d, 124. a.
N.
132.
sarpo, 3, sarpsl, sarptum, 132. a. sarrio, 4, -Ivi (-ul), -Itum. 133. sat-ago, 3, like ago.
satis-do, -dire, -dedl, -dStum, 130. N.
spondeo,
'st,
2,
scabo,
3, scabl,
133. e.
-utum [con-stituo]
123. d,
scaturio, 4,
133.
scando,
132.
scin'
3,
scandi,
scansum [de-scendo],
132.
c, p.
/
,
132. c.
sclssum, 124.
c.
-stinguo, 3,
(scito, -tote,
-stinxl, -stinctum [only in comp., as ex-] 132. a. sto, stare, steti, statum (-stit-), 130, p. 14,
,
132.
c, 167. a.
foot-n. i, 118. N., 126. a, cf. constat., p. 120, p. 157. foot-n. [compounds,
I 3 o. N.]. strepo, 3, strepul, strepitum, 132. c.
n./ 2, 132. a.
strideo, 2, stridl,
stride, 3, stridl,
,
131.
sedeo,
etc.;
2,
132. f.
studeo,
2, -ul,
131. N.
suadeo,
2, suasl,
risl,
suasum,
131.
sub-rideo, 2,
sub-struo,
c.
3,
sequor, -I, secutus (sequutus), 135. h. sero, 3, serul, sertum, entwine, 132. c.
sero, 3, sevi, satum, sow, 126.
c,
132.
serpo,
servo,
3, serpsi,
-Ivi,
servio, 4,
i,
sultis
sum,
119, 120.
N., 128. e.
6. sid5, 3, sidi (sedl), -sessum, 132. siem, sies, siet, sient, 119. b (see sum).
2, p. 119, p.
i.
a (siem,
119. b;
fore,
sile5, 2, -ul,
131. N.
singultio, 4,
-Ivi,
sino,
3,
slvl,
132.
6, p. 14,
119. b\ forem, 119. b. N.; fuam, 119. b\ fuvimus, fuvisset, 119. b', ens, fsens, 119. a; homost, etc., 13. b). sumo, 3, sumpsl, sumptum, n. c 132. a. suo, 3, sul, sutum, see acu5. super-do, -dire, -dedl, -datum, 135. N.
t
448
super-fluo, 3,
super-sto,
,
Index of Verbs.
[fluoj.
130. N.
turgeo,
2, tursi,
, ,
131.
tussio,4,
ulciscor,
133.
sum
(superest, impers.,
-T,
ultus, 135. h.
3,
ungo
surrectum, 132. a, 10.
166. b. N.
b.
(-uo) ,
3, ussi,
unxi, unctum.
,
reg., 130. N.
urgeo,
uro,
utor,
2, ursi,
131.
surgo,
3, surrexi,
ustum
(so comps.,
cf.
also
comburo),
tabeo, 2, -ul,
,
-I,
pertaesum
,
est, 146. b.
c.
[e-]
132. a, 144.
tango [TAG]
123, c._3,
c, e,
3, tetigi,
tactum [con-tingo]
122.
c,
133.
p.
132.
6.
;
veho,
123. b 124.
t
3,
vexl,
vectum, 132. a,
87.
b,
foot-n.
vello, 3, veil! (vulsi),
132. a, pp.
98-99.
vulsum, 132. /.
,
temno, 3, tempsi, temptum, 123. b. i, 132. a. tendo [TEN] 3, tetendi (-tendl), 132. 6
,
;
ven-do,
3, -didl,
veneo,
4, -Ivi,
b.
R.
venio, 4, veni,
p. 86.
venum-do, -dare,
,
131-
tersum, 132.
tritum,
132.
a.
3,
trivl,
(con-,
n.
verto (vorto, 10. d), 3, verti, versum, 132. /; mid., in. a, 124. e.
vescor,
-I,
,
/a).
tex5, 3, texui, textum, 132.
c.
135.
i.
t
timeo,
2, -ul,
131. N.
3, tinxl,
tlnctum, 125.
video,
2, vidi,
visum, 131.
146.^).
[at-tollo]
,
sublatum
132.
vieo, 2,
-etum, 131.
/N.
tondeo,
tono,
2,
vin
i, -ul,
-itum, 124.
c,
130.
133.
tortum, 131. torreo, 2, torruT, tostum, 131. traho, 3, traxi, tractum, 132.
torqueo,
2, torsi,
3, vici, 3, visi,
vlso
[VID],
(traxe,
tf.N.
128. b).
132 c. tribuo, 3, tribul, tributum, cf. acuo. trudo, 3, trusi, trusum, 132. a.
tremo,
3,
tremuT,
voco,
i, -avl,
157. foot-n. (vocarier, 128. e. 4). volo, velle, volui, 123. <?, 128. e. 2 (vult, 123. e ; sultis, 13. c\ vin, 13. c).
tundo [TUD]
3,
tutudi,
6.
tunsum (-tusum)
[ob-tundo], 132.
vomo,
c.
The numerical references are to sections, with a few exceptions in which The letters refer to subsections. The letter N. signifies Note;
=*
th
R.,
adverb; apod. =* adj. adjective; apodosis; app. = appositive; comp. = comparison or compound; compar. = comparative; constr. = construction; conj. = conjugation or conjunction; dat. = dative; gen. = genitive; gend. = gender; ind. disc. = indirect discourse; loc. = locative; prep. = preposition; subj. =. subject or subjunctive; vb. = verb; w. = with. (Other abbreviations present no difficulty.)
ablative;
ace.
Remark.
Abl.
accusative;
adv.
A,
ft
tity
quan-
freedom,
etc.,
e.
id.
c\
w.
opus and
usus,
id.
primary
&, characteristic of decl. I., 32; ace. of Gr. nouns in, 63. /; as nom. ending, decl. III., gend., 65. c t 67. d. 5, in decl. I., 32; stem-vowel of conj. I.,
122, 123, 126. a t 166. a\ in subjunctive, 126. b-d\ preps, in -a, adv. use of,
261. d.
244; w. participles, id. a; w. c5nstare, etc., id. c\ w. facere, id. d\ w. nouns, id. e. Cause, 245 w. dignus, etc., id. a causa, gratia, id. c. Agent, 246. Comparison, 247 opini6ne, spe, etc., id. b\ w. alius, id. d\ w. advs., id. <?. Manner, 248 accompaniment, id. a\ means, id. c\ w. dono, etc., 225. d\ w. utor, fruor,
;
; ;
(ab, abs), use, 152. b 153, 260. b, 263 vbs., 170. a\ with abl. of agent, 246; with place from which, 258 with names of towns, id.
t
etc.,
249.
. . .
Degree of
eo, 106.
252;
c,
compounded with
;
quo
251;
price,
charge or penalty,
expressing position, 260. b ; in comp., with dat., 229; with abl., 243. b\ with abl. of gerund, 301. in apod., Ability, verbs of, constr., 271
a. N. I
;
;
308:
c.
80.
d\
ABLATIVE, Etymology; meaning, 31. /; in -abus, 36. e\ in -d, 36. / 40.^, 62.
h\ of i-stems, decl. III., 55. e\ rules of form, 57 nouns having abl. in -I, 57. a, b\ of decl. IV., in -ubus,
a, 70.
;
Place, 254; w. verbs and fretus, id. b. Ablative absolute, 255 adverbial use, id. c\ replacing subord. clauses, id. d\ supplying place of perf. act. part., 290. d, Abl. of time, 256; of time w. quam, 262, N. 2; of place from which, 258; names of towns, domus, rus, id. a\ ex urbe Roma, id. b, N. 3; Locative abl., id. e,f\ way by which, \&.g\ with
Specification, 253.
;
220. b.
transitive
compounds,
239. b.
N.
i;
70. d\ abl. used as supine, 71. a\ of adjs., decl. III., %j.a,b\ prepositions
time within which, 259. c\ distance of Abl. with prepositions, time, id. d. en -. 152. b, c, 260-63 w tn ex f r P art
1 '
adverbial forms
216. c\ with pro (in defence of), 236. R. ; with palam, etc., 261. b\ abl. of
N.
/3.
;
gerund, 301
;
id.
foot-n. ABLATIVE, Syntax ( 242-255) mean(See N., p. 245.) ing and classification, 242 and N. Abounding, words of, w. abl.,
w.
450
Absolute use of
propius,
etc., 261.
Abstract nouns, gend., 29. 2; in pi., 75. c\ endings, 163. b e,f; w. neut. adj., 187. c, 189. a, b\ abstract quality det
noted by neut.
adj., 189. a.
220.
absum,
constr., 231. a.
36.
<?.
-abus, in dat. and abl. pi., decl. I., ac, see atque ac si, see acsi.
;
a.
acquiesce, with
of, id. d.
accedit ut,
Accent, rules
142. b
332.
of,
marks
N.
Actions, names
217.
of,
193 ; nouns
of,
w. gen.,
comps. of facio,
acceptum,
a,
accing-5,
etc.,
accommodatus,
Accompaniment,
nouns denoting, 163. c. acus, gender, 69. a. -acus (-acus), adj. ending,
Acts,
164. c.
of gerund,
orig.
ad, use,
152. a, 153; in
comp., 170. 0;
w. ace. to denote penalty, 220. c\ in comp., w. dat., 228, 229 ; in comp., w, ace., 228. a\ w. ace. w. adjs., 234. b\
Accomplishment, vbs. of, w. subjunc., 332. ACCUSATIVE, Etymology, 31. d\ in -m and -S, 33. c origin of -m, p. 205 in
;
end of motion,
of towns, 258.
258,
b.
cf.
225. b\ w.
N. 2; w.
-im, decl.
58 in -a, 63. /; ace. of decl. IV., used as supine, 71. a neut. ace. used as adv., 148. d, cf. N. a\ fern, used as adv., id. e.
;
countries, 258. N. 2; 259. f\ in expressions of time, id. b \ following its noun, 263. N. ; w. gerund,
300.
adamas,
decl., 63. e.
ACCUSATIVE, Syntax, 237-40 (see notes additur, constr., 332. pp. 205, 235); w. verbs of remembering, adeo (verb), constr., 228. a. 219 and a, b and gen. w. vbs. of remind- adeo ut, 319. R. -ades, patronymic ending, 164. b. ing, id. c w. impersonals, 221. b, 237. e w. dat., 225 w. compounds of ad, ante, adimo, constr., 229. ob, 228. a verbs varying between ace. Adjective phrase, 179. of end of motion and dat., 225. b w. Adjective pronouns, see Pronouns. ad, for dat., 234. b\ after propior, ADJECTIVES, Etymology. Definition, 25. etc., id. e; direct object, 177, 237; w. b; formed like nouns, p. 47; stems, id. foot-n. i. Declension, 81-87 decl. I. iuvo, etc., 227. a; ace. or dat. w. vbs., and II., 81-83; decl. III., 84-87; decl. 227. b, c\ ace. w. verbs of feeling and one taste, 237. b, c; with comps. of cirIII., three terminations, 84. a\ cum and trans, id. d\ cognate ace., termination, 85. Comparison, 89-91; decl. of comparative, 86. a advs. de238; two accusatives, 239; ace. w. rived from adjs., 148; numeral adjs., pass, of verbs of asking, etc., 239. R.
; ; \ ;
;
adverbial use
of,
240. a, b
id.
synecdochid.
94, 95
88.
exclamations,
e,
d\
As
advs.,
256, 257;
domus, rus, id. b; Romam ad urbem, id. N.3; ace. w. ante diem,
259. e subject of inf., 173. 2, 240. f, 272, 330; w. prepositions, 152. a. c; w. ad or in to denote penalty, 220. b. 3 w.
;
;
names of towns,
92), 148. d, e, 191; as nouns 88. a, 188, 189, 218. d\ masc. adjs., 88.
(cf.
b\ adjs. of
com. gend.,
used as
as adjs., 188. e\
adjs., 291.
Agreement of
of Words
use of neut.
tives with adjs., 185
;
and
af finis,
218. d.
Subjects.
decl.,
45'
constr. w.
gen.,
57. b\
quam,
192.
verbial iorce, 191 ; adj. pronouns, 195203. Gen. of adjs. of decl. III. instead
Affirmative, expressed
by two negatives,
218
inf.,
expecting affirm, answer, 210. c\ ways of saying yes, 212. and a. Affix, close and open, 24. N. Agency, nouns of, 162; rel. clause equiv150;
alent to, 201. b.
n5nne
Adjective
Agent, dat.
w. gerundives, 232; w. a \ abl. of, 246 agent regarded as means, id. b\ animal as
of,
c.
agent, id. N.
adspergS,
constr., 225. d.
adfllor, constr., 227. b. Adverbial ace., 240. a, 6, cf. 238. a. N. Adverbial conjunctions, 25. h. N. Adverbial phrases, 148. N. 9, 179.
ager, decl., 38. aggredior, constr., 228. a. Agnomen, 80. b. agS, forms of, omitted, 205.
Agreeing, verbs (cf. 331- d}.
of,
c.
182; of nouns,
ADVKRBS,
adjs., 88.
defined, 25.
/; formed from
;
;
d and N., 92, 148 case-forms or phrases, p. 123. N. comparison of ndvs., 92; numeral ad vs., 96; correla197; of relatives, 198, 199'; of verbs, tive advs. used as conjs., 107, 208. d. 204, 205. Classification of advs., 149 correlative -al for -ae, decl. I., 36. a ; 347. a. 2. forms of advs. of place, 149. foot-n. -aius in Prosody, 347. d, note i.
;
;
183; in appos., 184; in predicate, 185; of adjs., 186; of demonstrative pronouns, 195; of possessive pronouns,
adjs., 188. e\ adjs. w. -al and -ar, neuters in (decl. III.), 53. c, adverbial force, 191 adverbial ace., 57. a, 67. a. adverbial abl. abs., 255. c. -al, ending, 164. /. 7 list of nouns in, p. 240. a; Special uses, 150, 151. SYNTAX, 207; 30. foot-n. i. adv. w. nouns, 207. d part. gen. w. alacer, decl., 84. a comp., 91. d. advs., 216. a. 4; dat. w. advs., 234. albus, not compared, 89. N. a; comp. of adv. followed by quam, Alcaic verse, 371. 9, 10. adv. as protasis, 310. a. Alcmanian strophe, 364. a. 247. e Adversative conjunctions, 154. a, 2, 155. -ale, noun-ending, 164. i. 7 list of nouns
Advs. used as
ad versus,
w. ace.,
of, 16.
c.
id.
all-,
ae, diphthong,
sound
pi.,
N. 3, 12.
c.
alienus,
aedes, aeger,
sing,
and
78.
decl., 82. c.
b.
aliqul (-quis),
105.^; derivation
b.
constr. w. gen.,
alius, decl., 83 and foot-notes; gen., id. a \ compounds, 83. b alius , cf. 214.
;
aeque aequo
ac, 234.
(abl.),
a. N. 2.
b.
w. comp., 247.
aequor,
decl., 49.
aer, decl., 63. /; use of pi., 75. b. aes, decl., 67. b use of pi., 75. b. aetas, decl., 54.
;
ac, nisi, quam, 247. d. alius . . . alius, alter . . . alter, 203. Alphabet, p. i vowels and diphthongs, i consonants, 2 table of vowels and consonants, 2, 5 early forms of letters,
with
abl.,
;
;
6,7.
aether,
decl., 63.
alter, decl., 83; gen. and comps., id. b\ use, 203 reciprocal use, 99. d, 203.
;
452
.
alter . . alter, 203. altera est res ut, 332, foot-ru alteruter, decl., 83. b use, 203.
;
anus,
a.
e.
gend., 69. a.
adjs. in, 164. c.
hist, perf.), 115. c. 2, 279.
-anus,
Aorist (=
260. b.
of, 89. e.
amb170. b
prefix,
148. N.
ambages, decl., 59. ambo, decl., 94. b. amens, decl., 87. a. amplius, without quam, 247. amussim, ace., 56. 77. 2.
,
apis, decl., 59. Apodosis, defined, 304; introduced bycorb and N. may be subord., id. c forms of, 305, 306 ff. potential subj., 311. a and R. subj. of modesty, id. b\ verbs of necessity, etc., id c complex
rel., id.
;
c.
in
double questions,
suffix, 160.
/i.
apod., id. d\ apodosis omitted, 312; apod, in Ind. Disc., 337. Appointing, verbs of, constr., 239. a.
an
(in,
on), primary
Anaphora, 344.
anas,
f. decl., 67. d.
Andromache,
decl., 37.
Apposition, see appositive. Appositive, defined, 184; agreement of, 183, 184. b\ w. locative, id. c\ gen. as appositive to possessive, id. d, 197 e gen. used for app., 214. f, so dat., 231, b rel. clause equivalent to appositive, 201. b ace. as app. to a clause, 240. g\ appositive instead of voc., 241. a; app. in connection with inf., 270. N. 2.
; ; ;
-aneus, adj. ending, 164.^. animal, decl., 52. Animals, gend. of names of,
b
\
aptus ad,
gerund,
29. 2, 30, id.
b.
c.
etc.,
320.7.
animi
Anio,
N.
R.
;
apud,
w.
c. 2.
152. a N. 2.
use, 153
in quoting, 258.
verbs, 223.
annalis,
aqualis, decl., 57. a. -ar, norn. ending, decl. III., 51. c, 53. c, 57. a p. 30, foot-n. i gend., 65. c, 67. a.
;
;
Answers, forms of, 212. ant, primary suffix, 160. stem endings, 63. e,
-ar, -aris,
;
nouns
in, 67. b.
ant-, ent-,
arbor
arced,
ante,
228, w. ace., id. a-, adverbial use of, 261. d; followed by quam, 262.
2.
ante diem,
259.
e.
Antecedent, its use with relative, 198, 200; undefined, constr., 320; see indefinite antecedent.
antecedo,
constr., 228. a.
-arium, noun ending, 164. /. 3. -arius, adj. ending, 164. h noun, Aristophanic verse, 371. 2. Arrangement of words, 343-46.
;
id.
i. i.
a.
Arsis
Arts,
19. def.
and thesis, 358 and foot-n. names of, decl. I., 37. b.
decl., 70. d.
antequam,
327
artus,
Antibacchlus, 356.
Anticipation, ace. nom., id. R.
of,
334. c\
becomes
as, primary suffix, 160. IT -as, in ace. pi. of Gr. nouns, -as, old gen. ending, 36. b
63.7
;
67. c.
Gr. nom.
164.
ending,
63.
e\
patronymic,
b:
Index of
gend. of nouns
as,
clecl. 67.
:
ir<>rds
and
Subjects.
decl., 57. a.
b.
453
-as, -fttis, in, 65. b 67. d, see at-; adjs. in -us, 164. c.
baccar,
value
of,
377
gen.
of,
252. b.
-bam,
Asclepiadic verse, 371. 5, 6. Asking, vbs. of, w. two ace., 239. c\ w. abl., 239. c. N. i; w. subjunc. clause,
331.
gerundive,
2, 31.
/.
N.
Aspirates,
-assere,
HI.
Believing, verbs of, with dat., 227. belli, locative use of, 258. d.
bellum,
decl., 38. d. 2.
of,
/'.
12.
Benefiting, verbs
of, constr.,
227.
a.
c.
-ber, names of months in, decl., 84. bi-color, decl., 87. d,f.
;
at vero,
;
bi-corpor,
bipennis,
decl.,
decl., 87. b.
59
ater,
decl., 82. c
Birds, gend. of names of, 29. 2. Birth or origin, nouns of, derivation, 164. b parts, of, with abl., 224. a.
\
Athos,
Atlas,
decl., 43.
-bo, tense-ending, pp. 119, 120. bonus, decl., 90; w. dat. of gerund,
;
etc.
atque
adjs. in,
-brum,
suffix, 163. d.
in, 67. c.
-bs, nouns
a;
164.
/; w.
ace.,
number,
186. d\ takes
gender of near-
of, constr.,
252. d.
at vero,
aula,
208. e. 92.
audacter, comp.,
decl., 37.
C
91.
rf.
for
gf,
in early
6
N.
for
qu, 7
ending
in,
ausus
as pres. part., 290. b. aut, use, 156. c\ 212. R. autem, use, 156. b, k\ 345. b.
348. 10.
caedes,
caeles,
decl., 59.
decl., 87. b.
caelum,
Caere,
/;
with masc.
pi., 78.
b.
decl., 57. a.
caesius, comp.,
adjs. in,
91. d.
,
with gen., 218. b. -ax, nouns in, 67. e. AYA, as origin of verb-forms, 123. footn.
i.
calx,
decl., 77. b.
454
w. complem.
N. 2.
a.
inf.,
271.
51. a.
censeo,
212. a.
constr., 331
and
d.
151. c\ in answers,
caput, decl., 46. Capys, decl., 63. g, 64. carbasus, gend., 39. a
Cardinal numbers,
tributives, 95
b,
plur., 78. 2. b.
94.,
d.\
c.
-I,
use, 203. a.
ceu,
use, 312.
ad., ending, 164.^.
a-e
-ceus,
Characteristic, clause
89.
of, 320. Characteristic, expr. by participle, 292. Characteristic vowel, 32, 351.
in,
Charge and penalty, gen. chelys, decl., 63. g, 64. Chiasmus, 344. f, and N. Choliambic trimeter, 365.
Choosing, vbs.
of,
of,
220.
c.
case, 344. a. 2
agreement
of, p.
;
origin
rel.
and meaning
Con-
Ckoriambus, 356. e. ci and ti, interchange of, 12. a. -cinium, noun ending, 163.^
cinnabar!,
indecl. 67. a.
213-223 Dative, 224-236 Accusative, 237-240 Vocative, 241 Ablative, 242255 time and place, 256-259 cases with preps., 260, 258. foot-note.
;
;
-Cio, diminutive ending, 164. a. R. Cip-, stems in, decl. III., 45. a.
a,
as advs., 261. d.
after
circa,
c.
a noun, 263. N.
w. gerund,
300.
circum, compounds w.
245. c; w. gen. of
dat. w.
vbs.,
;
causa, w. gen.
223.
e,
id.
N. 3), N. 3
circumdS, constr., 225. d. quod, Circumflex accent, 19. N. quoniam, 321; w. circumfundo, constr., 225.
subj.,
;
d.
w. qul, 320.
<?;
with
d.
par-
/; n5n quia, non quod, etc., in the denial of a reason, 321. R. causal clause replaced by part., 292 by
cum,
id.
a, 3,
155. c;
Cities, gend. of names of, 29. 2 and citra, after its noun, 263. N. civis, -es, decl., 51. a.
b.
clades,
clam,
Cause, adverb of, 149. c. Caution and effort, vbs. of, constr., 331. e. cave, in prohibitions, 269. a\ ne omitted after, 331.
gend.
of, 28.
d\ used
R.
Clauses, denned, kinds of, 180; replaced by abl. abs., 255. d\ used as nouns,
214. d\ dependent, syntax of, 316-342
incl.
and
consecutive,
320;
causal,
321;
Tndr.v of
Words and
Subjects.
455
temporal, 322-328; substantive, 329339 incl. infinitive clauses, 330; substantive clauses of purpose, 331 of result, 332; indie, with quod, 333; in; ;
Comparison, particles of, tamquam, quasi, etc., constr., 312. Complementary infinitive, 271 has no subject, id. N. pred. noun or adj.
; ;
direct
334;
indirect
dis-
after, id. e
inf.
complementary, 270.
Clavis,
decl., 57. b.
(fern,
Completed
c.
Clienta
action, tenses of, 115; how formed, 126. g\ in the pass., 147. b;
f
t
Close syllables,
use
of,
279.
constr., 248. c. R., 223.
compleo,
148. d. N., 237. c. N., 238,
Complex Complex
complures, compluria,
pi. verb, 205. c. decl., 78. i. a.
compos,
cess
com-
69. a\ (con-), compounded w. vbs., 170. a\ such take dat., 228. Combinations of words, 13.
decl., 37.
Composition,
of, p.
cornetes,
comitium, comitia,
comitor,
words, assimilation in, n./; defined, 168; how formed, 168-170. Commanding, vbs. of, w. .dat., 227; w. inf., 330. 2 and b. 2; w. subj., 331. a Compounds of preps., w. dat., 228 of at), de, ex, 229; w. ace., 237. d, 239. d\ 0*332. A). Commands, expressed by imv., 269; for quantity of, 354. c. condition, 310. b\ in indir. disc., 339; con-, see com-.
verbs, 170;
comps. of facio,
Compound
Conative
277.
c.
present,
276.
b\
imperfect,
commiseror, w.
ace., 221. b.
committo lit, 332 and e. Common gender, 30; adjs. o f 88. b. Common syllables, 18. 347. d. commonefacio, -fio, constr., 219. c. commoneS, constr., 219. c. communis, w. gen., 218. d. commutare, constr., 252. c.
,
<?,
constr., 331 and c. Concession, hortatory subj. of, 266 and c (cf. 313. a, ') particles of, 313; quam vis, ut, ne, 313. a licet, id. b ;
concede,
cum,
id.
d\
quamindie.,
quam,
id.
;
id.
<?,
g\ quamvis, w.
Comparative conjunctions,
in conditions, 312.
154. b. 2, 155
for concess. clause, 255. d. 3 ; concession implied in part., 292; qul concessive, 320. e.
Comparative
148. d.
of advs.,
Comparatives,
neut. sing, of
decl.,
86;
adj.
;
stem, id. a\
comp.
of,
92
meaning
192;
;
93. a
g\
foil,
by
adversative, 156. b. N.
of,
particles,
use
313.
atives,
comp. and
abl. w.
comp., 247 quain w. comp., id. a\ compar. w. quam (ut), quam qul, 320. c, 332. b. Comparison, conjunctions of, 208. a.
quam, id.
220.
Comparison
x,
w. magis and tnaxime, 89. d\ of advs., 92; prepositions implying, with quam, 262.
defective, 91
456
Subjects.
and apodosis, 304 classification, 305 Consonant stems of nouns, decl. III., 44Pres. and Past, nothing implied, 306 50 stems apparently ending in two conFuture conditions, 307 fut. more vivid, sonants, 54. i cons, stems of adjs., 85
;
id. a, c
consors, decl., 87. a. tion, id. b cf. c\ General condition, constare, w. abl., 244. c. 309; condition disguised, 310; as part., constituo, constr., 331. d. as exhortation or com- Constructid ad sensum. See etc., id. a;
;
c ; perf. Contrary to
case-forms, 87
of verbs, 166.
a. 3.
c. 2.
Consonant
Synesis,
tial
esty, id. b
under
abl., etc.).
complex conditions, id. d\ Particles of consuevi, use, 279. e. Comparison (conclusion omitted) 312 consul, dec!., 49. Concessive clauses, 313 Proviso, 314 consularis, decl., 57. a. use of 81 and its comps., 315; condi- consulo, w. dat. or ace., 227. c. tional relative clauses, 316; temporal, Contention, words of, constr.,
, ;
229. c t
322, 327. b\
conditional sentences in
248. b.
contentus, w.
288.
e.
abl., 254. b
w. perf.
inf.,
Conditional Particles, 312. confldo, constr., 254 b. and N. Conjugation, denned, 26. Conjugation of verbs, 122-147 ; how distinguished, 122, a regular forms of, 125. c mixed forms, id. d\ parallel forms, 134; stemvowels of conjugations, 122-125; stems of the four conjugations, how modified, 126 ; paradigms of the four regular con\ \
continerl, w.
contingit ut,
332.
Continued action, tenses of, 115. Continuing, vbs. of, w. compl. inf., 271.
contra,
classes of,
;
scm, 13. c\ gen. abl. in -is, 40. b. Contracting, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 294. d.
in -I, dat.
and
156 correlative use, id. h\ conjs. repeated, id. SYNTAX of conjs., 208 omitted, id. b use together, id. <?.
154
list of,
155
use
of,
Contraction of vowels,
18. c\ in
10. b
quantity,
355- d.
Contrary to
conditions, 308
in ind.
disc., 337. b.
convenio, w.
Co-ordinate
p.
87,
ace., 228. a.
Connecting vowel
foot-n.
(so-called),
conjunctions, 154 a. 155. a-d\ co-ord. clauses, 180. a\ co-ord. words without conj., 208. b\ w. conj.,
id.
conor, w.
id.
inf.,
331.
e.
i;
cdnor
si,
Copula, 172.
344-
N.,
176.
a\
position
of,
N.
/
;
Consecutive clauses, defined, 180. e\ of Copulative conjunctions, 154. a. i, 155. charact. and result, 319, 320. a \ constr. after, 208 use of, 208. b. Consecutive conjunctions, 154.^.4, 155. i. Copulative verbs, 172. N., 176 a.
consequor ut,
consistere, w.
332.
abl.,
cor,
244.
c,
foot-n.,
corpus,
Correlatives, 106, 107; rendered by ast 106. b \ by the . . . the, id. c advs. of
;
d\
main
clause, w. final
cos,
decl., 77. 6.
of Words
Countries, names of, g'-ml., 29. 2 and / as end of motion, and place from which, 258. N. 2,
;
and
lie
Subjects.
457
-dam,
Crasis, 347. c.
decl., 63. ere be r, dccl., 82. c.
crater,
damnas, Daphne,
b.
of,
350.
credo,
position
of,
345.
c.
vl)s. of,
w. compl.
inf.,
271.
Cretic foot, 356. d\ verse, 374. Crime or charge, gen. of, 220.
c.
259.
e,
376.
-crum, noun-ending,
crux,
decl., 77. 6.
163. d.
in -al, decl. I., 36. a; in -5,bus, decl. I., 36. e\ in -Is for -as, decl. II., 40. b\ in -ubus, decl. IV., 70. d\ in -I (of anus, etc.), 83;
as adv., p. 123. N. y.
105. 215. a.
cum, quom
ing,
t
(conj.), form, io4./; mean. . . turn, 107, 156. 156.^; h 208. d\ with clause for part., 290. c,
cum
326. b\
causal, 321;
concess., 313.
cum
disc., 336. B. a. N. 2.
(prep.), 152. b\ joined as enclitic with pronouns, 99. e, 104. c, e ; use of,
Irfdirect ob224; uses of, id.; with transitives, 225; use of donS, etc., id. d; with intransitives, in pass., 225. e; 226; with phrases, id. a; like gen., id. b\ with intransitives, verbs meaning favor, etc., 227 verbs having dat. or ace., 227. c\ with verbal nouns, id. d\ with comps. of satis, etc., id. e\ with comps. of prep, ad, ante, with comps. of ab, de, ex, etc., 228 229; poetic use, 229. c\ with passive
; ;
153; in comp., see com; with plur. adj., 186. d. N. ; with plur. verb, 205; with abl. of manner, 248 ; with abl. of accompaniment, 248. a ; with words of
contention, 248. b\ with words of ex-
used impersonally, 230. Of Possession, 231 ; with comps. of esse, id. a with nomen est, id. b. Of Agency, 232.
;
Of Service, 233 ; with adjs. or adverbs. 234 ; with adjs. of fitness, etc., 234. a with similis, id. R. Of Reference, 235 ethical dat., 236. With words of con\ ;
-cumque, added
N.
;
to relatives, 105.
a and
temporal particles with, 322. -cundus, verbal adj. ending, 164. p. cup-, stem-ending, 45. a.
tention (poetic), 248. b. Of End of Motion, 258. N. i; w. infin., 272. a; dat. of gerund, 299. (Note on, p. 218.) Dativus commodl aut incommodl, 235. N.
de, use,
use,
152. b t 153; in comp. w. vbs., 170. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 229; in comp. w. vbs., w. abl., 243. b\ \v.
-cus, nouns
fix,
9.
309. b.
instead of part, gen., 216. c\ w. vbs. of reminding, 219. c. N. ; w. abl. to denote the crime, 220. c\ w. place
abl.
changed to 8, n. a. 2; -d. final anciently t, 12. c\ -d in abl., decl. I., 36. /; decl. II., 40. <f; decl. III., 62. a; decl. IV., 70. h\ ted, 98. i.e\
dea,
debe5,
debul, w.
pres.
inf.,
288. a.
med,
decerno,
decet, w.
constr., 331. d. 2.
p. 49, foot-n.
w.
dat., id. N. 2;
loss of
-d., p.
\
245.
Dactyl, 356. b
cyclic, id. N.
how
ex*
458
Sttbjects.
in relative clause, 201. e. N.
Declension defined, 26; characteristics terminaof, 32 ; general rules for, 33 II., 38tions, 34. Of Nouns, I., 35-37 43; III., 44-67; IV., 68-71; V., 72-74; decl. IV. compared with III., 68. N. ; decl. V. comp. with I., 74. b. Of Adjs.,
;
Po-
sition, 344. b.
denarius, value
of,
377.
Denominative verbs, 165, 166. Dependent clauses, subj. used in, 265. 6. Dependent constructions, N., p. 227. Deponent verbs defined, in. b\ how
conjugated, 122. N,; paradigms, 135;
participles, id.
id.
a,b.
used
reflexively, 135. e\
;
in
passive sense,
quantity of penult, 351. b. Defective nouns, 75 ; in number, 76 ; in case-forms, 77 ; of decl. IV., 71. b\ of
decl. V., 74. d.
135.
semi-deponents, 136. Depriving, constr. with verbs of, 243. a. Derivation of Words, 157-170. Derivative forms of nouns, 162, 163; of
adjs., 164 ; of verbs, 166, 167, Derivative verbs, defined, 165.
defendo,
deflcio,
-des, nouns
279; sequence
;
in, 164. b.
Description, imperf. used in, 115. b\ scription implied in part., 292. Descriptive abl., see abl. of quality.
(in -urio), 167. w. gen., 218. a.
e.
grammar,
ff.
rhetoric,
p. 429.
deflt, 142.
c.
despero,
of, 149. c.
constr., 227. b.
degener,
Degree, adverbs
168. b.
of, constr.,
321. d.
90.
delude, denique,
151. d.
comp.
Diastole, 359. f.
c.
delicium,
dicionis, defect., 77. 5. dico, forms of, omitted, 206. c. dicto, w. comp., 247. b. -dicus, adjs. in, comparison of,
89. c.
Dido,
diem
dies,
74-
gerund,
etc.,
299. a.
decl.,
-dem,
Demanding,
Difference, abl.
difficilis,
Position, 344.
b.
303- Rdecl.,
dig-nor, with
abl.,
245
a. 2.
pers.,
dignus, with
abl., 245.
with relative
id.
c : of
3d
pers., id. b
supply place
t
clause, 320. f.
of pers. prons.of 3d. pers., 194. c 195; formation, p. 65, luot-note. Syntax,
<>f
]\'<in?s
an,/ Subjects.
450
and
adjectives, 164. a;
din-, stem-ending,
48. b.
of, 16,
dupli, with
17; quan-
^detuning, 220.
of, 240.
a.
Diphthongs,
tity, 18. b,
i;
sound
b.
Duration, ace.
256. b.
et 256;
abl. of,
347.
-dus, participle in. See Gerundive. Duty, vbs. of, in apod., 308. c.
dux,
decl., 46.
e, inserted in decl.
II.,
a. I.
/'.
5;
e, stem-vowel, conj. II., 122, 123. a, 126.^; e stem-vowel, conj. III., 122,
t
123. b, 126. c.
noun
after, 208.
e as adv. ending,
e.
148. a, c.
Dissimilation,
n.
-e neuters in, decl. III. ,57. a, 65. c,(yj,a. -e, abl. of adjs. of 2 and 3 terminations,
b.
\
of time,
b.
e shortened in future, p. 89, e in stem of decl. V., 72. e (preposition). See ex.
-e, Gr. voc., 63. z; in
foot-n. 3.
dives,
ea causa,
-ebus, 107. eae, 101. c.
p. 423.
317. a.
c.
65.*'
fyj.b.
d. N.
ebur,
70. /; double
decl., 49.
etc.), 101. d.
domus,
stem
gend. 69. a
decl.,
ecce (eccum,
ecquis,
edico,
p.
d\ meaning,
i.
domo,
id. b.
constr., 331. d. 2.
donee, with ind. or subj., 328. dono, double constr. of, 225. d.
dos, decl., 54. 2. Double consonants, 3. a, 18. d. Double questions, 211; answers
212. b.
edo
effieri, 142.
c.
d.
effigies, decl., 74. d. Effort, verbs of, with perf. part., 292. d\ with clause of result, 331. e.
Dual forms,
p. 60, foot-n.
dubito an,
quin,
id. N. 2.
210.
;
/ R. non
;
dubito ego,
ei,
332. <f. R.
non dubito, w.
c.
t\ \
due,
imperative, 128.
dum, derivation,
with present, with clause for pres. and perf. partic., 290. c, d w. subjunctive of proviso, 314,328; of time,
148. N.
diphthong, i; sound of, 16, 17. c. -eis, patronymic, 164. b. -eius, patronymic, 164. b. -eius, adj. ending, 164. c in Prosody
\
347. d, N.
i. <,
215.
32$
of purpose, 328.
460
elephans,
-elis,
63. e.
-enus,
Elision, 359. c.
Ellipsis, 177. c. N.
-erim, -ero, as tense-ending. -ernus, adj. ending, 164. <?. ero-, noun stems in, decl. II., 41 adj. stems in, 82. a.
ES, root of
eluvies, decl., 74. </ Emphasis, 344. -en, nouns in, 67. b\ -en, nouns en, w. demonstrative, 101. d.
in, id.
esse, n. a\ p. 83, note. pi. of Gr. nouns, 63. /; gend. of nouns in, 65. a. -s,-idis(-Itis); -es,-edis; -es,-edis; -es, -etis -es, -etis, nouns in, 67. d. -es, nom. ending, 67. a list of nouns in,
-es, in
nom.
51, foot-n.;
163. a.
gend., 65. b\
formation,
104. c e; -met, -te, -pte, 99. /; -pse, 100. c, p. 67, foot-n. ; -quo, see under that word.
<?,
t
cum, 99.
-es, gen. of
Greek nouns
End
of motion, ace.
of,
;
258
w. vbs. that
;
gen. ending, decl. V., 74. a. esse, conj., 119; forms of, in other languages, p. 83, note; compounds of, 120; case after, 176. b\ dat. of poss.
\
w., 231; future part, w., 293. a, c\ position of forms of, 344. c j.
t
English derivatives from Lat., spelling of, 15 ; Eng. words cognate with Lat.,
id.
est, united with other words, 13. b est qul, 320. a est cum, 322. R. est ut, 33 2 a. 3.
\
Esteeming, verbs
-ester (-estris),
/,
&
(or
12. noun-ending, 164. et, use, 156. a ; et . . et, 156. h peated or omitted, 208. b. i.
.
et
re-
-ensimus
-esimus), numeral
c.
. .
adj.
etenim,
Enumeration,
151. d.
prlmum
deinde, etiamsi,
concessive, 313.
i
;
c.
313.
c.
-enus,
-etum, noun-ending,
164.
i.
8.
Envy, verbs of, w, dat., 227. eo, used w. supine in -um, 258.
302, R.
ETYMOLOGY,
R.,
-e us,
43
-eus (-eus),
;
eo, used with quo, 106. c\ w. compar., 250. R.; approaching abl. of cause,
250. N.
patronymic ending,
10.
164. b
adj. end-
evenit ut,
e5 consiliS
ex
332. (e), 152. b\ use, 153, 260. b, 244. a, R. ; in compounds, 170. a, 243. b abl. w., instead of part, gen., 216. c ; ex\
epitome,
epulum,
-ae, 78.
2. b.
pressing position, 260. b\ in vbs. w. dat., 229 ; to express place from which,
equester,
decl., 84. a.
er, primary suffix, see as. er-, stem-ending, 48. d, -er, nom. ending, decl. II., 41-43; decl. III., 48. c 53. b, 54. i gend., 65. a, 67. a, b ; -er in adjs., 82, 84. a ; comp. of
t ;
258 after its noun, 263. N. gerund, 301. -ex (-ex), nouns in, 67. e. excello, w. dat., 227. a.
;
w. abl. of
erga, w.
Exchanging, vbs. of, 252. c. Exclamation, form of, 210. e. R.; ace. nom. in. in, 240. d\ w. infin., 274;
241.
c.
c.
I>K{<:\'
461
41
c.
;
Exclamatory sentences,
240. d\
171. c;
c.
compounds
conj., 139;
of,
decl., 82. b.
nom.
;.
in, 241. c.
-us,
332.
fer5,
of,
acceptum (exp5r>
2.
-ner.il
expressions
320. a.
infin.
sura) ferre,
Festivals, plural
292. N.
exlex, defect.,
ting,
87.
/ 3.
etc.,
names
of, 76. i.
hoping,
vbs.
of,
w.
clause, 330.
/
292. N. 2.
abl., 245. a. 2.
of, 89. c.
expensum,
exspes,
exsilid, exsulto, w.
defect,
d.
87./
b.
^4.
d.
exsulto, w.
abl., 245. a. 2.
fig-ura
foot-n.
Filling,
etymologica,
;
344.
m.
c.
words
of,
with
abl., 248. c. 2.
ofj
Final Clauses, denned, 180. e\ constr. 317, 318 ; as subst. clauses, 331.
154. b. 5, 155. i.
fac
ne, in prohibition, 269. a. facies, decl., 74 d. facilis, comp., 89. b ; constr., 303. R. facio, forms ol, omitted, 206. e; w. abl., 244. d; accent of comp. of, 19. d. i;
faciS, w. names of authors, 292. facere ut, 332 and e.
Factitative ace., p. 235; verbs, 175.
in compounds, 169. faenebris, decl., 84. a. N. faex, decl., 77. 6.
e.
Final conjunctions, Final syllables, rules of quantity, 348; vowels, id. 1-8.
finis, decl., 57. b. Finite verb, denned, 173. N.; subject of,
173. i. fio, conj., 142; in compounds, id. b\ defective compounds of, id. c\ quantity
N.
N.
-facto,
a.
pres.
stem,
how formed,
a
;
123. a; formation,
126. a, 166.
verbs
of,
130;
166. a.
fames,
fisus, as pres. part, 290. b. fit ut, 332. a. Fitness, adjs. of, w. dat., 234.
a, b.
77. i
flagito, constr., 331. flocci, gen. of value, 252. b. For, when expressed by pro, 236. R.
w.
fax,
decl., 77. 6.
of,
3, 148.
c,
N.
332.
e.
Fearing, verbs
w.
inf.,
forem,
fores,
119. R.
b.
;
Feeling,
nouns of, with gen., 217 impersonal verbs of, 146. b, 221. b animi, with adjs. of, 218. c. R.; gen. with verbs animi, w. vbs. of, 223. c, ace. of, 221 with, 237. b; with quod-clause, 333. b.
; ;
Forgetting, vbs. of, 219; w. inf., 271. foris (locative), 77. 3, 148. N. 358. Formation of words, 157-170.
,
d,
Forms
ff.
(for-
san), 311. a. Fourth Conjugation, prin. parts, 122. c; pres. stem, how formed, 123. a, 126. d\ paradigm, p. 104; list of verbs, 133;
verbs,
femur,
how formed,
166. d.
462
Subjects.
243. a.
Frequentative verbs, 167. b. French, derivations through, 15, foot-note. fretus, with abl., 254. b.
Fricatives, 3. a. frugl, defect, noun, 77. 5; as adj., 87. /; comparison, 90 ; constr., 233. a. N.
65; according to stems, 66; of nouns, decl. IV., 69; decl. V., 73; Syntax, ag' cement in gend., 181; of appositives. 184. b; of adjs., 186; adjs. with nouns of different genders, 187, cf. 189. c\ of
rel.,
199. b.
General conditions,
defined, 304. d. ; constr. of, 309; relatives in, 316. <z. General truths after past tcr.se i'irt
sequence of tenses),
287. d\
in pros..
abl.,
249; w. ace.,
276; in general condition, 309. a, GENITIVE. Etymology. Definition, 31. i terminations of, 32 ; plural in -urn, 33
Fulness, adjs.
of, 218. a.
funebris,
decl., 84. a.
N.
fungor,
see fruor.
in ind. disc.,
I., 36. a, b\ decl. II., 40. b \ in -I of prop, nouns of decl. III., 43. a\ gen. plur. in -urn (-6m), for -orum, 40. e\
for
ii,
-um
for-ium,
/
;
decl. III., 59; -6s for -is, 63. contracted in decl. IV., 68. N. ; gen.
Future Tense, use, 115. a. i, 278; of infinitive pass., how formed, 147. c\ indicfor imper., 264. c, 269. /; of imperative, 269. d\ uses of, 278; in indirect questions, 334. a fut. ind. for
plur. in -um, 70. c ; in -I or -e for -el, decl. V., 74. a gen. plu. wanting, 77. 6 of adjs. in -ius, 83 ; gen. plur. in
;
ative
-ium
or
-um,
87. c t d.
GENITIVE.
Syntax, 213-223; general use, 213. Subjective gen., 214. Possessive gen., id. a-d\ in appos. w. poss. pron., 197. e\ compared w. dat., 231.
Future
Infinitive,
how
expressed
with
R.; gen. in predicate, 214. c, d\ gen. of adj. for neut. nom., 214. R. ; gen. of substance or material, 214. e\ for appositive, 214. /; gen. of quality, 215. Partitive, 216. Objective gen., 217; w. adjectives, 218, 234. d\ w. verbs of memory, 219 ; charge and penalty, 220
;
Future Perfect Subjunc. wanting, no. a. Future Subjunctive wanting, no. a. futurum esse ut, see fore ut futurum fuisse ut, 337. b. 3 and N. 2. Futiirum inprcsterito, p. 320, foot-note.
;
of feeling, 221 w. impers., miseret, etc., 221. b\ w. refert and interest, 222 of plenty and want, 223 of exclamation, 223 w. potior, id. a w. other vbs., id. b w. egeo and indig;
;
eo, 223, 243. /; gen. for abl., id./ R,; gen. replaced by dat., 226. b of value.
;
G (the character), 6.
Games,
plural
215.
I.
c,
252. a, b
names
of,
76.
gaudeo,
quod
39- a.
Gems, gender
Gender, kinds
29;
decl.
names
of,
2 and b t 29,
69, b.
decl., 82. b.
of,
of,
41
common,
I.,
doubtful,
epicene, 30;
change of gend.,
decl. III.,
Gerund, form, 109. b\ use, 114. a\ gerundive used instead, 296. SYNTAX,
295-301; purpose,
gen.
id.
of, 298; pred. use, R.; w. obj. gen., id. a;
Imlc.v <>f
dat. of, 299; in law phrases abl. of, 301;
Words and
b
;
Subjects.
etc., id.
gerund
in
apposition, 301. R.
109. a,
hactenus, 260. N. Hadria, gender, 35. haec for hae, 101. a. haereO, w. dat., 227.^,3;
w. abl.,
or -undus, 12. d, p. 89, foot-n. 2; of dep. use as part, or adj., V'.-ib, 135. d\ 294; of utor, id. c\ to denote purp. used for alter certain vbs., id. d\ Gerundive construcgerund, 296.
foot-n.,
113.
-endus
Happening, verbs of, constr., 332. a. Have, perl, with, origin, 292. c, foot-n. have (ave), defective verb, 144. /. Having, vbs. of, w. gerundive, 214. d.
hebes,
cases, gen., 298; dat., 299; Impersonal w. 300; abl., 301. esse, w. ace., 237. g.
ace.,
tions in
decl., 87. a\ comp., 89. Help, verbs of, with dat., 227. Hemiolic measures, 356. d.
decl., 67. d.
hepar,
heros,
verbs
gibber,
gfin-,
decl., 82. b.
Hesitation, clauses
of, constr.,
w. quln, 319. d\
i
;
271.
adjs., 87. f.
glaber,
decl., 82. c.
decl., 74. d.
2.
glacies,
Heterogeneous nouns,
78. 2.
Hexameter
Hiatus, 359.
i, 12.
verse, 362.
e.
hibus,
48. b\
102.
101. a.
decl.,
10,
c,
Gnomic
perfect, 279. c.
in,
-go, nouns
gend., 65.
101; Ex.
67.
use,
b, 67. b.
hiemps
hiems), n.
gracilis,
87.7; comp., 89. b. Grammar, how developed, pp. 163, 164. Grammatical gender, 28. c. gratia, w. gen., 223. e, 245. c\ w. gen. of gerund, 318.
decl.,
hilaris (-us),
/
102. N.
of,
Himself"(ipse, se),
Hindering, verbs
with
331.
ne
e.
or
2;
quo332.
minus,
g-
or
Inf.,
gratiae,
defect, 77. 4.
dat., 227. c.
gratificor, w.
gratulor, w. dat., 227. c. Greek accusative ( synecdochical') 240. c. Greek forms compared w. Latin, pp. 14,
19, 22, 26, 47, 51, 55, 59, 78, 81, 83, 113,
followed oy
c.
119, 122, 142, 143, 152, 155. Greek nouns, decl. I., 37; decl. II., 43; decl. III., 63, 64.
hodie,
279. 148. N. 8.
honor
33- /
of,
347.
Hoping, verbs
Horace, metres
w., 208. b. 2.
of,
horizSn,
decl., 63. d.
conces-
gumrnl,
indecl., 67. a.
sion, id. c (cf. 313. /); in proviso, 314; in obligation, 266. a ; w. lorce of, protasis, 310. b.
hortor, constr., 331. hospes, decl., 87. b. Prosody, 347. a 359. c. habeS, with infinitive, 273. a with per- hospita (fem. of hospes), fect participle, 292. c; future imperative hfliusmodl, ici. e.
ii. b. i;
; \
85. c.
habeto
h.iV.iiK
loot-n.
in
sen
dat.
v/-,
296. e.
etc.,
huml,
40. a. locative
use
of,
258. d.
w.
of
gerund,
299,
94. d.
464
I,
i, I,
as vowel
decl., 85. b.
primary
in
suffix, 160. c. I.
Greek
;
II., 126. b.
c. i
for e in conj. ; in conj. III., 126. vbs. in 16- of conj. III., id. e\ in
voc., 63. 2] for i,
64
I.,
74. b\
id. foot-n.
nom. ending,
163. e.
verb replaced by cons., 123. b. i in- igitur, meaning, 156. e\ position, id. k. serted in vb. stem, id. 2; suppressed in ignis, decl., 57. b. obicit, etc., 10. d\ i (single} in gen. of ii, iis, for I, is, from is, 101. c. nouns in -ius (-ium),4o. b\ in gen. -il (or -l), in gen., decl. II., 40. b, and
;
in -es, 43. a\ in abl. of decl. 57; in neut. nom., 65. c; in gen. decl. IV., 70. a; in gen., dat., decl. V., 74. a\ in dat. of unus, etc., 83.
of
noun
foot-n.
of adjs., 81.
a.
III.,
-l,
in perfect, 118. N.
i-
stems, decl. III., 51-59; confused, p. 35, foot-note 2; signs of, 55; in adjectives, 81, foot-n., 84; cases retaining -i, 84. b, cf. 55, 57, 87. a i-stems in verbs,
;
-He, noun-ending, 164. i, 6. -His, -bilis, verbal adj. ending, 164. m. -ilis, nominal adj. ending, 164. d. Illative conjunctions, 154. a. 4, 155. c. ille, forms 100. a; decl., 101; use, 102. b,f\ combined with -ce, 101.
illic, decl., 101.
136.4
-ia,
nom., ace.
of
verbs ending in, 167. d. illus, diminutive ending, 164. a. illustris, decl., 84. a, N.
-illo,
-im in pres. subj., 128. e, 2. ending of abstract nouns, 163. Iambic verse, 360; trimeter, 365; other imber, decl., 51. b, 54, 57. b,
forms, 366.
67. a.
immane quantum,
a.
334.
e.
Iambus, 356.
immo, how
conj. IV., 128.
e. r.
e.
used, 209. d.
b,
-ibam
for
-iebam,
tenses
of,
no.
how
in
ibus, 101.
c. c.
commands, 269
;
c,
h,g.
b.
stem-ending, 63.
die, due, fac, fer, 128. c\ some verbs used chiefly in, 144. /; various periphrases for imv., 26g.f,g\ Imperative as protasis, 310. b.
a,
240. b.
Idem,
w.
id.
decl.,
dat., 234.
Imperative Sentence, 171. d. Imperfect tense, denned, 115. b\ use, 277 in descriptions, id. a with iam diu, etc., id. b\ inceptive and conaof surtive, id. c\ with iam, id. N.
;
; ;
could,
represented
by
Ides (i3th or I5th of month), how reckoned, 376. b. -ides, (-ides) in patronymics, 164. b. idoneus, comparison, 89. d: w. dat. of
impero,
constr., 331.
i, c.
gerund,
etc.,
299, foot-n.
320,
Impersonal
classified,
Verbs,
146
;
idoneus qul,
Tdus,
decl.
/
(See
/.
Ides.)
c, 230; impersonals, miseret, with gen., 221. b\ libet, licet, with dat., 227. e ace. w. decet, etc.
146.
etc.,
237.
tf.
A;
tenses of
impetrO, constr., 331. Impetus, defect., 77. 4. impleS, constr., 223, 248.
ImpliCO,
subjunc., 336.
15;
on
c.
pcrf. inf.,
;
id.
R.
impono,
Impure
tio),
Imus,
338;
Deliberative subjunc.
in ind. disc.,
id.
a;
Commands
c.
,
tion, id.
N.
Informal ind.
in, prep., use, 152. c 153 ; comp. w. vbs., 170. a ; in w. ace. or abl., 259. b (cf.
t
w. ace., penalty, 220. b\ vbs. comp., \v. dat., 228 ; in w. ace., w. adjs., 234. c\ in citations, 258. c. 2. N. 2; place where, 258. c. i; in idioms of
260. a)
;
341. Indirect Questions, defined, p. 201 syntax, 210. R., 334; fut. tense in, id. a;
;
indie, in
time, 259. b ; w. abl. of gerund, 301. in-, stem-ending, 48. b In-, 63. a.
\
and
N. 225, 226,
i.
in,
primary
suffix.
See an.
Indo-European forms,
435-
inclutus, comp.
91. d.
of.
authors, 292,
of,
e.
N.
225. d.
tinued action. Increment, defined, 349. a\ of nouns and adjs., 350; of verbs, 351.
ineptus,
inermis or
-us, 87.
of, 29. c\
list
77. I.
b.
a. N., 316.
Mood,
Syntax.)
Indefinite subject omitted, 206. b\ use of 2d person for, 266. a in general conditions, 309. a; licet
INFINITIVE MOOD, Etymology, 108. b> and foot-n.; tenses of, no. d; how
used,
112.
clarum
fieri,
d\
how
128.
e,
272. a. N. Indefinite value, 252. a, b. Indicative mood, 108. b\ how used, 112.
a,
pass, in -ier,
deponents, 135
173. 2, 240.
formed, p.
/
infin.,
264;
311. c\ in causal
clauses, 321
in clause with
quod,
333.
271
indigeo, with gen., 223, 243. / indlgnus, with abl., 245. a w. qui and
\
INDIRECT DISCOURSE,
p. 369;
list
origin, etc., note, of verbs that take ind. disc., p. 370, foot-n. ; direct and indir. quotation, 325.
331 inf. for subjunc. clause, 331.^; with subject ace., 272; case of predicate noun, id. b\ inf. of purpose, 273; w. adjs., in poetry, id. d\ of reas pure noun, id. A in sult, id. g
id. a, cf.
; t
Moods in
verb
exclamations, 274 (sequence, 285. N. i). Tenses of inf., Historical inf., 275. 288; perf. instead of pres., id. d, e\
of saying implied, id. N. 2. Subj. ace., id. a. Subord. clause when explanatory, id. b\
fore ut,
on
Inf. in
tenses, 336. A.
(Note
330;
clauses w.
rel. c.
which is Tenses of
infin., p. 283.)
466
w. pass, verbs, id. a-d. See also Indi rect Discourse. Cf., also, 272.
Infitias, defect., 77. 2; use, 258. b. R. Inflection, defined, 20; terminations of id. b ; how modified, 24 ; of decl. and
derivation, 148.
conjugation, 26.
Influence, vbs. of, w. ut-clause, 331. a. Informal Indirect Discourse, 340, 341.
Intransitive verbs, 175. a, 177 ; used impersonally in pass., 146. d\ dat. with,
a, 153.
226
ff.
used
ingens,
decl., 87.
transitively,
e.
w. ace. and
comp., 91. d.
dat., 227.
/ (cf. 237.
N. 3).
etc.,
and
299.
liquid, id. d.
iniussu, defect., 71. b. inops, decl., 87. a, d. inquam, inquit, 144. b\ position
345. c
;
-io,
b,
67.6.
-io,
forms
sumpsi),
msidiae,
126. c, e\ paradigm, p. 100; conj. IV., 126. d\ derivation, 166. d. Ionic measure, 356. c verse, 372. 16.
of,
;
lnsperg-5, constr., 225. d. instar, indecl., 77. i w. gen., 223. Insto, constr., 331. Xnsulam, ad, 258. b. N. 3.
;
ipse, formation, 100. c; decl., 101; use, 102. d and N., igS-f-I; used instead of
reflexive, 196. a, 2. N. i. irl, in fut. infin. pass., 141, 147. c.
Instrument, abl. of, 248. c. Instrumental case, 31. i (cf. pp. 205, 245) ; as adv., p. 123. N. 18 source of
;
diff.
in
form from
question, 210.
b.
N.
integer,
decl., 82. c.
of,
340, 342.
e.
Irrational measures, 356, N., 369. N. is, decl., 101 ; use, 102. d, f, 106 ; use emphatically, 195. c; used instead of
reflexive, 196. a, 2. N.,
i.
integrum est
and
N.
-Is,
nom. ending,
153 in comp., 170. a comp. with, 228 position, 263. N inter se, 99. d, I96./; inter slcarios, 220. c ; inter, w. gerund, 300.
a,
;
;
-Is,
ace. pi., decl. III., 58 (cf. p. 30, foot-n. 2) ; of adjs., 84. b, 87. c\
nom. and
Inter se (reciprocal), 99. d, 196. f. Intercludo, constr., 225. d and N. 2. interdico, constr., 225. d, N. i. Interest, constr., 222 with ad, id. b. interior, comp., 91. a.
;
63. c.
see
it-.
Islands, names of, loc. use, 258. c, 2 and R. ; to which, 258. b, from which, a.
list,
p. 139;
w.
.ste,
decl., 101.
N.
c.
Impersonals, 145, foot-n. as stem-ending, 45. b decl., 59, 87. b. in answers, 212. Lta, correl. with ut, 107
;
Interrogative particles,
use, 210.
list
of,
149.
d\
p. 434.
TnJc.r of
Itaque, accent, 19. c; comp.m-il with erg5, 156. e\ used with ergo, 208. *;
position of, 345. b. Iter, stem of, 60. c, cf. 349. b.
Iterative verbs (-t5, -it6, -86), 167.
.
am!
Kintb
Subjects.
467
-iish, 15,
ct
ndix.
Kindred
Kno'.'.
-id
inf.,
271,
272, 330.
I.
Knowledge,
adjs. of,
w. gen., 218. a.
,67. b\ adj.-
163. f, 164. A.
III.,
.
n.
a;
of
L; nouns
in
-1,
gend., 65.
55.
-ius, adjs. in, gen., voc., 81. a. of adjs. in, 164. ,.f, m.
-Iv-, in perf., 132. a.
formation
Iab5r5, w.
abl. 245. a. 2.
k.
dat. and abl. -ubus, 70. d. laedS, constr., w. ace., 227. a. laetor, laetus, w. abl., 254. b.
pi.
in
lampas,
lateo,
\v.
decl., 63.
/ 64.
d; w.
e.
ace., 239.
dat., id. N. 2,
iam,
i\ \
use, 151. b
latifundium,
168. b.
iamdudum,
perf.,
Latin language, origin and comparative forms of; earlier forms languages derived from ; see Appendix.
;
latus,
N.
2.
iecur,
60.
c,
decl.,
Learning, verbs of, w. inf., 271. Length, expressed by gen., 215. b. -lens, -lentus, see -olens, -olentus. leo, decl., 49.
Leoni-ias,
w.
inf.,
227. a;
271.
b,
2,
331. a.
I.
iucundus,
constr., 303. R.
;
defect, 77. 4 decl., 78. measure, 381. head-n. 376. e. Julian Calendar, 376,
;
iugerum,
c,
82. b.
Liber,
decl., 41. c.
c,
76. 2.
;
iungS, w.
a. R.
e.
N.,
248.
decl., 60. b
plural,
libet, impers., 146. d w. dat., 227. *. licet, impers., synopsis, 145; use. 146. c\ w. dat., 227. e\ w. predicate dat., 272.
b, 77. 6.
me
iussu. defect., 71. , 77. 2, iusto, w. compar., 247. b. iuvat, w. ace., 237. e. iuvenis, masc. adj., 88. b\ how compared, 91. c\ decl., 59. iuvo, with ace., 227. a.
licet
mihi
ire, 331.
of,
and
N. 3.
Likeness, adjs.
gen., id. d.
w. dat., 234. a; w.
Limiting word, meaning of, 178. b. ; Linguals, 3; stems in, decl. III., 45. gend. of, 66. d\ forms of inflection,
67. d.
iuxta,
position, 263. N.
6.
linter,
gend., 67.
<i.
K, supplanted by C,
ka, primary
N.
Liquids,
suffix, 160. A.
gend.
67. <.
Kalendae,
376. a.
468
-lis, adjs. in,
Litotes, 209. c.
as stem-ending, 48. e. Locative abl., 254, 258. c. i; idiomatic use, id. a ; adverbial forms, 148. N. S. LOCATIVE case, 31. h, p. 218 ; akin to dat.,
id.; in abl., p. 245, p. 260; of decl. I., 36. c\ decl. II.. 40; decl. III., 62; decl. IV. (domi), jo./foot-n.; decl.
man, primary suffix, 160. v, mando, constr., 331. mane, defect, noun, 57. c, 77. a. maneo, with abl., 254. b. mansuetus, 159. c. manus, decl., 68 gender, 69.
;
Manner, adv.
distinguish
of, 148.
Abl.
of,
hard
to
V., 74. c\ as adverb, 148. N. S\ forms, 258. c. 2, d. With abl. in apposition, 184.
specification, 253. N. Manner implied in part., 292. Manner, abl. of, 248. and R.
from
c i relative adverb used to refer to, 201. /; animi, 218. c. R., 223. c. Locative compared with dat., 224. N. ; locative
mare,
marl,
mas,
decl., 54. 2.
loco, loco,
abl.
i.
locum capere, w.
299. a.
gerund,
Material, adjectives denoting, 164. ; gen. of, 214. e,f\ abl. of, 244. and c-e. as of maxime, sign superl., 89. d.
Note on,
May, how expressed in Latin, 312. b. N. Means, nouns denoting, 163. c; abl. of, 248. and c participle implying means,
\
Long and
292.
Measure, gen. of, 215. b (cf. 257. a). Measures in Prosody, 355-357; names fi 356 ; contracted or resolved, 357. Measures of value, 377-380; of length,
lynx,
decl., 63.
/
359. b. R., d\ inserted
medeor, medicor,
M,
in verb-root, 123. c. 3.
mediocris,
;
-m, sign of
omitted
in inscriptions, 38. N.
-m
(verb-ending),
N.
Meditative verbs, 167. c. medius (middle part of), 193. medius fldius, 240. d. N. 2.
b.
86.
macte
and
N.
d melius est, with infin., 288. e. meminl, conj., 143. c in pres. sense,
;
143.
magis,
N., 279. e
mini
mei.
magnl,
Main
memor,
Memory,
decl., 87. a.
magnus,
comparison, 90.
verbs
of, constr.,
219.
suffix, 160. v.
maior natu,
maiores,
93-
91. c.
76. b,
-men, -mentum, noun-endings, -men, gend., 65. c, 67. b. mensis, decl., 59.
merldies, gend.,
73.
a.
163. c
/
of,
-met
with
(enclitic), 99. f.
N.
469
sub-
moneo",
b.
junc., 331. /. metus, with dat. or ace., 227. c. us (voc. ml, 81. a. N.), 40. c, 81. a,
N.
me
99. a; syntax of, 197. a, 214. a. Middle voice, in. a. and N., 118.
240.
c.
N., 249. N.
of, 29. I and a\ of in -ber, 84. a ; names 376, head-n ; divisions of, In Roman
names
miles,
decl., 46.
Calendar, 376.
Military expressions, dat. in, 233. b\ abl. dat. in, 233. b \ abl. of accomp. without
Moods, names and uses of, 108 note on origin and nature of,
Syntax
b,
112;
p.
274
cum,
248. a. N.
Moods
how
distin-
minime,
212. a.
morigerus,
decl., 82. a.
mos
est ut,
332.
a,
ministro, w. infin., 273. a. minor natu, 91. c. minoris, gen. of value, 252.
;
Mother, Motion,
243. b
\
a, d.
minores, signification, 93. f. minus, compar., 92 use, 93. e with si Motive, how expressed, 245. b. and quo, = not, 209. e constr. without Mountains, names of, gender, and a. quam, 247. c. -minus, -mnus, verbal adjective-end- -ms (-mps), noun in, 67. Mulciber, decl., 41. e. ings, 164.
;
indicated by compounds, 237, d\ implied, 259. g. Motion, end of, see End of Motion.
29.
z
miror
si,
333.
b. R.
with in-
95.
c.
e. N.,
248.
multum
munus,
332.
multus, comparison,
89. a.
90.
misereor, with gen., 221. a. miseresco, with gen., 221. a. miseret, 146. b\ with gen. and
other constr., c, d. miseror, with ace., 221. a.
221. b
;
mutare,
constr., 252.
c.
misy, decl., 67. a. -mnus, see -minus. Modern languages compared with
see Appendix. Modesty, subjunc.
of,
III.,
mythos,
Latin,
decl., 43.
N,
311.
b.
2.
Modification of subj. or pred., 178. Modifiers, position of, 343, 344 of nega;
(Ie5n-), 48. a. n, preceding stem-vowel of verb, 123. b. i inserted in verb-root (frang6), 123. c,
;
adulter'tnum, id.
tive, 345. d.
N.
160. 5.
mod5
nam
(enclitic), in questions,
2io./
*.
molaris,
nam, namque, use, 156. d, 208. Names of men and women, 80.
470
Naming, vbs.
Nasals,
2. b,
a.
'3natalis,
decl., 57. b.
209.
position
149.
e.
of,
non,
non
modo,
a.
nequis, decl., 105. d. nesciS an, 210. / R. nescio quis, use, 202. a; as
indefinite
without subj., 334. e. -nd, -nt, vowel short before, iS.yC -ndus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. o\ ger- -neus, adj.-ending, 164.^ undive in, 113. d. Neuter ace. as adv., 148. d cf. b. N. Neuter adjs., special uses of, 189. -ne (enclitic) use in questions, 210. a-d in double questions, 211; w. force of Neuter verbs, see Intransitive Verbs.
t ,
;
Neuter gender, general rule for, 29. c\ cases alike in, 33. b\ endings of decl.
III., 65. c.
348.
I.
subj., 266. R.
w.
in subjunctive of proviso, 312. a\ prohibitions, 269. a\ in concessions, 313. a\ in final clauses, 317; = nedum,3i7. c. R.; in substantive clauses,
Neuter pron. as cognate ace., 238. b. Neuter passives, 136. Neuter verbs, 175, 176; with cognate ace.,
238; having passive sense, with ab,
246. a.
Neuter passives,
136.
nex,
ni,
decl., 77. 6.
suffix, 160. e.
N.
primary
ne non,
w.
-nia -nium, noun-endings, 163.^ niger, decl., 82 ; distinct from ater, 91.
d.
N.
necesse est
288.
a?;
nihil, indecl., 77. i ; contr. to nil, 347. c. nihill, gen. of value, 252. b. nimirum quam, used as indefinite
e.
ut-clause, 331.
iiecne
nefas,
303-
in
nedum,
317.
R.
and N.
;
ningit, 146. a. nisi and si non, 315. a\ nisi si, id.; nisivero (forte), id. b\ nisi in sense
of only, id. d. nisi vero, nisi forte, 315. nitor, with abl., 254. b.
b.
indecl., 77. i
Negation, perfect preferred in, 279. d. Negative answer, 210. c\ 212. and a. Negative particles, list of, 149. e\ two use of, 209 negatives, 150, 209. a
;
plur.,
form
different
from English,
209. b\
neg. answers, 212 ; neg. proviso, 314. a ; neg. condition, 315. a\ purpose, 317;
result, 319. a,
expressed, 212. noli, in prohibitions, 269. a. nolo, conj., 138 ; part., as dat. of reference, 235.
80. a.
f.
;
,
how
R.
position
. . .
of,
345. d.
denoting gens,
b, c.
nego,
b,
better than
dico
non,
209.
nomina abundantia^ 78. i. negStium do ut, 331. nemo, use of, 202./; nemo non, 150. b. Nominal adjectives, 164. a-k. neque (nee), and not, 156. a\ neque NOMINATIVE defined, 31. a how formed from stem, 32. b nom. suffix, p. 205 enim, use, 156. d\ neque after a
\
nequam.
90.
comparison
of,
neut. pi. nom. and ace. alike, 33. b in decl. II., N., p. 16; in decl. III., 44,
;
of
in
//',>/,
A and
94;
47'
iinals,
.
a-stems,
<!
[
dorl.
IV., p. 40,
N.
in
e-stcnis,
96; others,
\nvi-,
173.
.*;.
p.
;
205)
as
97.
numeral
d\
ad;s., 344. b.
subject,
in
-mi-lit
;
predicate,
with, 204
in
;
176. b,
numquis,
tiirm, id.
decl., 105.
/'.
mcanin
151. b.
185
predicate, 243.
e.
R.
nunc, compared with lain, with opus in nunc nunc, 208. d. nom. of gerund nurus, gend., 6,.
.
.
.
rxelam
supplied by
non,
d.
compounds
of, 150. a, b
in answers, 212. a.
O
o
-6 -5
n5n dubito quin, 319. d\ 332.,^. R. no a modo, after a negative, 209. a. non modo ... no ... quidem, 149.
nonne,
in questions, 210. c.
or a, Indo-European vowel, p. 142, foot-n, p. 433, foot-n. after or V, 7 ; in decl. II., 38. N. for
e.
final in
amo = a + m,
ii'
n5n nemo, non nullus, etc., 150. a. non quia. non quod, non quo, non
quin,
etc., 156.
e.
nom.,
/ 321.
376.
c.
R.
non
satis, 93.
-5, -onis, noun-ending, 162. c, 164. g. O-stems, decl. II., 38, p. 22, foot-n.; in verbs from o-stems, 166. adjs., 82, 83
;
Nones (nonae),
nos, decl., 98. i noster, for poss.
;
a. 2.
O
//.
si,
b.
and
N.
i.
194.
ob, use, 152. a, 153; in comp., 170. a; in comp. w. vbs., w. dat., 228 to express
; ;
nostrum, as partitive gen., 99. b, 194. b. cause, 245. b w. gerund, 300. novendecim, 94. c. obeo, constr., 228. a. Noun and adj., forms of verb, 109, p. 120. Obeying, vbs. of, 227 w. ace., id.
;
a.
Noun-stem, treated as
Nouns
forms
88.
\v.
e,
defined, 25.
29. c\ declension
0^32-78; derivative
Object cases, 177. b. Object clauses, infin., 330 subj., 331, 332. Object defined, 177; becomes subject of pass., id. a, 237. a; ace. of direct w.
;
secondary
obj.,
governing
asis,
by
formation, 162.
nox,
decl., 54.
ending, 85. a participles in, decl., 85, 87. d; w. gen., 218. b\ w. ace., id. N.
;
Objective genitive, mel,ctc.,99.r; defined, 213.2; with nouns, 217; with adjs., 218. Obligation, unfulfilled, hort. subj., 266. e. Oblique cases, 31. g\ origin of names of,
p. 205.
and
2.
obvius (obviam),
0; as
derivation. 148. N.
;
apparent
adj., 188. e. I
with
dat.,
e.
228. b.
d.
num,
tions,
id./
31
;
R.
octodecim.
in, 75, 77. 5,
r
Number,
id. b, c\
nouns, defect,
w. meaning of pres*
uses,
in verbs, 108. d; 181; with appositives. 184. a with adjs., 186, 187, d\ with verbs, 204,
number
ment
205.
in,
c.
e (long), n. c\ for -I in nom. pi., decl. II., offendS, constr., 228. a. Old forms of pronouns; mis, tis, 98. i. c
oe. written
.;
\
Numeral
advs., 96.
mod,
ted,
id. b.
472
olens, -olentus,
ollus
-os, -odis, 67. d. os-, stem of comparatives, 86. a. -OS for -us, in nom. sing., decl.
II., 38.
63-
/
;
II.,
43.
c.
b.
6s, oris, decl., 77. 6. b, os, ossis, stem, p. 26, foot-n. 2 decl., 61. Oscan forms compared with Latin, Appendix, p. 435.
-on, nom. ending, 63. c, d. on- stem-ending, 48. a, see 160. v. 6n-, stem-ending, 63. f. ont-, nom. -on, 63. d.
ossu, ossua
164. k.
(def.)
69. foot-n.
ovat
(defective)
144. e.
e.
onyx, decl., 67. c. Open syllables, 14. d. opera, with gen., 246.
oxys,
decl., 67. a.
operam
do,w.
a; with subjunc., 331. Operations of nature, 146. a. opiniSne, with compar., 247.
pacto, as
b.
c.
paenitet, 146. b constr., 221. b-d. opinor, position of, 345. c. oportet, 146. c; with ace. of object, palana, as apparent adj., 188. e. 3 with 237- e i n apod., 308. c\ imperfect reabl., 207. b, 261. b.
\
c.
R.
Palatals,
67. e.
a.
paluster,
Panthus,
par,
vocative
/'.
w. dat. of gerund, etc., 299. foot-n. Parallel verb-forms, 134. Parasitic sounds, n. c.
Parataxis, p. 164, p. 274.
equiv.
to, id. c.
paratus, with
76. 2. a.
i
;
infin., of,
273. b.
dat., 227.
Pardoning, verbs
with
decl., 43.
w. abl., 243. e\ as pred. nom., id. R.; w. participle, 292. b w. supine in -u,
SOS-
Parisyllabic nouns of
adjectives, 84.
partem,
258.
48. d\
/
decl., 87. b, d.
particeps,
gend.,
310. a.
Participial clause
implying
25. e
;
condition,
__
Oratio obllqua, see Indirect Discourse. Order of words, 343-346. Ordinal Numbers, 94; decl., 94. f.
PARTICIPLES, defined,
of, 89. e
;
number
of, 109.
113; as adjs., id. e\ as nouns, id./; used predicatively as adjs., id.,,f ; parts.
in -ns, used as adjs., with gen., 218. b\ clause equivalent to part., 201. b ; parts, in abl. absolute, 255.
6ro,
-6s,
constr., 331.
decl., 43.
\
Orpheus,
a. 67. b.
173
263. N.
289 tenses, 290 present in sped. ill. a pres. pass, part., how supplied,
.
rules
of quantity,
how supplied, id. d\ parts, of deponent verbs, 135. a, b, 290. b, d\ adjective use, 291 predicate use, 292 with opus, id. b\ perf. with habeo,
c\ perf. act.,
;
;
id. c\
part.,
present with facio, id. e\ future 293; with past tenses of esse, id. gerundive, use as part, or adj., 294
;
349-354penus, gend., 69. a decl., 78. i. c. per, prep., 152. a; use, 153; w. ace. of agent, 246. b. Adverbial prefix, w. adjs., 170. c (cf. 93 d); w. verbs, 170. c. N. Perceiving, verbs of, constr., 272, 330.
;
perendie
future part, in indirect questions, 334. a; part, as protasis, 310. a. Particles defined, 27; forms and classification,
(loc.), 74. c, 148. N. 8. Perfect participle, used to form tenses, no. b\ other uses, 113. c. i; of deponents, 135. b\ used as nouns, retain adv., 207. c\ dat. of agent with, 232. a;
p.
122;
p.
123;
interrogative,
abl. w.
343.
e,
292. b.
PERFECT TENSE
id. c,
in compounds, 170; tive, id. e, 209; Syntax, 207-212; use of interrogative particles, 210. a, d\ conditional particles, 304. a, 315 particles of compari;
and
;
perf. hist.,
279; personal endings, 116. a; origin of i and s in, 118. N. stem, how formed, 124, 126; of conj. I., 126. a.
2;
contracted
perf.,
e.
128.
a,
b\
perf.
irreg.
forms of
conj. I., 130; of conj. II., 131; various, of conj. III., 132; of conj. IV'., 133.
partus,
decl., 70. a.
Perf. Ind., use, conditions, 307. e\ in general conditions, 279. , 309. c\ gnomic
parum,
93. e.
parvus, comp.,
forms wanting
90.
;
279. c. Perf. Subj., hortatory, 266 ; in prohibitions, 266. b, 269. a ; optative, 267. a ; in fut. conditions, 307. c potenperf.,
;
tial,
no.
b\ signification,
;
meaning, id. N., 118. N. deponents, in. b\ completed tenses, how formed, 126.^; passive used impersonally, 141. a, 146. d\ 230,
a-c, 331. h.
cf.
in;
reflexive
Perf. Inf., in exclamations, 311. a. 274. N. ; special uses, 288. d, e in indir. disc., 336. A. N. i. Sequence of Tenses,
\
subjunc., id. b t c
/.
inf.,
330.
Pericles,
Period, 346
decl., 63.
;
pater families,
patiens, comp.
patior,
decl., 36. b.
of, 89. e.
note on, p. 392. Periphrastic conjugations, 113. b. N., d. N. ; paradigms, 129 periphrastic forms in conjugation, 147; use in contrary to
;
334-
<*
pauper,
decl., 87. b.
pax, decl., 77. 6. pecu, gend., 69. b\ decl., 78. i. e. pecuniae, gen., w. vbs. of accusing,
a.
Permission, vbs. of, constr., 331. permittS, w. dat., 227. c. permuto, w. abl., 252. c.
c.
pernox,
220.
decl., 87.
and
N.
perpes, Perses,
decl., 87. a.
decl., 37.
of, 39. b.
Person, 108. d; agreement, 181; of vbs., 204 and a with different persons, 205. a ; order of the three persons, id.
;
Penalty, gen.
220 and N.
P. -phonal
Penates,
tive, 330. a, b, d.
474
Personal endings, 116, and foot-n., 117. 2. Personal pronouns, 98, 99, p. 178, hcad-n.;
Syntax, 194
pi., id.
;
3d
persuaded,
constr., 331.
dat., 227.
pertaesum
pes, comps.
(sequence, 287. /); potential, 311. a. N. Plural, wanting in decl. V., 74. d; used in sense different from sing., 75. a-c,
79. c\
pi.
used as advs.,
189. b.
w. subjunc.,
3
;
2. a,
sound
pluris, gen. of value, 252. a, d. plus, decl., 86 and b\ comp., 90; without
N.
I.
quam,
247.
c.
Phalaecian verse, 371. n. Pherecratic verse, 369, 370, 371. 4, 12. Phonetic variations, 8; phonetic decay, 8. 2; vowels, 10; consonants, n; phonetic method of pronunciation, 16.
poema,
decl., 47. b.
2.
a.
Phorcys,
porticus, gend., 69. a. portus, decl., 70. d. Phrase, defined, 179. Phrases, neut., 29.^; phrases and clauses Position, expressed by ab, ex, 260. b. grown into advsT, 148. N. 6 adverbial Position in Prosody, 18, 347. d\ does not affect final vowel, id. e. R. phrases, 179 phrases~lfmued by gen., pnTSse or clause in abl. abs., posse, as fut. inf., 288. /
decl., 63. a.
;
piger, piget,
Pity,
decl., 82. c.
how expressed, 99. a\ dat. 231 compared w. gen., id. R. Possessive compounds, 167. d. Possessive genitive, 214. a-d\ dat. of
Possession,
of,
;
verbs
221. a.
d. N., 91. d.
of, 149.
a; relations
of, re-
a, 258. a, c;
place of
reference used instead, 235. a. Possessive pronouns, 99. a, p. 64 ; w. gen. in appos., 184. d\ agreement, 197; instead of gen., id. a\ special meanings, id. b\ omission, id. c\ used substan197. d\ used for gen. p 214. a\ for obj. gen., 190. b, 217. a. Possibility, vbs. of, in apodosis, 308. c.
tively, 190. a,
; place where, 254, 258. d\ place to or from which, 258 prep. when omitted, 258. foot-n., a, b g\
; t
f
t
possum,
and
i. a.
in apodosis, 308. c.
post, vbs. comp. w., w. dat., 228. post, adverbial use of, 261. d\
with
quam,
postera,
262.
defect., 82.
b.
plaudo, w.
w.
dat., 227. e.
d\ comp., 91. b\
of
quom
a, b.
b,
375.
Pleasing, verbs
plebes,
Plenty, verbs
plenus,
postremo,
in
enumerations, 151. d.
-plex, numeral adjectives in, 97. pluit (impers.), 146. a\ used personally,
id. N.
postridie, with gen., 223. e\ with accH 207. b, 261. a with quam, 262.
-,
postulo ab,
33iPotential
112. N.
239.
c.
N. i
postulo ut,
in Latin,
Pluperfect Indicative, use of, 280; epistolary, 282; plup. indie, in conditions
<>/
l\'i>nk
and .SV
prep*, following the noon, ^3, \..
475
potis, pote, 8 7 ./ 4
*>5-)
,/.
,
potior potior
decl., 85;
:
ij;
j.j.y;
a, 240.
w.
from root,
a\
'
123.
'i
gerundive, 296. R.
iam
did,
etc., 276.
<
potius, coinp., 92. potui, w. pres. infin., 288. a. Tower, adjs. of, w. gen., 218.
Prart ice,
vtis. of,
b\ for
fut., id.
torical,
d.
id.
d\
with
dum,
id.
e\
in
167.
quotations, id. f\ sequence, 286, 287. e, h\ pres. inf. w. potui, etc., 288. a;
participle, 290-292. disc, referring t
<
prae, 152. <5; use, 153; in comp., 93. d; in comp., w. dat., 228; in comp., w. quara, 262. N. i quantity of, in compounds, 347. b.
;
I'res. inf.
in ind.
e. 2. e.
a.
c.
N. 2.
<;
praepes,
with ace., 207. b\ constr. as prep, or adv., 261. a\ with quam, 262.
67. d, 77. 6.
praesum,
Primary suffixes, defined, 159, Primary tenses, 285. i, 286. primipilaris, decl., 57. a.
Primitive verbs, 165.
160.
praeter, use, 152. a, 153. praeterit, w. ace., 237. e. preci. defect., 77. 5.
151. d.
/
,
precor,
constr., 331.
primus,
denned, 172;
prmceps,
noun or
adj.,
d.
nom.,
185; pred. noun referring to two or more sing, nouns, id. b adjective, 186. b,c d\ agreement in, 187. a, b\ in rel. clause, 199 pred. adj. in neut. pi.,
;
prior, comparison, 91. prius, with quam, 262; priusquam in temporal clause, 327 in indir. disc.,
;
336. B. a. N. 2.
d\ pred.
Privation expressed by abl., 243. 152. b\ use, 153; in comp., w. dat., 228 ; to express for, 236. R. pro bo w. dat., 227. e \ 232. c. N.
pro,
Proceleusmatic, 356.
e.
ciples, 292.
Predicate
2,
noun or
272. a. 2
adj. after
inf.,
270. N.
procerus, decl., 82. a. procul with abl., 261. b. prohibeo, constr. of, 225.
Prohibitions, 266. b, 269 ind. disc., 339. N.
d.
271.
c,
and
N., b.
and
a, b. N.
in
Prepositions, assimilation of, n. /; defined, 25. g\ derivation of, p. 127 \\ foot-n. ; list of preps, w. ace., 152. a
;
Promising,
etc.,
Pronominal
primary
abl., id. b\
with either,
id. c\
how
dis
suffixes, id.
tinguished from advs., p. 127, foot-n. idiomatic uses, 153; compounded w vbs. and adjs., 170. a, c ; noun w. prep.,
instead of obj. gen., 217. c\ in composition \v. vbs., w. dat., 228, 229 ; ace. in
PRONOUNS
defined, 25. c
105; personal and reflexive, 98; gen., how used, 99. a-c ; demonstrative, 100-
compos., 239. b\ w. abl. of separation, 243. a\ prep, omitted in relations of use of, 260-263 place, 258. a, b f, g
t \
>
Pu'\
.r,
104-203; Personal,
idem,
id,
476
c,
ipse,
in
id. f-l\
;
Possessive, 197
relative
und or gerundive
R.
;
protasis,
316;
/,
202.
345.
e.
Note
;
and classified, 317 use of qu5 in, id. b main clause omitted, id, c\ nedum, id. R. and N. Sub180. e\ defined
on
Pronunciation,
lish
stantive clauses
of,
used
after certain
\
verbs, 331
mitting, id.
method,
id.
of perd\ of
id. /.
caution,
152. a.
etc., id.
of fearing,
prope est
ut, 332.
;
(Note on, p. 340.) Purpose or end, dat. of, 233. -pus, compounds of, 67. d.
puter,
decl., 84. a.
properus, decl., 82. a. propinquus, with gen., 218. d. propior (propius), comparison, 91. a
constr., 234.
e,
qua
;
qua
208. d,
quadrupes,
decl., 87. d.
,
261.
a and N.
c,
quae res
quaer5,
200.
e.
de), 239.
of,
c.
N.
c.
345.
d.
;
qualis,
105.^-.
position, 263.
denoting motive, 245. b. PROSODY, p. 394 rules and definitions, 347-375; early peculiarities, 375.
prosper
prospicio, w.
;
251
c.
(cf.
215. N.).
\
etymology
Protasis (see Conditional Clauses), 304 loose use of tenses in Eng., 305. R. ff.
relative in prot., 316
in,
;
temporal particles
in,
322
ante-quam, priusquam
327. b\ prot. in ind. disc., 337. i. Protecting, vbs. of, constr., 225. d. N. 2.
c.
w. compar. and positive or w. two positives, 192. b\ with comparatives, 247. a, e; after alms, id. d\ w. compar. of advs., id. <?; with ante, post, 262; with subj. after comparatives, 320. c\ followed by result-clause, 332. b in in\
provides, w.
by
modo,
b,
quamdiu,
328. N.
i.
c,
319.
320. d.
261. a, 234.
e.
<?.
quamlibet,
313.
/ 100. c
<?.
p. 67,
tion =
pubes, decl., 78. i. e, 87. pudet, 146. b constr., 221. puer, decl., 38 (cf. 41. a). pulcher, decl., 82. c.
;
b-d.
quandd
rj;
meaning, 156.^;
;
causal
220. b.
(since}, 321. N. 3
14. c.
temporal, 322.
252. a.
of,
denoting price,
of,
Purpose, infin. of, 273; expressed by gerundive after certain vbs., 294. d; by ger-
Quantity in Prosody,
marks
5; gen-
477
quis,
quisnam,
quispiam,
202. a.
lables, 349-354-
105.
c,
use
of,
105.
d.
N,
quantS,
\v.
tantS,
(with
e.
quantum
quisquam,
N., id.
//,
decl.,
t
105. c;
use,
ions, 334.
202. b
c.
313.
decl.,
;
105. e\
use
312. R. (intensive), 167. b. -que (enclitic), added to indefinites, 105. f, as conjunction, use, 156. a, 208. <J. 3;
quasso
with superlative, 93. in gener sertions, 202. d; in t! iause, with plural verb, 205. c. 2. id. e
\
b.
use, 202.
<
c.
').
quantity, 348.
i.
..f.
que5
ques,
(defective), 144.
quo
quo
in
final
clauses
(=
to
ut eo)
321. R.
N. with
old nom. plur., 104. d. Questions, direct, in indie., 112. a, 210R; double ques212; indirect, id. tions, 211 question and answer, 212 result clause in exclam. questions, 332. c\
non quo,
denote deg. of
difference, 250. R.
mood
quoad (purpose, etc.), 328. quod for id quod, 200. c. N. quod (conj.), 156. /; mood
;
disc., 341. a.
qui
(relative), decl., 103; (interrog. and indef.), 104 and a ; in compounds, 105 ;
with, 321; in indirect discourse, id. a; subst. clause with, 333 as ace. of specification, id. a\ with verbs of feeling, id. b\
quod
and
R.
c.
qui = ut
causal
qui
and concessive,
c.
320.
e.
qui
(adverbial), 104.
104. c.
(proviso), 320. d.
156. b, 240. b.
7, 156.^-.
quicum,
quia, use,
of
quom
(see
cum),
quSminus
(= ut of hindering, 317.
eo minus)
b.
w. vbs.
331.
e.
N.
i,
319.
c,
clauses, 341. d.
quoniam, meaning,
quoque,
of,
156. /;
in
causal
b.
qulcumque,
quid,
a
;
quidam, quidem,
195. c
;
meaning
202.
quot,
Idem,
Quotation, forms of, w. apud and in, direct and indir., 335. 258. c. 2. N. 2
;
345. b. quilibet, decl., 105. c ; use, 202. c. Quin, w. indie, equivalent to command,
269. /; in result-clause (= qui non) 319. d\ w. vbs. of hindering, 332.
,
105. e.
quum
(conjunction), 7 (see
cum).
non dubito
quinquatrus,
76.1.
quin,
332. g. R.
d.
subst. for 8 between sonants, n. a, p. 26, foot-n. 2; r- in adj. stems, 85; rrin noun-stems, 48. e.
i.
only,
78. 2. b.
quippe, with
with
e.
N. i
248. R,
cum,
326. N.
i.
Quirites, 79. c. quis, decl., 104; distinguished from qui re- or red- (prefix), 170. in use, id. a. and N.; compounds of reapse, too. c.
(aliquis.
etc.),
105;
quis with
of,
si,
num.
202. a.
Receiving, vbs.
99. d, 196.
478
recorder, with
rectum
est ut,
352.
p. 120, 158. c ;
\r.
271.
c,
124.
c,
of verbs,
;
Reminding, vbs. of, constr., 219. c. Removing, vbs. of, w. abl., 243. a,
[ren]
,
decl., 54. 2.
c.
repetundarum,
adj.,
220. a.
222;
Reference, object of, 218. Reference, pronouns of, 195. a commonly omitted, id. b dative of, 235 gen. of
\ ;
Requesting, vbs.
of, constr.,
330. 2.
;
specification, 218.
c.
requies,
res,
78.
i. e.
Reflexive pronouns, 98. 2. a, b, 102. e. N. ; Syntax of, 196 ; of ist and 2d person,
id. h.
decl., 72.
Reflexive verbs (deponent or passive), 118. foot-n., 135. e\ use of passive, HI.
Resisting, vbs. of, constr., 227, 319. d. Resolution of syllables in Prosody, 357. Resolving, verbs of, constr. (subjunc. or
inf.),
331. d.
a.
with object ace., 240. N. Refusing, vbs. of, w. quominus, 319. c. Regular verb, 121-136. Relationship, nouns of, 164. b. Relative adjectives, w. gen., 218, with a, b.
N. I
;
Relative adverbs, used correlatively, 107 ; used to connect independent sentences, 180. /, 201. e\ pronoun with prep.,
207. a
\
restis, decl., 56. b. Restriction in subjunctive clause, 320. d. Result, clauses of, 180. <?, p. 343; sequence of tenses in, 287. c\ infin. of, Subjunctive with relatives or 273. g. ut, 319 negative result with ut non,
;
etc., id. a, d.
R.
result-clause equiva-
used a used
;
with
quSmi-
of
319
conconsecu-
321
319; characteristic, 320; causal, temporal, 323-328 rel. clauses in hid. disc., 340; position of rel. clause,
;
of id. d\ characteristic, 320; with expressions of existence and non-existence, id. a\ with unus and solus, id. b\ with comparatives, id. c with dignus, etc., id. Subst. clauses of result after facio, etc., 332 as subject, id. a ; after
nus,
id.
c\
with
quin,
quaxn, id. b
id.
in
c\
tantum abest
result,
345.
e.
classifica-
thought as
id./
c.
tion, p. 339.)
forms
how rete,
rex,
distinguished from interrogative and indef., 104. a ; compounds of, 105 ; relatives as connectives,
201
two
of,
Note, p. 402;
355.
ment w. appos., etc., 199; use of the antecedent, 200; special uses of rel., 201 ; never om. in Lat., 201. a pers. of
;
verb agreeing w., 204. a\ abl. of rel. after comp., 247. a. N. ; position, 345. <?.
b.
names
of,
gender, 29.
c,
and
a.
Note on, p. 186. relinquitur ut, 332. a. reliquum est ut, 332.
reliquus,
use, 193
;
ro-stems, decl.
II.,
rogG,
a.
and
R., d. N.
w,
subjunc., 331.
a.
Roman method
of pronunciation, 16.
Index of
Roman
writers,
and
Subjects.
of, constr.,
479
330; in p
123.
Appendix,
p. 439.
Saying, verbs
id. a, b,
Romance
(or
336.
prndix, p. 437; comparative forms, id. Root, defined, 22, 157 of vbs., 117. 1. N. noun-stc-m treated as root, 123. d\ roots ending in vowel, 123. /; consciousness of roots lost in Lat., 22. N. root used as stem, 123. e,f, 158 as word, p. 103.
; ;
scaber,
decl., S.
Scanning, 359. b, 356. N. scilicet, derivation, 148. scln, contracted form for scisne,
13. c.
r6s,
-fa,
rt-,
decl., 77. 6.
Sclpiades,
c.
37.
of, 269. e.
rr-, as
sci5, imperative
nouns
stems
128.
c,
ruber,
decl., 82. c.
a, b t d.
-SCO
(inceptive), verbs
decl., 54. 2.
ending
in, 167. a.
scrobs,
;
changed
se- or sed-, insepar. prefix, 170. b. se, reflexive, decl., 98. 2. b\ use, 196; inter se, 99. d.
n. .3; -s as sign of nom., 32. 38, 44, 72, 85. foot-n., p. 205; -3 omitted in inscriptions, 38. N. -s, noun-ending, decl. III., gend., 65. b\ s suppressed in verb-forms, 128. b
elided,
b,
;
;
Second Conjugation,
formapres. stem, how formed, 123. a tion of conj. II., 126. b\ paradigm, p.
96; verbs
of,
131
derivation, 166. b.
;
Second Declension, nouns, 38-43 accent of gen. and voc. of nouns in -ius, 19. d. 2,
Secondary accent, 19. b. N. Secondary object, 239. 2. Secondary suffixes, denned, 159. Secondary tenses, 285; rule for use
\
8- as stem-ending, 48. d, 60. d\ p. 41, of adjs., 85. 6. N. of comfoot-n. i paratives, 86. a apparent s-stcms,
;
;
p. 26, foot-n. 2. 8 as suffix of perfect, 124. b list of vbs. of conj. III. w. perf. in s, 132. a. sacer, decl., 82. c\ comp., 91. d.
;
of,
286; perf. def. more commonly secondary, 287. a perf. subj. in clauses of
result
used
after, 287. c;
saepe, comp.,
92.
e\ imperf.
and
g\
present used as
secondary, by synesis,
;
secundum,
secundus,
securis,
/
14, 26, 81,
tlecl.,
sane quam,
sanguis,
334.
e.
secus,
decl., 67. b.
secus secutus
indecl.
use, 240.
b.
b.
sed compared
7.
with
verum,
etc., 156. b.
sedes,
sedile,
of,
decl., 59.
satago, with
satias, decl.,
dat., 227. e;
gen., 223.
p. 41. foot-n. i.
compounds
e\
non
satis, 93. e\
perf.
with sementis, decl., 56. b, 57. b. com- Semi-deponents, 136. satis seminecl. defect., 87. /. Semi-vowels, i and V (u), 4. infin., senati, senatuos, forms of gen.
decl. IV., 70. senex, decl., 60.
.
in
of,
41. b\
decl., 82. b;
c,
61
comparison, 91.
c.
480
sens, as
Sztbjects.
esse, 119.
;
a.
incomplete, 206.
siquis,
decl., 105. d.
of, after
comps. of ab,
229
;
-sis-,
dropped
in perf., 128. b.
cf.
after
adimo,
;
abl.,
56. a.
R.
disc.,
Situation or direction, 235. b. sive (seu) . . . sive, use, 156. Smell, verbs of, with ace., 237. c.
-s5, verbs in, 167. b. -so, old form of fut. perfect, 128.
c,
315.
&
sequester, decl., 78. i. sequitur, with ut, 332. sequor, conj., 135. sera nocte, 193. N.
series,
decl., 74. d.
b.
e. 3.
a.
socrus,
gend., 62. a.
sodes
(si
audes),
13.
c,
136. a.
Service, adjs. of, w. dat., 234. a. Service, dat. of, 233. a, with foot-n.
soleo, semi-dep., 136. solito, with comp., 247. b. solitus as pres. part., 290. solus,
;
b.
Serving, verbs
of,
decl.,
83;
servus (servos), decl., 38. 320. b. sestertium, sestertius, 377-379 how Sonants,
written in cipher, 380.
2. a, 3.
(sive), 156. c, 315. c. Sharing, adjs. of, with gen., 218. a. Should (auxiliary), how expressed in Lat., III. b. N. Showing, verbs of, with two aces., 239. a.
-si, perfect
seu
Soracte,
decl., 57. d.
sordem,
defect., 77. 5.
adj-ending,
ing, id.
i.
id.
-sorium, noun-end-
ending, 118. N.
b.
5.
si, p.
N. I
Si
;
Sospita, fem.
and
si
compounds,
n5n
sl
=
-
ace., 257.
333-
Sparing, verbs of, with dat., 227. spe, with comp., 247. b.
Special verb-forms, 128.
Sibilants, 3. sic, correl. with ut, 107, 319. R.; with Si,
species,
decl., 74. d.
304.
b.
siem (sim),
119. b.
Specification, gen. of, with adjs., 218. c\ ace. of, 240. c; abl. of, 253.
specus,
m.
subj., 128. e. 3.
;
gend., 69. a. Spelling, variations of, 12. spes, decl., 72. N., p. 41. foot-n. a.
Spirants, 3. a. Spondaic verse, 362. a.
a,
N. 2.
3.
180.
b.
Bimul
prep., 260. a; w. inl or subjunc., 331. d. Statutes, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3.
statuo, without
324.
ste
sin, 304. a. N.
indecl., 67. a. Singular, nouns defect, in, 77. 5.
for iste, etc., 100, b. Stella, decl., 35. Stems, defined, 21, classified, 157;
how
sinapl,
formed from root, 23, 158, 159; hovr found in nouns, 32. a a-stems, deck
;
I) idex
481
,
I.,
35; adjs., 8l
;
O-strms, d-d.
38
and foot-n. adjs., Si; in duel. mute stem 3,44; liquid stems, 48
;
;
III.,
stems, 51; u-strms, d<-d. IV., 68; tu-, 71; of verb, 117. I and N.
ent, perfect,
in
334 nature and Infm. ) 32^ clauses, 330; clauses of Purpose, 331; of Result, 332 'iuod. 333; Ind: -ns, 334; adj. w. subst.
;
classes
of,
and supine,
121.
clauses, 189. d.
formed, p. 86; from root, 123; perf. stem, 124; supine stem, 125. Tenses arranged by stems, synopsis,
stem,
127.
how
d.
list
of,
160; sig-
use, 196;
w. gen. of
gerund, 298.
a.
strues,
decl., 59.
e.
sum,
conj., 119; as copula, 172. N; as substantive vb., id.; omitted, 206. c\ w. dat. of possession, 231 ; position,
suadeo,
sub,
228
;
w.
dat., 227.
c,
344- c,j.
in comp., w. dat.,
170. c
use, 152.
153
summus,
193-
(top of) ,
of time, 259. If. sub-, in comp. w. adjs., 93. verbs, 170. a, c, N. subeo, w. ace., 228. a.
c,
w.
sunt qul,
Subject, pp. 163, 164; defined, 172; how expressed, 173, 174; modified, 178; vb. agrees w., 204 two or more subjs.,
;
suovetaurilia, 168. a. supellex, decl., 60. c. super, 152. c\ use, 153, 260.
170. a; in
c\ in
comp.,
;
comp., w.
dat., 228.
(cf. p. 56. foot-n.)
supera,
defect., 82.
\
205; subj. omitted, 206; accusative, 272; in indirect discourse, 336; position of subject, 343. Subject clauses (infm.), 270, 330; (subjunc.), 331. head-n., 332. head-n. and
b.
;
in
-rimua,
with
max-
use,
d\ of eminence, 93. b\ with ime, vel or unUs, id. with quisque, id. c\ takes gender of partitive,
id.
quam
187. e\
Subjunctive mood, 108. b ; tenses wanting in, no. a\ how used and translated, 112. b and N.; tenses how used, 115. d\ vowel of pres. subj., 126. a. i,
t
b. i, c. i,
d
;
p. 120.
Classification of
;
IV., 71. a\ use of, 114. b\ stem, 121. c\ formation, 125, 126. a-d (cf. p. 121) ; irregular forms of, conj. I., 130; conj. II., 131; allied
uses, 265
hortatory
delib;
with
forms
in
-tor,
162.
of,
a.
N.
302;
Latter.
erative, 268
tenses of subj., 283-287 temporal clauses, 284; potential subj., 311. a; subj. of modesty, id. b\ subj. in ind. disc., 336 in informal ind. disc.,
;
;
341
suppetias, defect., 77. 2. supplex, decl., 87. b, d. supplico, w. dat., 227.*, 3. supra, use of, 152. a, 153.
-sura, noun-ending, 163.
Surds.
2. a, 3.
suboles,
;
b.
Subordinate clauses, defined, 180. b\ use, 316-328 in ind. disc., 336, 339. Subordinate conjunctions, 154. b, 155.
e-i.
Substance, gen.
of,
-suriO, vbs. in, 167. e. -BUS. phonetic form of -tus, 71 ending, 163. b. BUS, decl., 60. a, 6l.
noun-
482
suus,
use, 196.
of,
Subjects.
Swearing, vbs.
constr., 238. c, 330. f. Syllables, rules for division of, 14 pure, open, etc., id. d, e \ long and short, 18.
;
c.
Synasresis, 347.
c,
d. R.
t
conj., p. 98. Telling, vbs. of, constr., 272, 330. Temporal clauses, denned, 180. c\ 322-
tego,
Syncope, 10. c. Synecdoche, defined, see Glossary. Synecdochical accusative, 240. c. Synesis, defined, 182. a; in gend. and number, 187. d\ in sequence of tenses,
287. h.
328 as protasis, 322 two uses, 323 w. postquam, etc., 324 w. cum, 325 w. antequam and priusquam, 327; w. dum, donee, quoad, 328; re; ; ;
; ;
d.
Temporal numerals,
155- A.
97. b\ conjunctions,
tempus
est abire, 298. N. Tendency, adjectives denoting, 164. /. tener, decl., 82. b. TENSES, 108. c\ of passive voice, in;
participles, 113;
classification,
oi
historical
develop-
meanid.
ing and use, 115; of the ind., of the subj., id. a?; endings, 118
tion of, 126. f,g\ synopsis
for
264. a.
of,
a-c\
Ind.
forma;
127
cbiuaged to s, n. a. 2, 125 t for d (set, aput), 12. e\ t preceding stemvowel of vb., 123. b. i; t-(s-), supine
;
a. 2, b. 2, c. 2, d.
291; Present tense, 276; Imperfect, 277; Future, 278; of Completed action, of 279-281 Epistolary tenses, 282
;
nouns
in,
gend., 65.
c.
ta, primary suffix, 160. c. 2, 162. b. taedet, impersonal, 146. b constr., 221.
;
subjunctive, 283-285 sequence of, 285287; tenses of the infinitive, 288; tense
;
emphatic, 344. d. 3
ind. disc., 336. ind. disc., 336.
tenses of
inf. in
b-d.
decl., 82. c.
vbs.
of,
of,
229.
sentatio, id.
disc., 337.
a;
in
condition in ind.
tenus,
107
;
w.
abl.,
quam,
correl.
w.
position, 263. N., 345. a. -ter, in alter, etc., p. 49. foot-n. ; -ter,
260. e
tamen,
156.
i,
k\ as correlative, id.
use, 156.
i,
i.
tametsi, concessive
313.
c.
;
teres,
tamquam,
tandem,
adv. ending, 148. b, c. decl., 87. a\ comp., 91. d. -terior, ending, p. 56. foot-n. Terminations of inflection, meaning
20. b\
of,
in questions, 210.
a,
/
;
open and
tanti est
terminations of nouns, 34; of verbs, 118. (See Endings.) -ternus, as adj.-ending, 164. e as noun;
ending,
id.
i.
12.
terra marique,
ut, 332.
106
;
258. d.
tantum abest
tantus,
105.
d.
terrester,
ut, 319. R.
decl., 84. a.
tantus
tar, primary suffix, 160. f. -tas, -tia, noun-endings, 163. e. Taste, verbs of, with ace., 237. c.
tat-, as stem-ending, 54. 2.
-terus, ending, p. 56. foot-n. Tetrameter, Iambic, 366. a. Than, how expressed, 247.
The as
correlative, 106.
c.
and
foot-n.
In<ft'.r
cf
and
//;///
Subjects.
483
Thinking, vbs.
inf.,
of,
272, 330.
prin. parts,
123. 3;
how formed,
decl., 83; nouns w., in abl. without prep, (place where), 258. /. 2. Towns, names of, gend., 29, 39. a names of towns in -e, decl., 57. d\ locative of,
tOtus,
formation, 123. b, 126. c\ paradigm, p. 98; in -15, paradigm, p. 100; list, p. list of verbs, with principal 101. N.
;
id.
tr-,
stems in (pater,
etc.), 48. c.
Third declension, of nouns, 44-67; mute stems, 44-47; liquid stems, 48-50; vowel stems, 51-59; case forms, 56; peculiar forms, 60, 61; Greek nouns, rules of gender, 65, 66 forms 63, 64
;
tra, primary suffix, 160. o. traiciS, constr., 239. b. R. traiectus 16ra, id. trans, 152. a use, 153 comps. of, w.
; ; ;
ace.,
and
237. R.
d\
Transitive adjectives, 218. Transitive verbs, 175. b, 177; absolute use, 175. b. N. 2 how translated, 177.
;
Thought, considered as
result, 332.
c\ w. dat., 225.
Threatening, vbs. of, 227, 330. thfis, see tus. ti, primary suffix, 160. c. 2. ft. -tia (-ties), noun-ending, 163.*. -ticus, adj.-ending, 164.^.
tigris, decl., 64.
-tills, adj.-ending, 164.
Transposition of vowel and liquid, 9. d, 124. a. N.; of consonants, n. d. Trees, names of, gend., 29. 2. tres, decl. 94. c. tri-, stem-ending of nouns, 51.^, 54. i; of adjs., 84. a.
Tribe, abl.
of, 244. b.
m.
N.
e.
N.
b.
-tim, adverbs
Time
(see
Temporal Clauses),
149. b.
of,
;
264. a;
284, 323.
256 and b time when, corresponding to Eng. place, 259. a\ time during or within which, w.
tribus, gend., 69. a ; decl., 70. d* tridens, decl., 57. b. Trimeter, Iambic, 365.
Triptotes, 77. 4.
decl., 57. b. -tris, adj.-ending, 164. e.
triremis,
ordinal, id. c\ distance of time, id. d\ abl. abs. to denote time, 255. and d. i.
triumpho,
w.
abl., 245. a. 2.
p. 425.
;
timeo, w.
dat.,
or ace., 227. c
with sube.
junctive, 331.
-tio,
/
p. 56, foot-n.
b,
;
-trlx, see -tor. -tr5, advs. in, p. 123. N. y. R. Trochaic verse, 360, 367.
-tlmus, adj.-ending,
-tio (-sio),
164.
Trochee, 356. a
noun-ending, 160.
163. b.
-trum, noun-ending,
-tura.-tus (-tutis), noun- Trusting, vbs. of, constr., 227. b. tu, primary suffix, 160. c. 2. y. tu, decl., 98. I (see tute, tutimet). -tium, noun-ending, 163. / -tu, -sii, supine-endings, 114. b. -tlvus, verbal adj.-ending, 164. I. -tud5, -tus, noun-endings, 163. e. -tS,-it5, frequentative verbs in, 167. b. To (so as to), 319. d. R. tull (tetull), 139; derivation, id., footToo n. to, 320. c. quantity, 351. b, Ex. -tor (-sor), -trlx. nouns of agency in, -turn, -sum, supine endings, 114. b. 162. a\ used as adjs., 88. c, 188. d. turn, tune, use, 149. b\ correl.w.cum.
endings, 163.
. . .
;
-tSrla, noun-ending, 164. i. 4. -tSrium, noun-ending, 160. b, 164. 5. -tCrius, adj.-ending, 160. b\ as noun/'.
107, 156 h.
turn
a.
turn, 208. d. -tura, -tus, noun-ending, 163. -turlO, vbs. in, 167. e. turrls, decl., 52 (cf. 56. b).
. . .
d.
totidem,
use, 106. a.
-turnus, adj.-ending,
164.
e.
484
e.
-urnus, adj.-ending,
rj.
164.
-urus,
293.
fut.
c,
tus (thus),
a;
-urus fuisse,
99.
Two Two
accusatives, 239.
datives, 233. a.
-us
;
nom.-ending
65. c, 67. b
;
in decl.
1 1 1. ,48.
;
d\ gend.,
decl. IV., 68
gend., 69
U(v),
i. c. i.
;
neut.-ending, 163. a. -us, Gr. nom.-ending, 63. e 67. d\ -us, -utis, id.
-us, -udis,
Use, adjs.
of,
constr., 234. b.
U-stems, of nouns, decl. III., 60. a, 61 of verbs, p. 86, 123. d, decl. IV., 68
;
usquam,
usque,
166. a. 3,
c.
usus
b, 87. c.
ut
S
;
in
temporal
(need}, w. abl., 243. e. (uti), correlative w. ita, sic, 107; to denote concession, 266. c, 313. a w. optative subjunc., 267. b in clauses of
\
;
-uis (-uos),
abl. pi., decl. IV., 70. d. in gen., decl. IV., 68. N.,
of result, 319
;
ut ne,
id.
;
R.
ut
temporal, 322, 324; verbs followed by clauses w. ut, 331, 332 omission after
certain verbs, 331.
R.,
i.
N. i
and
2;
ullus, decl., 83 ulterior, comparison, 91. a. ultra, 152. a; use, 153; following noun,
;
c.
263. N.
w. verbs of fearing, 331. and foot-n. ; used elliptically in exclamations, 332. c. ut, utpote, quippe, w. relative clause, 320. e. N. I w. CUm, 326. N. I.
-urn
e\
for
-arum,
-um
36. d; for -orum, 40. in gen. pi. of personal prons., for -ium, decl. III., 59;
use,
-uum,
Lat., p.
constr. in
agreement and as
utervis,
uti,
c.
utinam,
utpote qui,
iitor,
etc.,
320.
e.
N.
i.
and
foot-n.
unquam,
unus,
use, 105. h.
63.
.
unt-, stem-ending,
decl.
w. abl., 249; w. ace., id. b\ gerundive use of, 294. c. N, 296. R. utrum . an, 211 and d.
.
83
meaning, 94.
;
95. b
use, 202. d.
-utus, adj.-ending, 164. / utut, 105. b. -uus, rare nom.-ending, decl. IV., 68.
70. b; verbal adj.-ending, 164.
/.
N.,
in, 67. e.
urbs,
decl.,
54
258. b. N. 3.
Urging, vbs.
of,
(u), p. i; 4, 7; omitted, n. b. 2; in suffix of perf., 124. a, 16. N. 126. a. 2, b. 2, c. 2, d, p. 120; suppressed in perf., 128. a; list of vbs. in
tenuis,
485
272. R., 330. o-c;
.
in pert., 132. c\
often
om.
in
perf.
of
e6 and
its
comps.
of,
1.
d.
141. b;
by synificsis, 347.
;
c.
dat., 227. d.
fc
w ith
reflexive,
91. d.
valde,
use, 93. d\
valde quam,
a.
334.
e.
i. i
;
vannus,
vapulS,
i)le
vereor, with
b.
gen., 223. b.
w. subjunc..
331b\ p. 41.
/
t
nouns, 78, 79
(cf. 74.
foot-n. i).
veritus, as pres. part., 290. b. vero, 156. b k\ in answers, 212. a; position of, 345. b.
Verse, 359.
Versification, 359-375;
forms of verse,
360.
78. i. b.
versus,
position
of,
345. a.
-ve, vel, use, 156. c, 212. R. vel (see -ve), w. superl., 93. b. velim, vellem, subj. of modesty, 311. b. velim, vellem, w. subjunc. (=opt.), 267. c (= imv.) 269. g.
,
verto, constr., 252. c. veru, gend., 69. b decl., 70. d. verum or vero, use, 156. b, k. vescor, with abl., 249; w. ace.,
;
id.
b\
gerundive, 294.
c. N.,
296. R.
vellem,
see
velim.
R.
vesper, vesperl
decl., 41.
b.
venerat = aderat, 279. e. veto, w. ace. and b.2. VERBS, Etymology. Verb, defined, 25.^; noun and adj. vetus, decl., 85. inflection, 108-110;
forms
of,
veneS (venum eo), 136. b, 258. b. venum, defect., 77. 3 (cf. veneo).
gen., 99.
c,
194. b. 194. b,
cf.
N.
271.
b,
330.
2,
and
b,
87. e\
comparison,
109
signification, of forms,
89. a, 91. d.
111-115; personal endings, 1 16; forms of the verb, 117, 118 (note on origin and hist, of vb.-forms, pp. 119-121) table of endings, n3 the three stems,
; ;
7.
of,
240. b.
influence of analogy, 121. N. 2, regular verbs, 122-136; the four conjugations, 122 and a prin. parts of, 122. b,
121
;
;
vlcmus,
video
videlicet, derivation,
ut, 331. videor, with dat., 232.
c\ mixed verbs, id. d\ deponents, 135 semi-deponents, 136; irregular verbs, 137-142; defective, 143, 144; impersonal, 145, 146; periphrastic forms, 147; compound verbs, 170; vowels in comp. verbs, 170. a. N. Derivation of
;
c.
vin (visne),
13. c.
39. b.
verbs, 165-167.
viscera,
vlso, 167.
79.
e.
c.
VERBS, Syntax.
;
Subject implied in ending, 174. 2; rules of agreement, 204206 verb omitted, 206. c rules of SynCases w. vbs., see under tax, 264-342. Accusative, etc. Position of verb, 343, 344. d, j. (See under the names of the
\
voc&lis,
decl., 57. b.
VOCATIVE,
nouns
31. e; form, 33. a. 3; in -I of in -ius, decl. II., 40. c t d\ of adjs. in -ius, 81. a; of Greek nouns,
etc.)
486
VOl6, and comps.,
271 and N.; part,
235. c
d. N.
;
;
Way by which
(abl.), 258.^.
of,
;
of,
Weight, measures
382.
w. perl
part., 288.
inf.,
w. subj. or
d and N., 292. Whole, gen. of, 216 numbers expressing the whole, 216. e. 331. b and N.
Wills, fut. imv. in, 269. d. 3. Winds, gender of names of, 29.
volucer,
decl., 84. a.
volucris, decl., 59. -volus, adj. in, comparison, 89. c. vos, 98. i. voster, etc., see vester. voti damnatus, 220. a. Vowels, I long and short, how marked, 5 vowels and consonants form scale,
;
Wish, expressed
condition, 310.
ind. disc., 341. b.
by
b;
Wishing, verbs
271. a)
;
3 1 ?-
of, with inf., 288. d (cf. with subst. clause of purp., d, 331. b\ with ace. and infin.,
id.
N.
inherited differences
in,
con-
traction, 10. b\
syncope,
id. c\ inser-
I.
Women, names
of, 80. c.
long and short, 18; quantity of final vowels in case-endings, 33. g; vowel modified in noun-stems, decl. III., 45;
Words, formation of, 157-170; arrangement of, 343-346. Would (Eng. auxiliary), how expressed
in Lat., 112. b. N.
c.
i,
124. d,
and N.
list
X, nom.-ending,
b, 67. e\
from
B, in verbs, 132. a.
b.
Y, of Greek
origin, p. i.
c.
Vowel-suffixes (primary), 160. c. i. Vowel-stems, decl. III., 51-59; gend., 66. a; noun-forms, 67. a; of verbs,
165 and foot-n.
ya
*.
Year, p. 425;
gend., 39.
164.
b.
/.
months
276.
of,
vulgus (volgus),
date, 259.
e,
Yes in Lat., 212. -ys, nom.-ending, 63.,^, 64, 67. 65. b \ quantity, 348. 9.
gend.,
W, not in
i.
;
with gen.,
Z, of Greek origin, p.
I, 6.
N.
ABBREVIATIONS
USED
IN CITING
Lig., pro Ltgario. Manil.,/r0 Lege Manilla. Marc., pro Marcello. Mil., pro Milone.
Nepos.
Ov., Ovid:
F., Fasti.
num. Cato:
R. R.,
Cic.,
rum.
Off.,
de
Officiis.
De Re
:
Rustica.
Or., Orator.
Catull., Catullus.
Cicero
Pers., Persius.
Oratoria.
Phil., Philippicae.
Phaed., Phaedrus.
Plaut., Plautus.
Am., Amphitruo.
Asin.,
Asinana.
Quinct.,
pro Quinctio.
Aul., Aulularia.
Q.
Fr.,
ad Q. Fratrem.
pro Rabino.
Bac.,
Bace hides.
Rabir.,
Cure., Curculio.
Epid., Epidicus.
de Inventione.
Amerino.
Rose. Com., pro Roscw
Deiot.,
pro Deiotaro.
Merc., Mercator.
Mil., Miles Gloriosus. Most., Mostellaria. Pers., Persa.
De
Com of do.
pro Sestio. Sulla, pro Sulla.
Sest.,
cilium.
Fam., ad Familiares.
Fat.,
de Fato.
Rud., Rudens.
Stich., Stichus.
Fin., de Finibus.
Font.,
Tr., Trin.,
Tnnummus.
Enn., Ennius.
Gell.,
nium."\
A. Gellius.
:
H. N., HistonaNaturalis.
Plin., Pliny,
Inv.
R., de Rhetorica.
Inventione
Hor., Horace
junior:
A.
P.,
De Arte Poetica.
Ep., Eputulae.
Prop., Propertius.
Ami-
Ep., Epistulae.
Epod., Epodes.
Od., Odes.
Sat., Satires.
Juv., Juvenal.
Q. C., Q. Curtius.
Sail.,
Legg., de Legibus.
Cat.. Catilina.
488
Ep.
Mithrid., Mithridatis.
Abbreviations Used.
Epistula
Sil. It., Silius Italicus.
Suet., Suetonius.
Tac., Tacitus:
Agr., Agricola.
A.,
Ep., Epistulae.
Ann., Annales.
:
Phormio.
:
H., Historiae.
Virg., Virgil
Ten, Terence
^En., ALneid.
E.,
Ad., Adelphi.
Eclogae.
And., Andria.
G., Georgtia*
ADVERTISEMENTS
NEW CICERO
Professor of Latin in
H.
GREENOUGH,
Hazard
AND
GEORGE
L. Professor of English in Harvard University, formerly Professor of Latin in Phillips Extter Academy.
KITTREDGE,
WITH A
4-
For introduction,
Illustrated.
THIS new edition of Cicero has been treated with special reference to the use of the orations as models of classic oratory. The Introduction is made to help in this study of applied logic and rhetoric. There is a
of Cicero, describing his education and development as an orator, as well as his political career. There is a chapter connecting the style of the orations with ancient formal rhetoric. There is also a chapter on Roman oratory and the place of the orator in ancient civilization. The text includes the following orations The Manilian Law, four orations against Catiline, Archias, Milo, Marcellus, Ligarius, the fourfull life
:
teenth Philippic, and copious extracts from the Defence of Roscius and the Actio Secunda against Verres. Almost everything admitting of graphic presentation has an illustration, and no little study has been expended in finding the most suitable pictures. Views of places, scenes of Roman life, and portraits have
Many
The
illustrations are
recommend
it
in the
preparatory seen no edition of Cicero that has pleased me more. If I were called on to teach his orations I would surely use this book.
book, splendidly illustrated. It will give me pleasure to recommend it to teachers in schools. I have
fine
W.
B.
Owen,
fayette College, Easton, Pa. : The many beautiful illustrations make a prominent feature. I am especially pleased also with on Roman constithe excellent chapter tution It will add greatly to the value of the work.
.
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.
New
York.
Chicago.
LATIN TEXT-BOOKS
For Grammar and Higher Schools.
and Greenough's and Greenough's and Greenough's and Greenough's and Greenough's and Greenough's and Greenough's Collar's Gate to Caesar Collar's New Gradatim
Latin Grammar Shorter Latin Grammar New Caesar, with vocabulary New Cicero, with vocabulary
Ovid, with vocabulary
Sallust's Catiline
$1.20
95
1.25 1.40
1.50
60
50
Cicero de Senectute
40
50
i.oo
75
i.oo
i.oo
Book
Collar and Daniell's Beginner's Latin Book D'Ooge's Easy Latin for Sight Reading Gleason's Gate to Vergil Greenough, D'Ooge and Daniell's Second Year Latin Greenough and Kittredge's Virgil Aeneid, I.-VI., with vocabulary Greenough and Kittredge's Bucolics and Aeneid, I.-VI., with
:
40 45
1.25
i
.50
1.60
Pompey
in Greece
45
50
Clark's
Collar's
Erasmus
Collar's Aeneid,
Collar's Collar's
Cutler's
Book VII Aeneid, Book VII., with translation Caesar, Gallic War, Book 1 Caesar, Gallic War, Book II Aeneid, Book IX
45 45 45
35 45 75
50
D'Ooge's Viri Romae Humphreys' Quintus Curtius Peck's Ovid's Metamorphoses, Books
Roberts'
I.
and II
75
Nepos
Tetlow's Aeneid, Book VIII., with vocabulary Tetlow's Aeneid, Book VIII., without vocabulary Moulton's Preparatory Latin Composition Part II. A Systematic Drill in Syntax
45
35
80
25
i.oo i.oo 1.50
Moulton's Preparatory Latin Composition, including Systematic Drill in Syntax. (Complete Edition.) White's Latin-English Lexicon White's English-Latin Lexicon White's Latin-English and English-Latin Lexicon
2.25
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.
New
York.
Chicago.
\I-\V
C.\l
.itin in II.
I'mtr-^nr
.ii
iii
'
and M. GRANT DAN IKI.L, recently I'riiu-ip.il <>f Chimney -I merly Master in the Koxbury I.;itin School, Huston.
l.tl,
illustrated.
Ix
453 pages.
With
War" keeps prominently on the ground that a large majority of those who read Caesar take it up immediately after
THIS new
edition of Caesar's "Gallic
It is believed that all this class of finishing their first lessons. students' needs have been fully met in the present edition.
this
Professor Greenough has specially qualified himself for editing edition by traveling and making recent investigations in
France.
greatly.
Not only
considerable
the notes, but the illustrations have profited number of the pictures in this edition are
it.
The museums have been visited and many new illustrations drawn from them. At the same time, all the standard and essential
not previously seen in this country have been obtained.
illustrations are used.
will
It is
be found of signal excellence and practical value. Several reading courses are suggested, each one of which,
while embracing an amount of text equal to the first four books, narrative and adventure from the
believed that this feature will be especially
acceptable to teachers who have found the monotony of Caesar irksome, but have seen no way to vary the course. The text has been revised, many changes having been made, and
the whole presents the commentaries in an ideal form for rapid and Quantities of long vowels are marked. enjoyable reading.
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.
New
York.
Chicago.
GREENOUGH'S
NKW
J.
VIRGIL
EDITED BY
Professor of Latin in
B.
GREENOUGH,
L.
Harvard
University,
AND
GEORGE
AENEID, Books
Illustrated,
KITTREDGE,
Professor of English in
Harvard
Half morocco.
Illustrated.
AENEID, Books
THIS new
fully
I. -VI.,
xlv+8o7 pages.
with his
subjects.
edition of Virgil contains a longer Introduction, dealing life and times, his art, his literary influence, and similar special aim of the introduction and notes is to introduce
the student to a literary study of Virgil and so open the way to a fruitful reading of the classic authors generally. The learner is skilfully
introduced to scansion.
Full information and practical directions are is made the gate to Latin
prosody. The notes have been faithfully revised. The grammatical references have been made to fit the latest editions of the grammars. A special feature of the notes is the attempt to illustrate by quotations
from a wide range of English poets. Virgil, thus studied, should become a most valuable aid in the general literary culture of the pupil. Close and discriminating care has been given to the illustrations. Facsimile reproduction has been largely employed in this edition as the only Fine engravings on wood have been presented satisfactory process. where the subject allowed, and the pictures as a whole are believed to possess remarkable power and beauty as well as illustrative value.
E. P. Crowell, Professor of Latin, A mherst, Mass. College, of being heartily commended to teacher and of Virgil. student every W. B. Owen, Professor of Latin, Lafayette College, Easton, Pa. : In every respect it is the best Virgil with which I am acquainted.
A mherst
Worthy
'.
Win. A. Houghton, Professor of Latin, Bo^udoin College, Brunswick, Me.: I have examined it with care and am prepared to recommend it cordially. E. C. Benson, Professor of Latin,
College, Gambier, Ohio : The book is worthy of all commendation. D. O. S. Lowell, Instructor in Latin, Latin School, Roxbury, Mass. : I have
Kenyan
High
book
is one of rare qualities, not only as a Latin book, but as an English text, for the side lights along the line of English literature are especially pleasing.
long tried to teach the great poet in as literary a manner as possible, and this book emphasizes just the points which have been too long neglected.
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.
New York.
Chicago.
I'.
MOULTON,
Cloth.
199 pages.
$1.00.
tests.
Covering work based on Caesar and Cicero with sight Cloth. 142 pages. 80 cents.
II.
Part
Paper.
57 pages.
25 cents.
MOULTON'S PRKI-ARATORY LATIN COMPOSITION provides a Part I. includes work based on three-year course in the subject. each chapter of the first four books of Caesar and six orations of Cicero. Each lesson is made up of, first, short sentences, for oral translation if desired, followed by connected passages based on the text the student is reading at the time. Numerous grammatical references accompany each lesson, and it has been the constant aim of the author to lead the pupil to acquire a working knowledge of grammar, so that he may rely more upon himself and less upon the teacher. Part II., which is intended for third-year work, is a grammatical review studied topically. While not based upon the text of Virgil, it furnishes an invaluable course in syntax to accompany the reading of Virgil's Aeneid. The lessons are independent and may be taken either in order or as the teacher may see the need of drill on any particular topic. The sentences are suitable for oral or written work. For the convenience of those teachers who wish a two years' course covering only Caesar and Cicero, or who wish a grammatical review for special purposes, Parts I. and II. have been issued separately at the prices indicated above.
May
Nebr.
:
Copeland, Teacher of Latin and Greek, High School, Omaha, Moulton's Latin Composition is most praiseworthy in that it
grades the lessons from the easier to the more difficult, while at the same time the lessons are based on the texts most commonly read. So far as I know, this combination is not found in any other book
of Latin prose.
Edward S. Boyd, Principal of Parker Academy, Woodbury, Conn.: The idiom, constructions, and style of the Latin are well introduced and the way paved for them. Latin grammar is wonderfully brought out.
Publishers,
San Francisco.
London.
New York.
Chicago.
Atlanta.
Dallas.
COLLAR,
of Caesar.
Sq. i6mo.
Cloth.
141
pages.
CESAR'S COMMENTARIES
in a great
is
the
first
beginners.
many The
schools, but it is confessedly too hard for result is waste of time and waste of labor.
little
The
book
object of this
difficulties.
" Divide
book is to save both by distributing and conquer." The text of the second
of Caesar's Gallic
;
War
is
simplified, chiefly
by omis-
but after the simplified text is given the full text, which may be studied in immediate succession, or be deferred till the learner's wings are grown. Synonymous Latin
sions
at the
learner's vocabulary, full explanatory notes follow the text, and on each chapter of the simplified text a brief exercise
given for translation into Latin. The etymological vocabulary has been found of great interest and value. This little book has proved to be " exactly the thing," and we add a few testimonials merely to show the tone of the letters
is
College
The work
well done.
E. H. Smiley, Principal of High School, Hartford, Conn. : I am so it is just what we want that I have asked for its
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas,
New
York.
Chicago,
Easy Latin
for
Sight Reading
Romat
\nnotations,
By
Professor of Latin
editor
B. L.
"
D'OOGE,
Michigan State Normal
A'tnunf,"
etc.
and Greek
<if
in the
/
Coll,
'/>/
12mo, Cloth.
146
pages,
Illustrated,
Por introduction, 40
cents,
book is designed to be helpful to those who desire to do It is intended sight reading in secondary schools. especially for students who wish to learn to read Latin easily and need an
S
little
more
elementary guide. The author holds that students should be taught to read, and to understand as they read, without translation, from the very beginning. The aim from the outset should be to learn to read Latin. This is not so difficult, in the opinion of the author, as it seems, and pupils in secondary schools can with proper instruction acquire considerable
facility in this direction.
For a well-graded
better can be found than Ritchie's Fabulae Faciles, Romae Viri Inlustres, and Gellius' Noctcs Atticae.
this
book have accordingly been made from these Fabulae Faciles may be used to advantage during the latter half of the the selections from / "/';/' first year and the first part of the second Romae come next in difficulty, and then those from Gellius. It has been the plan of the author to afford sufficient and suitable material for the entire preparatory course. The quantities are marked.
;
From considerable experience with classes in sight reading, and from the experience and publications of others, Professor D'Ooge has compiled and formulated in a few introductory pages some hints and suggestions that will be found useful in teaching the art of reading Latin. These are followed by a few models for written lessons, which
be of practical use to the young student. The increasing and very proper emphasis placed upon translation at sight in the curricula of all our best higher schools and colleges has insured a cordial welcome to this little book.
will
QlNN
&
COMPANY,
New
York.
Publishers,
Atlanta.
Dallas.
Boston.
Chicago.
Via Latina
By
AN EASY
LATIN READER.
AM
With VOCABULABY by
CLARENCE W. GLEASON,
X2tno. Cloth. 203 pages.
For introduction,
75 cents.
is an attempt to bridge the gap between the Latin manual, covering forms and simple constructions, and a continuous classical work, like the "Lives of Nepos" or Caesar's " Gallic War." It has been proved by experi-
This book
first
ence that discouragement and great loss of time result from plunging beginners too early into difficult Latin. This book is designed for a few months of rapid reading, beginning with selections from "The New Gradatim," and ending with the "Life of Caesar" and the "Alcibiades" of
Nepos
slightly simplified.
E. C. Warriner, Principal of High School (East Side), Saginaw, Mich. : It is an excellent selection of easy Latin reading, and a book which is admirably suited for the purpose intended.
Emma
bridge, Mass. : The subject-matter is interesting, well arranged, and attractive in every respect. I wish we might have such a work intro-
Thomas Fitz-Hugh, Professor of Latin, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. : It shows the same eminently practical and efficient qualities that characterize all of Mr. Collar's text-books. I entirely approve of the general plan. I can imagine no more useful and available manual for every purpose involved in our discussions.
C. C. Ramsey, Principal of High School, Fall River, Mass. : A capital Latin reader the notes and vocabulary are excellent and the selections could not be better.
;
Publishers,
Dallas.
New York.
Chicago.
Atlanta.
V'
t-
PA 208? A35