Greg Kegel Benito Mussolini came to power in 1922 with the promise to restore the Roman state to its

former glory. The Roman Empire had once covered all of the Mediterranean and nearly all of Europe, and Mussolini argued that modern Romans could do the same thing again. His governments legitimacy rested on the ability to fulfill this promise, so Mussolini began several projects across Rome to emphasize its Imperial heritage. Each project served a unique purpose to Mussolini, but there are four major ones that highlight Mussolinis goals and reveal whether or not he was successful at accomplishing each of them. The excavation of the Circus Maximus was intended to remind Romans of their glorious heritage. The restoration of the mausoleum of Augustus was an attempt to equate Mussolini with the Emperor Augustus. The construction of the Via della Conciliazione was quite literally a restaging of the city of Rome. Finally, the construction of the Colosseo Quadrato was meant to harness the legacy of Rome for the Fascist Party in Italy. Each project represents a phase in Mussolinis grand plan for the future of Italy, and they give a remarkable insight into the successes and failures of the Mussolini regime. Regardless of intentions, these projects permanently reshaped Rome and refashioned the idea of Rome to its modern day reputation. The Circus Maximus has always been one of the great symbols of Ancient Rome. The very ground that it was built upon is said to be the site of the rape of the Sabine women, and thus it holds a direct connection with the early days of Rome. In addition to this, it was successively expanded upon and remodeled by nearly every Roman emperor for the purpose of hosting one of the two greatest sports of Ancient Rome chariot races (Hibbert 322). This made the Circus Maximus a place of spectacle where Romans would go to marvel at the glory and skill of its own citizens. Not only does sport in Ancient Rome imply that they were civilized enough to have leisure time, but also that the Romans so outclassed every other society they had encountered (both on and off the battlefield), that they had no

one else to compete with but themselves. In addition, through that competition, it is clear that Romans were not content to remain stagnant for any period of time even if they were already the best, and they were thus compelled to continue moving forward to greater and greater heights an attitude that Mussolini presumably wished to instill into the Roman populace. After all, the Fascists wanted an eventual Italian Empire, and a populace constantly seeking new challenges and chances to prove their worth would undoubtedly support the sustained war effort necessary to accomplish this. Even if a Roman was unfamiliar with the spectacles once held there, the remains of the Circus Maximus itself are a spectacle. Before Mussolinis excavations, it was a shantytown full of rubble (Cohen), and while no attempt at reconstructing it ever occurred, the simple presence of the huge, open space where a 621-meter-long, 150-meter-wide race track used to stand is breath-taking in and of itself. Any attempt to recreate the stadium would probably have diminished the effect, too, since the power of the human imagination likely creates a far more amazing, and more personal spectacle than any architect could create. The size of the area also makes it an obvious presence in the day to day lives of the citizens of Rome. If ever anyone had to go through this part of town, their eyes would immediately be drawn in by the expansive field and the ominous ruins surrounding it. For Mussolini though, this was not enough. In the unlikely event that anyone was left out of the nationalistic fervor inspired by the Circus Maximus, he made sure to draw attention to it by hosting a number of cultural events on the premises. These exhibits directly worked to generate nationalistic attitudes since they were mostly exhibitions of fascist art and, seeing as how the Circus Maximus was perhaps the largest center of culture and spectacle in Ancient Rome, it again emphasized the connection of Ancient Rome to modern Rome. All of these feelings provoked by the site of the Circus Maximus worked together to perpetuate the idea that since Romans had accomplished all of these amazing feats before, they could again. The daily reminders of ancient glory served to bring pride to Rome and its

citizens for the accomplishments of their ancestors, but also small sense of shame when they resumed their daily activities and reflected on Italys modern position in the global power structure. It created a yearning for conquest and glory, but most importantly a yearning for someone capable of leading Rome into this bright future. In Ancient Rome, the citizens placed their trust in the Emperor as the man who would fulfill these higher aspirations. In Mussolinis eyes, the greatest Emperor to ever serve Rome was its first official one, Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus. This was largely because Augustus dramatically expanded the borders of the Roman Empire and brought about the Pax Romana. During his reign, the city of Rome was transformed by the riches brought home from conquest; not only did he initiate a wide array of projects, but he also established many aspects of a civilized city in Rome such as a police force and fire fighters. Augustus was so successful at reshaping Rome that upon his death, the Roman Senate voted to elevate him to the status of a god (Hibbert 35). This was not done without a fair share of political scheming, and this is perhaps what Mussolini admired about Augustus the most his ability to pander to the people and other politicians while still getting his way. Regardless of the specific reasons, it is clear that Mussolini would benefit by relating himself to Emperor Augustus. While he continued to excavate and restore buildings from Ancient Rome, he began to emphasize this connection to Augustus by celebrating his accomplishments. One such celebration was the Mostra Augustea which emphasized the role of expansive imperialism in creating *Romes+ glorious past, as well as the role of the strong, centralized leadership of Augustus in creating the Roman Empire (Lewine 3). It would be hard for anyone to not notice the parallel between the militaristic and dictatorial policies of Augustus and Mussolini. So when Mussolini began the restoration of the mausoleum of Augustus, he was already being equated with the ancient Emperor (and in fact he intended to be buried there himself someday). By

restoring it, Mussolini was definitely drawing attention to the man once again, but also to the others buried there. The mausoleum had once held the remains of Augustus and his family, a succession of Roman emperors, and some of Augustus greatest military commanders like Agrippa. The fact that the mausoleum had contained the remains of the Emperor and his family seems to emphasize the mortality of even a man as great as Augustus, suggesting that this type of man does not just fall out of the sky, but that he is a self-made man. While Augustus had enjoyed the status of god in Ancient Rome (a feeling that was almost certainly also resuscitated by all the restoration and celebrations), Mussolini did not. This reminded Romans that Augustus was only human, and in turn they saw the makings of a new Augustus in the self-made Mussolini, even if he had not yet achieved deity status. This feeling was reinforced by the succession of Emperors buried there; Mussolini seemed to be drawing attention to the idea of natural succession in the Roman Empire. Fascism, Mussolini argued, was the logical descendent of Imperial Rome, and he was the clear successor to Augustus. Finally, even in death, the military power of Rome had been important to Augustus as shown by the military commanders buried with him. The glory and riches acquired by Rome during the time of Augustus had been rooted in the military conquest of the era. Mussolini hoped to permanently associate this glory of Ancient Rome with its militaristic conquest, and thus perpetuate the idea that if Rome was ever to be great again, it would need to return to that same militaristic way of life. Interestingly enough, though, restoring this mausoleum seems to have emphasized two other ideas as well. First, it emphasized that Augustus was dead, never to return. After creating a cult of personality surrounding Augustus, Mussolini was destroying it by reminding Rome that a dead man could not be its savior. The time of Augustus was over and done with and while celebrating his successes made Romans proud of their heritage, when the celebrations ended they were quickly reminded of the real, modern Italy. After using Romes past to inspire Romans, Mussolini was tearing them out of it and showing them what Rome had become. Instead of letting Romans dwell in the past, Mussolini

challenged them to live up to their ancestors expectations and reputation. He had shown how even a few remains of ancient Rome could still dwarf the modern Rome, and essentially shamed Italians for letting their empire get away from them. There was a glimmer of hope for them, however. Mussolini reassured Romans that regardless of the past, a new Augustus had risen to power, and now was the time to reclaim the former glory for Rome. The second idea emphasized by the mausoleum was that even the great Augustus accomplishments were withered by the progression of time. In fact they had not just been withered, but almost literally trampled upon; from 410 CE onward the mausoleum had been pillaged, built over, nearly destroyed, and finally left to fall into disrepair. When Mussolini went to restore it, the mausoleum was still a pitiful ruin. By restoring it however, he demonstrated to Rome that only he and his Fascist Party were capable of restoring the former glory of Rome after so many had failed over the centuries. Furthermore, these events showed that if Rome were to create an empire that would stand the test of time, it would take perseverance and patience. Mussolini had already legitimized his leadership by adorning himself with the mantle of Augustus, but he knew that recreating the Roman Empire would take time, and he needed to secure the long-term support of the Roman citizenry. In part to secure this support, Mussolini embarked on a series of public works improvements. One such project involved leveling several neighborhoods to create the Via della Conciliazione which was a road connecting the Vatican to the heart of Rome (Via Della). The plans for such a road had been in existence since before the Renaissance, but it had never actually been built for various reasons over the years. Mussolini decided to demonstrate that his government could accomplish the things that others only dreamed of, and thus prove that fascism was a step forward for Italy. This road was also just one of many new constructions that remapped the very layout of the city, connecting the great monuments to each other and the heart of Rome. This not only drew attention to the monuments, but

emphasized Rome as once again as a center of the greatest accomplishments of the world. Even if Italy was not yet an economic or military powerhouse, Mussolini was determined to highlight it as the center of cultural power. The construction of the Via della Conciliazione also garnered support from the Catholic Church. While before Mussolini had been playing up the image of the pagan Emperor Augustus, he realized that he would need the support of the Catholic Church if he were to remain in power at all seeing as most of Italy was Catholic. In this way Mussolini also sought to show Romans how he was an improvement upon Augustus; by creating himself as the Catholic Roman Emperor, he was bringing together the glorious past of Imperial Rome, and the holy past of Papal Rome, and both had deep resonance with the people of Rome. The road itself was constructed to be a wide thoroughfare to replace the densely-packed neighborhoods that were once directly in front of St. Peters Basilica. While, out of reverence, the basilica was the tallest structure in Rome, it seemed a disgrace to its glory to have essentially a slum between it and the center of Rome. In addition to this, the road connected the Vatican directly to the Castel SantAngelo, a symbol of the Italian military. Again, Mussolini appears to have been marketing himself as holy warrior as intent on glorifying the Church as he was intent on glorifying Rome. It also appears to have served a darker purpose: as one looks out from St. Peters following the road, they are immediately reminded of the true source of power in Rome, the Fascist military. Mussolini was content to pander to the Papacy to win support among Italians, but not to the extent that the Papacy would wield any authority at all; after all, Mussolini was the new Roman Emperor. This idea of the Church being subservient to the wishes of the Emperor is also emphasized when one looks up the road towards St. Peters: the road has been consciously centered not on the dome of St. Peters, but on the obelisk in the courtyard (Cohen). The obelisk is a symbol of Imperial, not Papal power, though the Papacy did attempt to harness its power by moving it to St. Peters square in the first place. In fact the obelisk was first erected by Emperor Augustus, and while it has been moved from its original location, it is the only

obelisk that has not ever toppled since the time of Ancient Rome a testament to ancient Rome that has truly stood the test of time. With this as the true centerpiece of the Via della Conciliazione, it becomes much less a road of conciliation to the church, but rather one that truly subjugates the church beneath the nation-state of Italy for the first time in the countrys history. While the remodeling of Rome was important in advancing Benito Mussolinis goals, it had only demonstrated that the fascists were capable of highlighting the glories of days gone by. Mussolini had to prove that he had the ability to make these dreams for Italy become a reality; that he could actually lead Italy forward into the future. He could not, however, completely disregard the image of Imperial Rome he had spent so much time creating since it was the basis of his legitimacy. It was in this frame of mind that Mussolini began construction of the Esposizione Universale Roma in the mid-1930s. Employing a style known as Italian Rationalism, a functional system of wide roads organized in an orderly symmetrical style was constructed (Cohen). The main north-south road was emphasized and several east-west cross streets were employed to create nearly identical-in-size city blocks. The rigidity of both the city and the Square Coliseum reflect the doctrine of the Italian fascists quite literally. Like any totalitarian regime, the leaders expected progress, but more importantly to be able to measure that progress; it was always about how many more tons of grain were produced, how much more land was annexed, or how many political opponents were rooted out. As a result, everything the fascists did served a purpose, and that purpose was part of a rigid and well thought-out plan. For the E.U.R., that purpose was to create a distinctly fascist version of the Roman Empire to present to the world. While the origins of the fascist Roman Empire would continue to rest in the Imperial Rome of old, it would also have a distinctly modern feeling of progress. As mentioned earlier, Mussolinis commissions suggest he was not content to just be Augustus, but to surpass the first emperor.

Despite all this, the architecture has distinct Roman origin. Even the name of the Colosseo Quadrato emphasizes the Roman nature of the Coliseum with only a hint at fascist alteration. In fact, Mussolini wanted to inspire the same feeling of awe with his fascist architecture as even the ruins of Imperial Rome had done since time immemorial. The building thus had to clearly mimic the architecture of ancient Rome, but at the same time remain distinctly modern. In this way, Mussolini attempted to take the ideas of the old Imperial Rome and rigidly conform them to serve his fascist agenda which is physically manifested in the Square Coliseum. The architect took perhaps the most awe-inspiring and iconic building of ancient Rome, the Coliseum, and forced it into a cubic shape to serve the will of Mussolini. The result is a colossal structure that beautifully captures the Roman feeling of the time. On the one hand, Romes past has been brought to the front and center of the stage to be glorified. Daily reminders of it can be seen everywhere in the city, and one cant help but feel inspired by such a glorious heritage. The sheer size of the structure (it has a volume of 205,000 cubic meters) serves to emphasize this point quite well. It is also emphasized by the structures clear relation to the Coliseum, as seen by the series of superimposed loggias that compromise its facade. At the same time, the future is uncertain: while Italy seems to be getting better since Mussolini took power, it is still firmly rooted in an economic recession, if not full-blown depression. The Fascist achievements never seem to match the Fascist promises and boasts (Hibbert 290). There is still a large amount of faith in the Mussolini regime, however, and as a result there is hope that soon Italy will be ready to reclaim that power it once held. This is well emphasized by the statues surrounding the base of the structure which represent the various facets of Italy. There is a statue to recognize every type of achievement an Italian has ever accomplished like heroism, political genius, genius of theater, and even the corps of engineers. There is also an inscription on the structure which reads: A nation of poets, of artists, of heroes, / Of saints, of thinkers, of scientists, / Of sailors, of transmigrants. This suggests a transition away from strictly fascist values,

and shows how Mussolinis ultimate desire was a strong, unified Italy that would excel far beyond every other countrys wildest dreams. Something is wrong about the Square Coliseum, however. In addition to these sentiments about the past, present and future, there is something off-putting about the whole building. It does not appear to be a problem with the design or the layout of the structure since that is what inspires the positive feelings when one gazes at it. Many have suggested that the white marble used in construction gives it a sterile alien look, opposed to the godly look of the ancient Roman structures (Cohen) and while this is certainly true, it seems unlikely that slightly different shade of white is the sole reason for the structures oddity. I would argue that it gets back to the very shape of the Square Coliseum any educated person has been raised with the idea of a round Coliseum being iconic of Rome, and so any other shape just seems unnatural. As a result, the fascist message behind the structure becomes much too obvious to be taken seriously, and it distances the viewer even more from the Square Coliseum. It was also as the structure was nearing completion that Mussolini was starting to lose popular support due to his decision to enter World War II, so there are connotations for Roman citizens in that, but also a general feeling that this is where the Mussolini regime did not succeed; it could not effectively transform nationalistic fervor for the glory of Imperial Rome into direct support for fascist policies. While initially there were many anti-fascists in Rome, but next to no anti-Mussolinians (Hibbert 291), Benito Mussolini could not escape the shortcomings of his party forever. His goal, in his own words, was that in five years Rome must appear marvelous to all the peoples of the world; vast, orderly, powerful, as it was in the time of the first emperor Augustus (Via Della), and while he was in power for over twenty years, he never came close to achieving this goal. He took office as a young revolutionary and was, as most of them are, very impatient. As can be seen from his quote, he wanted to do in five years what took the ancient Roman Empire several hundred, and because he always wanted

immediate success he would tend to abandon projects if they did not get the results he wanted immediately. As a result, instead of moving Italy forward with fascism, he kept it virtually stagnant and when he went to war against the Allies, those shortcomings caught up with him quite literally. Mussolini also neglected to acknowledge the fact that the transition from Republican Rome to Imperial Rome required years of unrest, civil war, and dictatorship which ended with the murder of Julius Caesar. If Mussolini wanted to draw parallels with historical figures, his position was much more similar to Caesars than Augustus and, indeed his end came much more like Caesars rather than Augustus. He became reviled by the Italian people, was removed from power, and was eventually assassinated. Even Caesar was still revered by his people, though, and received a magnificent funeral, whereas Mussolinis corpse was hung out like a leg of prosciutto. What Mussolini was able to accomplish, however, was to transform the city of Rome itself. He had meant to turn the very city into a monument to Italian fascism, but ended up turning into a monument to Italian nationalism. His various projects and excavations revitalized the city and literally reoriented it to make it again the cultural center of the West. In fact so powerful was this remapping that Romes reputation seems to have not been tarnished at all by World War II. Like in the 18th century, all of a sudden Rome was again an eternal city where one could witness all stages of the development of Western civilization from tribal villages to modern democracy. In a similar way each project discussed here continues to function beyond its original fascist intentions: the Circus Maximus is used as an outdoor venue for concerts, exhibitions, political demonstrations, and even recreational sport (Cohen); the mausoleum of Augustus is now a museum and testament to the human side of the ancient, god-like Emperors of Rome; the Via della Conciliazione highlights the magnificence of the Vatican and even serves as an extension of St. Peters square for events that draw crowds too large for it to hold like the funeral of John Paul II (Via Della); and while the museum within Colosseo Quadrato has been closed for restoration since 2003, the E.U.R. as a whole functions as business suburb to the larger city and was

the first in Europe. While Benito Mussolini was unable to utilize the nationalist fervor he created with his giant public works projects to advance his own fascist policies efficiently, they were nonetheless successful in restructuring Rome in a way that makes the city just as pertinent in the 21st Century as it ever was.

Works Cited Cohen, Maxwell. "Landscape Architecture Study Tour with Professor Jack Ahern." University of Massachusetts Amherst, 5 Mar. 2009. Web. 02 June 2011. <http://courses.umass.edu/latour/Italy/Mussolini/index.html>. Hibbert, Christopher. Rome : the Biography of a City. New York: W.W. Norton &, 1985. Print. Lewine, Annie E. "Ancient Rome in Modern Italy: Mussolini's Manipulation of Roman History in the Mostra Augustea Della Romanita." Studies in Mediterranean Antiquity and Classics 2.1 (2008). Print. "Via Della Conciliazione, Borgo, Rome." Rome Tour Guide, Italy - Rome (Roma) Index of Places To Visit. Web. 02 June 2011. <http://rometour.org/della-conciliazione-borgo-rome.html>.