Information and communications technology (ICT) is often used as an extended synonym for information technology (IT), but is a more

specific term that stresses the role of unified [1] communications and the integration of telecommunications (telephone lines and wireless signals), computers as well as necessary enterprise software, middleware, storage, and audio-visual systems, [2] which enable users to access, store, transmit, and manipulate information. The phrase ICT had been used by academic researchers since the 1980s, but it became popular after it [4] was used in a report to the UK government by Dennis Stevenson in 1997 and in the revised National Curriculum for England, Wales and Northern Ireland in 2000. As of September 2013, the term "ICT" in the [5] UK National Curriculum has been replaced by the broader term "computing". The term ICT is now also used to refer to the convergence of audio-visual and telephone networks with computer networks through a single cabling or link system. There are large economic incentives (huge cost savings due to elimination of the telephone network) to merge the audio-visual, building management and telephone network with the computer network system using a single unified system of cabling, signal distribution and management. The term Infocommunications is sometimes used interchangeably with ICT. In fact Infocommunications is the expansion oftelecommunications with information processing and content handling functions on a [6] common digital technology base. For a comparison of these and other terms, see. The ICT Development Index compares the level of ICT use and access across the world.
[7] [3]

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to the broad range of hardware, software, network infrastructure and media that enable the processing, storage and sharing of information and communication both among humans and computers, locally and globally (InfoDev, Making Sense of ICT for Development, April 2007).

1. Integration of ICT in teaching - learning Presented by Dr. B. Victor., Ph. DEmail : bonfiliusvictor@gmail.com Blog: bonvictor.blogspot.com 2. Presentation outline Definition of ICT Characteristics of ICT Benefits of ICT ICT Tools and Digital Techniques Computer Technology Web based learning Digital Library End Note 3. Definition of ICT ICT is a generic term referring to technologies, which are being used for collecting, storing, editing and passing on information in various forms (SER,1997) 4. Information andCommunication technology

5. ICT literacy ICT literacy basically involves using digital technology, communication tools and/or access, manage, integrate, evaluate and create information in order to function in a knowledge society. 6. How to use Information technology effectively ?Learners use computer-based services tosearch and find relevant information.Learners retrieve relevant information.Learners decode information in variety offorms( written, statistical and graphic).Learners critically evaluate information ofdifferent fields of knowledge. 7. Information Technology ContdLearners can use computer based services to write, analyze, present and communicate information.Learners can use information technologies to create networks of co- learners and to share, collaborate and construct knowledge. 8. ICT-characteristics 9. Importance of ICT As a source of Knowledge As a medium to transit Knowledge As a means of interaction / dialogue 10. Attributes of Computer based technologyMulti-sensory delivery: Text, graphics, animation, sound and video.Active learning: enhanced learner interest.Co-operative learning: positive group/social interaction.Communication Skills: one-to-one, one-to- many, many-to-many.Multicultural education: link students from across the country/around the world.Motivation: greater learner engagement (time). 11. Any technology which increase the rate of learning would enable the teacher to teach less and the learner to learn more 12. Learning resources 13. ICT tools Multimedia PC, Laptop, Notebook. CDs& DVDs, digital video, still camera. Internet and its tools- e-mail ,browsers, website, search engines, chat etc. Computer aided instruction& computer mediated video/audio conferencing. Digital libraries , e-books& electronic publications. Microsoft publishing -news letter, poster, brochure. 14. Digital techniques Word processing -documents, notes, projects, assignments Spread sheet programming -records, exam scores Data bases -information storage Graphing software -to prepare teaching- learning resources Developing Multimedia kits -to make process interesting Using internet and e-mail facilities -to gain knowledge Games and simulations -to improve quality of learning 15. Advantages of ICT Sharing digital resources, wide variety of services, Flexibility, Reliability, faster speed, cheaper cost. 16. Influence of ICT in student learning ICT helps to provide interactive learning experiences. ICT stimulates and motivates students to learn. ICT provides comfortable learning . ICT aids in the understanding of difficult concepts and processes. ICT caters to different learning styles. ICT helps students to gain valuable computer skills. ICT aids in collaboration and group work. 17. Unique features of ICTICT facilitate collaboration andcommunication.ICT aid in the visualization of difficultconcepts.ICT promote creativity.ICT enable multiplier effect of documents.ICT provide flexibility and variety in learning.ICT provide a multimedia effect.

18. Computers Computers are cognitive tools; Computers are performance support systems (PSSs). Computers offer multi-media ways for obtaining large amounts of information from web sites. 19. Power point presentationPPT presentations can beincorporated with a variety ofdifferent kinds of multi-media aspects:images, video, audio and animations. PPT is neat and clean and it allows forportability of materials.PPT is easy for professors to update,saving them time and energy. 20. Computers :multimedia applications Scanning media. Talking to experts. Recording information. Writing/ producing compositions. Engaging research. 21. Students who use multimedia tools are active learners. Students reflect these kind of tasks throughout their life. Students work collaboratively, not only with each other, but with researchers and teachers. 22. Hyper media tools It consists of a database of information structured as nodes or frames. The links between the nodes allow rapid movement through the information and a user interface. 23. Benefits of hyper media tools Hypermedia helps in exploring a large database of information. Hypermedia helps in accessing elaborations on core information. Hypermedia promote a rich learning. 24. Interactive video The interactive video refers broadly to software that responds to certain choices and commands by the user. A typical system consists of a combination of a compact disk, computer and video technology. 25. The interactive video Videodisc systems store video pictures, still pictures, and sound on discs that users can control with a videodisc player. These systems can provide the interactive capabilities of computers and the motion-picture capabilities of videos. 26. Video Conferencing is a method of performing interactive video communications over a regular high speed internet connection. Since it was introduced, communication technologies have improved exponentially. 27. Computer simulationA computer simulation attempts toreproduce real-life situationsSimulations feature a combination oftext and graphics ,using dialogue andinquiry to guide the student through asituation.Simulations also can bring abouthigher-order synthesis and analysisskills. 28. Computer-assisted tutorialsTutorials are one of the most commontypes of computer-assisted instruction.Tutorials are page-turners similar totextbooks.The one-to-one tutoring and feedbackprovided by a tutorial can make it anexcellent tool for improving studentknowledge 29. Drill-and-practice programsDrill-and-practice programs work wellin increasing student knowledgethrough repetition, usually throughcuesStudents can repeat sections, helpingindividualized instructionDrill-and-practice programs provideautomatic feedback to learners. 30. Web based learningThe learner searches website,collects information and learns thelesson.Web is a viable tool to helpstudents gain education withoutbeing on campus. It allows greater autonomy oflearning. 31. The World Wide Web The World Wide Web potentially provides great flexibility in the distribution of learning resources in interesting fashion. Resources such as lecture notes, readings, tutorials and assignments can be received by students both on and off campus.

32. Internet and educationthe Internet consists of a large numbercomputers linked by national andinternational tele-communicationnetworks. Each Internet site contains information(text, images, audio, video, links etc.)which are accessible to the individualworking from their home computer. 33. Properties of internet sites Internet sites are increasing in number, sophistication and content. Internet provides information in text, graphics, audio and video. Internet allows a greater degree of interactivity through real time audiovisual transfers and chat. Colored and animated graphics are of much greater educational value. 34. Online tasks 35. Digital libraryA digital library is a collection oftextual, numeric, graphic, audio andvideo data stored in digital form,indexed and logically linked for easeof retrieval. 36. Components of digital library Textual data Numeric data Graphics data Photographs Audio data Video data 37. Unique features of digital library Safe storage and multiple access of material Ability to store variety of data Access information from anywhere in the world Ease of search and retrieval 38. Different e-learning experiences On - line students group: allowing students to interact with each other On - line lecturing: allowing faculty to interact with students On - line counseling: helps students in decision- making On - line libraries and resource center: providing text, documents, articles for reference. 39. Points for review ( courtesy : UNESCO) 40. Students should be familiar with basic concepts of ICT. 41. Students should feel confident about using computers. 42. Students should be able to use graphics appropriately. 43. Students should be familiar with using computers to communicate. 44. Students should be aware of how ICT changes job. 45. Students can build and userobots to perform experiments. 46. Students should be able to usecomputers in art. 47. Students should be able to use computers in dance and music. 48. Students should be able to use computers for modeling and simulation. 49. Students should beable to use a simplestatistical package. 50. Students should be able to usesuitable graphics tools. 51. Students should be able to create and play music using hardware and software.

ICT applications: benefits in all aspects of life

14. ICT applications can support sustainable development, in the fields of public administration, business, education
and training, health, employment, environment, agriculture and science within the framework of national estrategies. This would include actions within the following sectors:

15. E-government
1. Implement e-government strategies focusing on applications aimed at innovating and promoting transparency in public administrations and democratic processes, improving efficiency and strengthening relations with citizens. 2. Develop national e-government initiatives and services, at all levels, adapted to the needs of citizens and business, to achieve a more efficient allocation of resources and public goods. 3. Support international cooperation initiatives in the field of e-government, in order to enhance transparency, accountability and efficiency at all levels of government.

16. E-business
1. Governments, international organizations and the private sector, are encouraged to promote the benefits of international trade and the use of e-business, and promote the use of e-business models in developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 2. Through the adoption of an enabling environment, and based on widely available Internet access, governments should seek to stimulate private sector investment, foster new applications, content development and public/private partnerships. 3. Government policies should favour assistance to, and growth of SMMEs, in the ICT industry, as well as their entry into e-business, to stimulate economic growth and job creation as an element of a strategy for poverty reduction through wealth creation.

17. E-learning (see section C4)

Everyone should have the necessary skills to benefit fully from the Information Society. Therefore capacity building and ICT literacy are essential. ICTs can contribute to achieving universal education worldwide, through delivery of education and training of teachers, and offering improved conditions for lifelong learning, encompassing people that are outside the formal education process, and improving professional skills. 1. Develop domestic policies to ensure that ICTs are fully integrated in education and training at all levels, including in curriculum development, teacher training, institutional administration and management, and in support of the concept of lifelong learning. 2. Develop and promote programmes to eradicate illiteracy using ICTs at national, regional and international levels. 3. Promote e-literacy skills for all, for example by designing and offering courses for public administration, taking advantage of existing facilities such as libraries, multipurpose community centres, public access points and by establishing local ICT training centres with the cooperation of all stakeholders. Special attention should be paid to disadvantaged and vulnerable groups. 4. In the context of national educational policies, and taking into account the need to eradicate adult illiteracy, ensure that young people are equipped with knowledge and skills to use ICTs, including the capacity to analyse and treat information in creative and innovative ways, share their expertise and participate fully in the Information Society. 5. Governments, in cooperation with other stakeholders, should create programmes for capacity building with an emphasis on creating a critical mass of qualified and skilled ICT professionals and experts. 6. Develop pilot projects to demonstrate the impact of ICT-based alternative educational delivery

systems, notably for achieving Education for All targets, including basic literacy targets. 7. Work on removing the gender barriers to ICT education and training and promoting equal training opportunities in ICT-related fields for women and girls. Early intervention programmes in science and technology should target young girls with the aim of increasing the number of women in ICT careers. Promote the exchange of best practices on the integration of gender perspectives in ICT education. 8. Empower local communities, especially those in rural and underserved areas, in ICT use and promote the production of useful and socially meaningful content for the benefit of all. 9. Launch education and training programmes, where possible using information networks of traditional nomadic and indigenous peoples, which provide opportunities to fully participate in the Information Society. 10. Design and implement regional and international cooperation activities to enhance the capacity, notably, of leaders and operational staff in developing countries and LDCs, to apply ICTs effectively in the whole range of educational activities. This should include delivery of education outside the educational structure, such as the workplace and at home. 11. Design specific training programmes in the use of ICTs in order to meet the educational needs of information professionals, such as archivists, librarians, museum professionals, scientists, teachers, journalists, postal workers and other relevant professional groups. Training of information professionals should focus not only on new methods and techniques for the development and provision of information and communication services, but also on relevant management skills to ensure the best use of technologies. Training of teachers should focus on the technical aspects of ICTs, on development of content, and on the potential possibilities and challenges of ICTs. 12. Develop distance learning, training and other forms of education and training as part of capacity building programmes. Give special attention to developing countries and especially LDCs in different levels of human resources development. 13. Promote international and regional cooperation in the field of capacity building, including country programmes developed by the United Nations and its Specialized Agencies. 14. Launch pilot projects to design new forms of ICT-based networking, linking education, training and research institutions between and among developed and developing countries and countries with economies in transition. 15. Volunteering, if conducted in harmony with national policies and local cultures, can be a valuable asset for raising human capacity to make productive use of ICT tools and build a more inclusive Information Society. Activate volunteer programmes to provide capacity building on ICT for development, particularly in developing countries. 16. Design programmes to train users to develop self-learning and self-development capacities.

18. E-health
1. Promote collaborative efforts of governments, planners, health professionals, and other agencies along with the participation of international organizations for creating a reliable, timely, high quality and affordable health care and health information systems and for promoting continuous medical training, education, and research through the use of ICTs, while respecting and protecting citizens right to privacy. 2. Facilitate access to the worlds medical knowledge and lo cally-relevant content resources for strengthening public health research and prevention programmes and promoting womens and mens health, such as content on sexual and reproductive health and sexually transmitted infections, and for diseases that attract full attention of the world including HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis. 3. Alert, monitor and control the spread of communicable diseases, through the improvement of common information systems. 4. Promote the development of international standards for the exchange of health data, taking due account of privacy concerns. 5. Encourage the adoption of ICTs to improve and extend health care and health information systems to remote and underserved areas and vulnerable populations, recognising womens roles as health providers in their families and communities. 6. Strengthen and expand ICT-based initiatives for providing medical and humanitarian assistance in disasters and emergencies.

19. E-employment
1. Encourage the development of best practices for e-workers and e-employers built, at the national

level, on principles of fairness and gender equality, respecting all relevant international norms. 2. Promote new ways of organizing work and business with the aim of raising productivity, growth and well-being through investment in ICTs and human resources. 3. Promote teleworking to allow citizens, particularly in the developing countries, LDCs, and small economies, to live in their societies and work anywhere, and to increase employment opportunities for women, and for those with disabilities. In promoting teleworking, special attention should be given to strategies promoting job creation and the retention of the skilled working force. 4. Promote early intervention programmes in science and technology that should target young girls to increase the number of women in ICT carriers.

20. E-environment
1. Governments, in cooperation with other stakeholders are encouraged to use and promote ICTs as an instrument for environmental protection and the sustainable use of natural resources. 2. Government, civil society and the private sector are encouraged to initiate actions and implement projects and programmes for sustainable production and consumption and the environmentally safe disposal and recycling of discarded hardware and components used in ICTs. 3. Establish monitoring systems, using ICTs, to forecast and monitor the impact of natural and manmade disasters, particularly in developing countries, LDCs and small economies.

21. E-agriculture
1. Ensure the systematic dissemination of information using ICTs on agriculture, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry and food, in order to provide ready access to comprehensive, up-to-date and detailed knowledge and information, particularly in rural areas. 2. Public-private partnerships should seek to maximize the use of ICTs as an instrument to improve production (quantity and quality).

22. E-science
1. Promote affordable and reliable high-speed Internet connection for all universities and research institutions to support their critical role in information and knowledge production, education and training, and to support the establishment of partnerships, cooperation and networking between these institutions. 2. Promote electronic publishing, differential pricing and open access initiatives to make scientific information affordable and accessible in all countries on an equitable basis. 3. Promote the use of peer-to-peer technology to share scientific knowledge and pre-prints and reprints written by scientific authors who have waived their right to payment. 4. Promote the long-term systematic and efficient collection, dissemination and preservation of essential scientific digital data, for example, population and meteorological data in all countries. 5. Promote principles and metadata standards to facilitate cooperation and effective use of collected scientific information and data as appropriate to conduct scientific research.

Courseware
Courseware is educational material intended as kits for teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students, usually packaged for use with a computer. Courseware can encompass any knowledge area, but information technology subjects are most common. Courseware is frequently used for delivering education about the personal computer and its most popular business applications, such as word processing and spreadsheet programs. Courseware is also widely used in information technology industry certification programs, such as the Microsoft Certified Systems Engineer ( MCSE ) and the Computing Technology Industry Associaton's A+ examination. Courseware can include:

Material for instructor-led classes Material for self-directed computer-based training (CBT) Web sites that offer interactive tutorials Material that is coordinated with distance learning, such as live classes conducted over the Internet Videos for use individually or as part of classes

The CD-ROM is the most common means of delivering courseware that is not offered online. For teachers and trainers, courseware content may include set-up information, a course plan, teaching notes, and exercises.

Tutorials
A tutorial is a method of transferring knowledge and may be used as a part of a learning process. More interactive and specific than abook or a lecture; a tutorial seeks to teach by example and supply the information to complete a certain task. Depending on the context a tutorial can take one of many forms, ranging from a set of instructions to complete a task to an interactive problem solving session (usually in academia).

Tutorial class[edit]
In British academic parlance, a tutorial is a small class of one, or only a few, students, in which [citation the tutor (a lecturer or other academic staff member) gives individual attention to the students. needed] The tutorial system at Oxford and Cambridge is fundamental to methods of teaching at those universities, but it is by no means peculiar to them; Heythrop College (University of London), for instance, also offers a tutorial system with one-on-one teaching. It is rare for newer universities in the UK to have the resources to offer individual tuition; six to eight (or even more) students is a far more common tutorial size. At Cambridge, a tutorial is known as a supervision.

In Australian, New Zealand and South African universities, a tutorial (colloquially called a tute or tut in South Africa ) is a class of 1030 students. Such tutorials are very similar to the Canadian system, although tutorials are usually led by honours or postgraduatestudents, known as 'tutors'. At the two campuses of St. John's College, U.S. and a few other American colleges with a similar version of the Great Books program, a "tutorial" is a class of 1216 students who meet regularly with the guidance of a tutor. The tutorial focuses on a certain subject area (e.g., mathematics tutorial, language tutorial) and generally proceeds with careful reading of selected primary texts and working through associated exercises (e.g., demonstrating a Euclid proof or translating ancient Greek poetry). Since formal lectures do not play a large part in the St. John's College curriculum, the tutorial is the primary method by which certain subjects are studied. However, at St. John's the tutorial is considered ancillary to the seminar, in which a slightly larger group of students meets with two tutors for broader discussion of the particular texts on the seminar list. Some US colleges, such as Williams College in Williamstown, Massachusetts, offer tutorials almost identical in structure to that of an Oxbridge tutorial. At Williams, students in tutorials typically work in pairs alongside a professor and meet weekly, alternately presenting position papers or critiques of their partner's paper.

Tutorial Schools[edit]
There are also specialised schools for tutoring such as Kumon and EduHub. These supplemental hands[1][2] on learning programmes are especially popular in Asia.

Conference Tutorials[edit]
Conference tutorials are one example of a continuing education activity sponsored by a technical and professional association as a service to its members.

Internet[edit]
Internet computer tutorials can take the form of a screen recording (screencast), a written document (either online or downloadable), interactive tutorial, or an audio file, where a person will give step by step instructions on how to do something. Tutorials usually have the following characteristics: A presentation of the view usually explaining and showing the user the user interface A demonstration of a process, using examples to show how a workflow or process is completed; often broken up into discrete modules or sections. Some method of review that reinforces or tests understanding of the content in the related module or section. A transition to additional modules or sections that builds on the instructions already provided. Tutorials can be linear orbranching.

While many writers refer to a mere list of instructions or tips as a tutorial, this usage can be misleading.

Computer-based tutoring[edit]
In computer-based education, a tutorial is a computer program whose purpose it is to assist users in learning how to use (parts of) asoftware product such as an office suite or any other application, operating

system interface, programming tool, or video game. There are 3 kinds of software tutorials: 1) video tutorials that the user views, 2) interactive tutorials where the user follows on-screen instructions (andin some caseswatches short instruction movies), whereupon he/she does the tutorial exercises and receives feedback depending on his/her actions; and 3) webinars where users participate in real-time lectures, online tutoring, or workshops remotely using web conferencing software.

Technical Reports
A technical report (also: scientific report) is a document that describes the process, progress, or [1][2] results of technical or scientific research or the state of a technical or scientific research problem. It might also include recommendations and conclusions of the research. Unlike other scientific literature, such as scientific journals and the proceedings of some academic conferences, technical reports rarely undergo comprehensive independent peer review before publication. They may be considered as grey literature. Where there is a review process, it is often limited to within the originating organization. Similarly, there are no formal publishing procedures for such reports, except where established locally.

Description[edit]
Technical reports are today a major source of scientific and technical information. They are prepared for internal or wider distribution by many organizations, most of which lack the extensive editing and printing facilities of commercial publishers. Technical reports are often prepared for sponsors of research projects. Another case where a technical report may be produced is when more information is produced for an academic paper than is acceptable or feasible to publish in a peer-reviewed publication; examples of this include in-depth experimental details, additional results, or the architecture of a computer model. Researchers may also publish work in early form as a technical report to establish novelty, without having to wait for the often long production schedules of academic journals. Technical reports are considered "non-archival" publications, and so are free to be published elsewhere in peer-reviewed venues with or without modification.

Production guidelines[edit]
International standard ISO 5966 provided guidance on the preparation of technical reports that are published and archived on paper. The Grey Literature International Steering Committee (GLISC) established in 2006 published guidelines for the production of scientific and technical reports. These recommendations are adapted from the Uniform Requirements for Manuscripts Submitted to Biomedical Journals, produced by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) better known as Vancouver Style, and are available on the GLISC website.
[1]

Publication[edit]
Technical reports are now commonly published electronically, whether on the Internet or on the originating organization's intranet.

Many organizations collect their technical reports into a formal series. Reports are then assigned an identifier (report number, volume number) and share a common cover-page layout. The entire series might be uniquely identified by an ISSN. A registration scheme for a globally unique International Standard Technical Report Number (ISRN) was standardized in 1994 (ISO10444), but was never implemented in practice. ISO finally withdrew this [3] standard in December 2007. It aimed to be an international extension of a report identifier scheme used [4] by U.S. government agencies (ANSI/NISO Z39.23).

Thesis
A thesis or dissertation is a document submitted in support of candidature for anacademic degree or [2] professional qualification presenting the author's research and findings. In some contexts, the word "thesis" or a cognate is used for part of abachelor's or master's course, while "dissertation" is normally [3] applied to a doctorate, while in others, the reverse is true. Dissertations and theses may be considered asgrey literature. The word dissertation can at times be used to describe a treatise without relation to obtaining an academic degree. The term thesis is also used to refer to the general claim of an essay or similar work.
[1]

Structure and presentation style[edit]

Cover page to Sren Kierkegaard's university thesis

Structure[edit]
A thesis (or dissertation) may be arranged as a thesis by publication or a monograph, with or without appended papers respectively. An ordinary monograph has a title page, an abstract, a table of contents, comprising the various chapters (introduction, literature review, findings, etc.), and a bibliography or (more usually) a references section. They differ in their structure in accordance with the many different areas of study (arts, humanities, social sciences, technology, sciences, etc.) and the minimal differences between them. In a thesis by publication, the chapters constitute an introductory and comprehensive gist of the appended published and unpublished article documents. Dissertations normally report on a research project or study, or an extended analysis of a topic. The structure of the thesis or dissertation explains the purpose, the previous research literature which impinges on the topic of the study, the methods used and the findings of the project. Most world universities use a multiple chapter format : a) an introduction, which introduces the research topic, the methodology, as well as its scope and significance; b) a literature review, reviewing relevant literature and showing how this has informed the research issue; c) a methodology chapter, explaining how the research has been designed and why the research methods/population/data collection and analysis being used have been chosen; d) a findings chapter, outlining the findings of the research itself; e) an analysis and discussion chapter, analysing the findings and discussing them in the context of the literature review [4][5] (this chapter is often divided into twoanalysis and discussion); f) a conclusion.

Style[edit]
Degree-awarding institutions often define their own house style that candidates have to follow when preparing a thesis document. In addition to institution-specific house styles, there exist a number of fieldspecific, national, and international standards and recommendations for the presentation of theses, for [2] instance ISO 7144. Other applicable international standards include ISO 2145 on section numbers, ISO 690 on bibliographic references, and ISO 31 on quantities or units. Some older house styles specify that front matter (title page, abstract, table of content, etc.) uses a separate page-number sequence from the main text, using Roman numerals. The relevant international [2] standard and many newer style guides recognize that thisbook design practice can cause confusion where electronic document viewers number all pages of a document continuously from the first page, independent of any printed page numbers. They therefore avoid the traditional separate number sequence for front matter and require a single sequence of Arabic numerals starting with 1 for the first printed page (the recto of the title page). Presentation requirements, including pagination, layout, type and color of paper, use of acid-free paper (where a copy of the dissertation will become a permanent part of the library collection), paper size, order of components, and citation style, will be checked page by page by the accepting officer before the thesis is accepted and a receipt is issued. However, strict standards are not always required. Most Italian universities, for example, have only general requirements on the character size and the page formatting, and leave much freedom on the [citation needed] actual typographic details.

Literature review[edit]
Main article: Literature review A literature review examines the existing academic literature to: a) place the proposed or current work with the stream of academic development and history, and/or b) to discover the strengths and weakness in the literature, uncovering gaps which may justify the significance of the current work. A thorough review of literature provides the backdrop to, and reasons for, conducting the research. In addition, the discussion sets up the items in the methodology in a 1:1 correspondence. For example, if a researcher wants to query variable A in a particular population, their review of the literature should discuss the importance of, or other research that has studied variable A.

Thesis committee[edit]
A thesis or dissertation committee is a committee that supervises a student's dissertation. This committee, at least in the US model, usually consists of a primary supervisor or advisor and two or more committee members, who supervise the progress of the dissertation and may also act as the examining committee, or jury, at the oral examination of the thesis (see below). At most universities, the committee is chosen by the student in conjunction with his or her primary adviser, usually after completion of the comprehensive examinations or prospectus meeting, and may consist of members of the comps committee. The committee members are doctors in their field (whether a PhD or other designation) and have the task of reading the dissertation, making suggestions for changes and improvements, and sitting in on the defense. Sometimes, at least one member of the committee must be a professor in a department that is different from that of the student.