Metal Forming

Bulk
Deformation
Rolling
Processes
Forging
Processes
Extrusion
Processes
Wire & Bare
Drawing
Bending
METAL FOMING PROCESS METAL FOMING PROCESS METAL FOMING PROCESS METAL FOMING PROCESS
Sheet
Metalworking
Bending
Operation
Deep or Cup
Drawing
Shearing
Processes
Miscallenouse
Processes
Bulk
Deformation Deformation
Processes
Bulk-Deformation Processes
PROCESS GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
Forging Production of discrete parts with a set of dies; some finishing operations usually
necessary; similar parts can be made by casting and powder-metallurgy techniques;
usually performed at elevated temperatures; dies and equipment costs are high;
moderate to high labor costs; moderate to high operator skill.
Rolling
Flat Production of flat plate, sheet, and foil at high speeds, and with good surface finish,
especially in cold rolling; requires very high capital investment; low to moderate labor
cost.
Shape Production of various structural shapes, such as I-beams and rails, at high speeds;
includes thread and ring rolling; requires shaped rolls and expensive equipment; low to
moderate labor cost; moderate operator skill.
Extrusion Production of long lengths of solid or hollow products with constant cross-sections,
usually performed at elevated temperatures; product is then cut to desired lengths;
TABLE 6.1 General characteristics of bulk deformation processes.
usually performed at elevated temperatures; product is then cut to desired lengths;
can be competitive with roll forming; cold extrusion has similarities to forging and is
used to make discrete products; moderate to high die and equipment cost; low to
moderate labor cost; low to moderate operator skill.
Drawing
Swaging
Production of long rod, wire, and tubing, with round or various cross-sections; smaller
cross-sections than extrusions; good surface finish; low to moderate die, equipment
and labor costs; low to moderate operator skill.
Radial forging of discrete or long parts with various internal and external shapes;
generally carried out at room temperature; low to moderate operator skill.
[1] Forging Operations
Forging can be carried out as:
a. cold working (T < 0.3T
m
)
b. warm working (0.3T
m
< T < 0.5T
m
)
c. hot working (T > 0.6T
m
)
Three basic types: Three basic types:
1. open-die forging (also known as upsetting)
2. Impression die forging
3. Closed-die forging
Ideal (homogeneous) Deformation
FIGURE 6.1 (a) Ideal
deformation of a solid
cylindrical specimen
compressed between flat
frictionless dies. This process is frictionless dies. This process is
known as upsetting. (b)
Deformation in upsetting with
friction at the die-workpiece
interfaces.
Equations for Open-Die Forging
Reduction in height =
and
% 100 *
0
1 0
h
h h
0
1 0
1
h
h h
e

=
|
|

\
|
=
1
0
1
ln
h
h

and
0
1
h
v
e =
&
1
1
h
v
=
&
Grain Flow Lines
FIGURE 6.2 Grain flow lines in
upsetting a solid steel cylinder at
elevated temperatures. Note the
highly inhomogeneous
deformation and barreling. The
different shape of the bottom
section of the specimen (as
compared with the top) results
from the hot specimen resting on from the hot specimen resting on
the lower, cool die before
deformation proceeded. The
bottom surface was chilled; thus it
exhibits greater strength and
hence deforms less than the top
surface. Source: J. A. Schey et al.,
IIT Research Institute.
Impression-Die Forging
FIGURE 6.14 Schematic illustration of stages in impression-die forging. Note the FIGURE 6.14 Schematic illustration of stages in impression-die forging. Note the
formation of flash, or excess material that is subsequently trimmed off.
Analysis
Simple shapes, without flash
Simple shapes, with flash
Complex shapes, with flash
3-5
5-8
8-12
F = (K
p
)(Y
f
)(A)
TABLE 6.2 Range of Kp values in Eq. (6.21) for impression-die forging.
Load-Stroke Curve in Closed-Die Forging
FIGURE 6.15 Typical load-
stroke curve for closed-die
forging. Note the sharp increase
in load after the flash begins to
form. In hot-forging operations,
the flash requires high levels of
stress, because it is thin-that is, it stress, because it is thin-that is, it
has a small h-and cooler than the
bulk of the forging. Source: After
T. Altan.
Orbital Forging Process
FIGURE 6.16
Schematic illustration of
the orbital-forging
process. Note that the
die is in contact with
only a portion of the
workpiece surface. This
process is also called
rotary forging, swing
forging, and rocking-die forging, and rocking-die
forging and can be used
for forming bevel gears,
wheels, and bearing
rings.
Heading Piercing Operations
FIGURE 6.17 Forging heads on
fasteners such as bolts and rivets.
These processes are called heading.
FIGURE 6.18 Examples of piercing
operations.
Cogging Operation
FIGURE 6.19 Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar. With
simple tools, the thickness and cross-section of a bar can be reduced by multiple cogging
operations. Note the barreling after cogging. Blacksmiths use a similar procedure to reduce
the thickness of parts in small increments by heating the workpiece and hammering it
numerous times.
Roll Forging Operation
FIGURE 6.20 Schematic illustration of a roll forging (cross-rolling) operation. Tapered
leaf springs and knives can be made by this process with specially designed rolls. Source:
After J. Holub.
Manufacture of Spherical Blanks
FIGURE 6.21 Production of steel balls for bearings
by the skew-rolling process. Balls for bearings can
also be made by the forging process shown in Fig.
6.22.
FIGURE 6.22 Production of steel
balls by upsetting of a cylindrical
blank. Note the formation of flash.
The balls are subsequently ground
and polished for use as ball
bearings and in other mechanical
components.
Defects in Forging
1. Surface Cracking: due to excessive stresses and poor die design
2. Internal Cracks: due to oversized billets
3. Cold Shuts: due to small corner radii in the mold
4. Exposed grains: poor material flow and original blank orientation
Forgings are generally anisotropic due to various directions in the metal
flow.
Internal Defects In Forging
FIGURE 6.24 Internal defects produced in a forging because of an oversized billet. The
die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center of the part flows past the
FIGURE 6.23 Laps
formed by buckling of
the web during
forging.
die cavities are filled prematurely, and the material at the center of the part flows past the
filled regions as deformation continues.
Defect Formation In Forging
FIGURE 6.25 Effect of fillet radius on defect formation in forging. Small fillets (right side
of drawings) cause the defects. Source: Aluminum Company of America.
Forging A Connecting Rod
FIGURE 6.26 Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note
the amount of flash that is necessary to fill the die cavities properly.
Features Of A Forging Die
FIGURE 6.27 Standard terminology for various features of a typical forging die. FIGURE 6.27 Standard terminology for various features of a typical forging die.
Hot-Forging Temperature Ranges
Metal C F Metal C F
Aluminum alloys
Copper alloys
Nickel alloys
400-450
625-950
870-1230
750-850
1150-1750
1600-2250
Alloy steels
Titanium alloys
Refractory alloys
925-1260
750-795
975-1650
1700-2300
1400-1800
1800-3000
TABLE 6.3 Hot-forging temperature ranges for various metals.
Presses Used In Metalworking
FIGURE 6.28 Schematic illustration of various types of presses used in metalworking. The
choice of the press is an important factor in the overall operation.
[2] Rolling Operations
Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness (flat rolling) or changing the cross-section
(shape rolling) of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a set of rolls.
Rolling Operations
a. Flat Rolling
b. Shape Rolling
Plates: thickness>0.25
Sheets: 0.004<thickness<0.25 Sheets: 0.004<thickness<0.25
Foils: thickness<0.004
Ingot rolling is replaced by continuous casting/rolling with a higher efficiency and lower
cost.
Rolling can be performed as hot, warm, or cold forming operations.
Flat-And-Shape-
Rolling Processes
FIGURE 6.29
Schematic outline of
various flat-and-shape-
rolling processes.
Source: American Iron
and Steel Institute.
Changes In Grain Structure (HOT)
FIGURE 6.30 Changes in the grain structure of cast or large-grain wrought metals during
hot rolling. Hot rolling is an effective way to reduce grain size in metals for improved
strength and ductility. Cast structures of ingots or continuous castings are converted to a
wrought structure by hot working.
Mechanics of Flat-Rolling
w
o
and h
o
: initial width and thickness
w
f
and h
f
: final width and thickness
V
o
and V
f
: entry and exit velocities
V
r
: tangential velocity of roll
R: roll radius
FIGURE 6.31 Schematic illustration of the
flat-rolling process. A greater volume of
metal is formed by rolling than by any other
metalworking process.
L: roll gap
Neutral (No-Slip) Point
V
o
: entry velocity of the workpiece
V
f
: exit velocity of the workpiece
V
r
: tangential velocity of roll
: angle of acceptance
Forward Slip =
r f
V V
FIGURE 6.32 Relative velocity distribution
between roll and strip surfaces. Note the
difference in the direction of frictional forces.
The arrows represent the frictional forces
acting on the strip.
Forward Slip =
r
r f
V
V V
Notes
At the no-slip point: V
r
= V
workpiece
(neutral point)
Before the neutral point: V
r
> V
workpiece
After the neutral point: V
r
< V
workpiece
Pressure Distribution in Rolling (1)
FIGURE 6.34 Pressure distribution in the roll gap as a function of the
coefficient of friction. Note that as friction increases, the neutral point
shifts toward the entry. Without friction, the rolls slip, and the neutral
point shifts completely to the exit.
Pressure Distribution in Rolling (2)
FIGURE 6.35 Pressure distribution in the roll gap as a function of reduction in
thickness. Note the increase in the area under the curves with increasing reduction
in thickness, thus increasing the roll-separating force.
Effects of Front And Back Tension
FIGURE 6.36 Pressure distribution as a function of front and back tension. Note the
shifting of the neutral point and the reduction in the area under the curves with increasing
tension.
Forces and Power
Draft = h = h
o
h
f
=
2
. R = tan (angle of acceptance)

= Y w L F . .
Y Y 15 . 1 =

h R L = .
HP
FLN
P Power
2
= =
|
|

\
|
=
f
o
h
h
ln
n
K
Y
n
+
=
1
.
HP P Power
000 , 33
= =
/
2
.
P
L F
T Torque = = =
Notes on Force Calculations
As friction increases, the draft, forces, power and the damage to surface
finish increase.
Roll forces can be reduced by:
reducing friction
Reducing rolls size
Reducing draft Reducing draft
Applying tension forces (back, front, or both)
Diverse effects of roll forces:
Rolls deflection
Rolls flattening
Problems in Rolling Operations
1. Rolls Deflection: forces bend rolls elastically, this results in thicker
parts at the center (CROWN), which can be reduced by:
Grinding rolls thicker at the center (CAMBER)~0.01, or
Bending rolls by applying moments at the end
2. Roll Flattening: results in larger roll radius, and hence larger contact
area, which results in larger rolling forces for the same rolling draft.
3. Plastic deformation of rolls (Thermal Camber)
4. Stretch of roll stand (low rigidity)
5. Spreading, especially with high thickness/width ratio. Solution: edger
mills.
Roll Deflection and Spreading
FIGURE 6.37 (a) Bending of straight
cylindrical rolls (exaggerated) because of the
roll force. (b) Bending of rolls, ground with
camber, that produce a sheet of uniform
thickness during rolling.
FIGURE 6.38 Increase in the width
of a strip (spreading) in flat rolling.
Spreading can be similarly observed
when dough is rolled with a rolling
pin.
Workpiece Defects
1. Wavy edges: due to roll bending
2. Surface cracks: due to poor ductility and/or low rolling temeperature
3. Alligatoring: due to defects in the original cast
4. Residual stresses (only when not desired): the type of these stresses
are:
Tensile in the middle/compressive at surface when using small Tensile in the middle/compressive at surface when using small
rolls or draft
Compressive in the middle and tensile on the surface when using
large rolls or draft.
Workpiece Defects In Flat Rolling
FIGURE 6.39 Schematic illustration of typical defects in flat rolling: (a)wavy edges; (b)
zipper cracks in the center of strip; (c) edge cracks; (d) alligatoring.
Residual Stresses in Flat Rolling
FIGURE 6.40 The effect of roll radius on the type of residual stresses developed in flat
rolling: (a) small rolls, or small reduction in thickness; and (b) large rolls, or large reduction
in thickness.
Methods of Roller Leveling
FIGURE 6.41 Schematic illustration of methods of roller leveling. These processes are
used to flatten rolled sheets.
Various Roll Arrangements
FIGURE 6.42 Schematic illustration of various roll arrangements: (a) two high; (b) three
high; (c) four high; (d) cluster; (e) tandem rolling with three stands; (f) planetary.
Cluster Mill
FIGURE 6.43 Schematic illustration of a cluster (Sendzimir) mill. These mills are very
rigid and are used in rolling thin sheets of high-strength materials, with good control of
dimensions.
Shape Rolling
FIGURE 6.44 Stages in
shape rolling of an H-section
part. Various other structural
sections, such as channels and
I-beams, are also rolled by this
process.
Ring-Rolling
FIGURE 6.45 (a) Schematic illustration of a ring-rolling operation. Reducing the thickness
results in an increase in the parts diameter. (b) Examples of cross-sections that can be
formed by ring rolling.
Thread-Rolling Processes
FIGURE 6.46 Thread-rolling processes: (a) flat dies and (b) two-roller dies. These
processes are used extensively in making threaded fasteners at high rates of production.
Machined And Rolled Threads
FIGURE 6.47 (a) Schematic illustration of machined or rolled threads. (b) Grain-flow lines in machined
and rolled threads. Unlike machined threads, which are cut through the grains of the metal, rolled threads
follow the grains and are stronger, because of the cold working involved.
Mannesmann Process
FIGURE 6.48 Cavity formation by secondary tensile stresses in a solid round bar and its
use in the rotary-tube-piercing process. This procedure uses the principle of the
Mannesmann mill for seamless tube making. The mandrel is held in place by the long rod,
although techniques have been developed in which the mandrel remains in place without the
rod.
[3] Extrusion Processes
Extrusion Processes
1. Direct Extrusion
2. Indirect Extrusion
3. Hydrostatic Extrusion
4. Impact Extrusion 4. Impact Extrusion
5. Lateral Extrusion
Types Of Extrusion
FIGURE 6.49 Types of
extrusion. (a) direct; (b)
indirect; (c) hydrostatic;
(d) impact.
Extrusion
FIGURE 6.51 Schematic illustration of three
different types of metal flow in direct extrusion.
FIGURE 6.50 Extrusion and
examples of products made by
sectioning off extrusions. Source:
Kaiser Aluminum.
different types of metal flow in direct extrusion.
(a) Ideal: no-friction at the billet-container-die
interfaces
(b) Typical: friction at the billet-container-die
interfaces
(c) High container wall-billet friction
Extrusion Parameters
1. die angle ()
2. extrusion-ratio (R)
3. circumscribing-circle-diameter (CCD): the
diameter of the smallest circle into which the
extruded cross-section will fit.
4. shape factor (ratio of the perimeter to the cross- 4. shape factor (ratio of the perimeter to the cross-
sectional area)
5. billet temperature
6. ram speed
7. type of lubricant
Extrusion Force/Power Calculations
=
=
|
|

\
|
=
|
|

\
|
=
=
1
1
0
.
) ln( ln ln
Y u
R
L
L
A
A
A
A
R
o
f
f
o
f

Extrusion Ratio
Absolute value of the true strain
Energy dissipation per unit volume (for perfectly plastic materials)
|
|

\
|
+ =
= =
= = =
0
2
7 . 1 .
) ln( .
. . . . .
D
L
R Y P
R Y u P
L A p L F u L A Work
o o o o o
Extrusion pressure (ideal no friction). For strain-hardening
materials, use average flow stress Y
Extrusion pressure (friction between die and billet only)
Work supplied by the ram force (F), which
travels a distance L
o
Extrusion Pressure
FIGURE 6.52 Schematic
illustration of typical extrusion
pressure as a function of ram
travel: (a) direct extrusion and (b)
indirect extrusion. The pressure in
direct extrusion is higher because
of frictional resistance in the
chamber as the billet moves
toward the die.
FIGURE 6.53 Schematic illustration of extrusion
force as a function of die angle: (a) total force; (b)
ideal force; (c) force required for redundant
deformation; (d) force required to overcome
friction. Note that there is an optimum die angle
where the total extrusion force is a minimum.
Effect of Temperature and Ram Speed
o
o
f o
o o
C Y
R
D
V
R
D D
D V
ln
6
ln
tan 6
3 3
2
= =
=

&
&
&
Average true
strain rate
Average true strain
rate when Do>>D
f
and a 45 die angle
Average flow stress
FIGURE 6.54 Schematic illustration of the
effect of temperature and ram speed on
extrusion pressure. Compare with Fig. 2.11.
o
A P F
D
L
R Y P
C Y
.
2
7 . 1 .
0
=
|
|

\
|
+ =
= =
&
Average flow stress
considering strain rate
Extrusion Force
Die pressure
assuming =45
Extrusion Constant
P=K
e
*ln(R)
FIGURE 6.55 Extrusion constant, K
e
, for various materials as a function of temperature.
Source: After P. Loewenstein, ASTME Paper SP63-89.
Cold and Impact Extrusion
FIGURE 6.56 Examples of cold
extrusion. Arrows indicate the
direction of material flow. These
parts may also be considered as
forgings.
FIGURE 6.57 (a) Impact extrusion of a
collapsible tube (Hooker process).(b) Two
examples of products made by impact
extrusion, these parts may also be made
by casting, forging, and machining,
depending on the dimensions and
materials involved and the properties
desired. Economic considerations are also
important in final process selection.
Notes on Extrusion Practices
1. Cold Extrusion has the following advantages over hot extrusion: better mechanical properties (due to
work hardening), better dimensional accuracy (little finishing operations) and surface finish (no
oxide film), and high production rates at relatively low cost. However cold extrusion requires more
expensive tooling (high hardness, strength, toughness, and fatigue strength), complex lubrication and
cooling process, and high capacity presses.
2. Hydrostatic extrusion requires much lower forces due to the increased ductility of the material
(suitable for brittle materials), and the low friction. Also, it is possible to use low die angles as well
as high extrusion ratios.
3. Metal flow in the die influences the quality and mechanical properties of the parts.
4. Extrusion ratio (R) can go up to 400:1 4. Extrusion ratio (R) can go up to 400:1
5. Coaxial extrusion (cladding) is possible when the strength and ductility of both metals are
compatible.
6. Hot extrusion: low forces, excessive die wear (can be reduced with preheated dies), non-uniform
deformation (can be reduced with preheated dies), oxide film on the billet (reduced by a smaller ram
than the container), poor surface finish due to surface oxidation.
7. Dead-metal zones produce extrusions with bright finishes
8. Die materials are generally hot-work die steels, coated with Zicronia to extend the die life.
Defects in Extrusion
Three principal defects in extrusion:
(1) Surface Cracking
Cause: too high extrusion temperature, friction or speed (intergranular)
or at low temperature due to periodic sticking of the extrudate and the die land (knows
as bamboo defect) especially during hydrostatic extrusion. Can be reduced by
increasing the extrusion speed.
(2) Extrusion defects (pipe, tailpipe, and fishtailing) (2) Extrusion defects (pipe, tailpipe, and fishtailing)
Cause: metal flow on the container wall draw surface oxides and impurities towards the
center of the billet. Can be reduced by modifying the flow pattern to more homogeneous
by reducing friction and minimizing the temperature gradient.
(3) Internal Cracking (chevron cracking or centerburst)
Cause: hydrostatic (secondary) tensile stresses at the centerline of the deformation zone.
Can be reduced reduced by adjusting the extrusion parameters (die angle, extrusion
ratio, friction) so the the deformation zones around the die overlap.
Extrusion Pressure/Extrusion Ratio
FIGURE 6.58 Extrusion pressure as a function of
the extrusion ratio for an aluminum alloy. (a)
Direct extrusion, = 90. (b) Hydrostatic
extrusion, = 45. (c) Hydrostatic extrusion, =
22.5. (d) Ideal homogeneous deformation, 22.5. (d) Ideal homogeneous deformation,
calculated. Source: After H. Li., D. Pugh, and K.
Ashcroft.
Chevron Cracking
FIGURE 6.59 (a) Deformation zone in extrusion, showing rigid and plastic zones. Note
that the plastic zones do not meet, leading to chevron cracking. The same observations are
also made in drawing round bars through conical dies and drawing flat sheet plate through
wedge-shaped dies. Source: After B. Avizur. (b) Chevron cracking in round steel bars
during extrusion. Unless the part is inspected properly, such internal detects may remain
undetected and possibly cause failure of the part in service.
Extrusion of Seamless Tube
FIGURE 6.60 Extrusion of a seamless tube. The hole in the billet may be prepunched or
pierced, or it may be generated during extrusion.;
Extrusion of Complicated Shapes
FIGURE 6.61 (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for aluminum extension
ladders. This part is 8 mm (5/16in.) thick and is sawed from the extrusion. (See Fig. 6.50.)
(b) Components of various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes. Source for (b): K.
Laue and H. Stenger, Extrusion-Processes, Machinery, Tooling, ASM International, 1981.
Used with permission.
[4] Drawing Operations
Drawing is similar to extrusion, except pulling through a die is used
instead of pushing. It can be used to make wires as small as 0.001 in
diameter.
Process Parameters
A
o
, A
f
initial and final diameters
= the die angle
FIGURE 6.62 Variables in
drawing round rod or wire.
= the die angle
F = Drawing Force

d
= Drawing Stress
= coefficient of friction
Mechanics of Wire Drawing
|
|

\
|
=
f
o
d
A
A
Y ln .
Ideal deformation: No friction and No redundant work
Y = Yield Stress
f d
A F . =
(1) Perfectly Plastic materials
(2) Strain Hardening materials
FIGURE 6.63 Variation in strain and
flow stress in the deformation zone in
drawing. Note that the strain increases
rapidly toward the exit. The reason is that
when the exit diameter is zero, the true
strain reaches infinity. The point Y
wire
represents the yield stress of the wire.
1
ln .
1
+
=
|
|

\
|
=
n
K
Y
A
A
Y
n
f
o
d

(2) Strain Hardening materials

f d
A F . =
Mechanics of Wire Drawing (continued)
(
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+ =

cot
1 .
tan
1 .
o
f
d
A
A
Y
1
1 .
tan
1 .
1
cot
+
=
(
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+ =
n
K
Y
A
A
Y
n
o
f
d

Ideal deformation with friction (No redundant work)
Y = Yield Stress
(1) Perfectly Plastic materials (2) Strain Hardening materials
1 +
=
n
Y
Inhomogeneous Deformation with friction (and redundant work)
(
(

+
|
|

\
|
|

\
|
+ =

\
|

+
(
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+ =

3
3
ln . 1 .
1
3 3
4
1 .
tan
1 .
2
cot
f
o
d
o
f
d
A
A
Y
r
r
A
A
Y
Estimation for small die angles only
Die Pressure
n
f
f
K Y
Y p

. =
=
Die pressure at and point along the die contact length
=
d
at the die exit
FIGURE 6.65 Variation in the drawing stresses and die contact pressure
along the deformation zone. Note that as the drawing stress increases, the
die pressure decreases. This condition can be observed from the yield
criteria, described in Section 2.11. Note the effect of back tension.
Drawing at elevated temperature (strain
rate effect)

&
A
A
D
V
f
o
o
o
|
|

\
|
= ln
6

&
C Y =
Optimum Die Angle
There is an optimum die angle
at which the drawing force is a
minimum. The optimum die
angle increases with %
FIGURE 6.66 The effect of reduction in cross-sectional area on the
optimum die angle increases with reduction. Source: After J. G.
Wistreich.
angle increases with %
reduction in diameter.
Maximum Reduction per pass
The maximum allowed drawing stress is the yield
stress of the existing material. Therefore, there is a
maximum strain (reduction) per pass.
For a perfectly plastic material, the maximum
reduction in cross sectional area is 63% (where
1
=1). reduction in cross sectional area is 63% (where
1
=1).
For a strain hardening material, the maximum
reduction in cross sectional area can be calculated as:
( ) 1
1
+
=
n
e
Tube Drawing
FIGURE 6.67 Various methods of tube drawing.
Defects is Drawing Operations
1. Center cracking is caused by inhomogeneous plastic deformation
which increases by increasing the die angle, decreasing the reduction
per pass, increasing friction, and the presence of inclusions.
2. Seams, longitudinal scratches/folds in the material which can open up
during subsequent forming operations.
3. Residual stresses (transverse, longitudinal, radial) due to
inhomogeneous deformation. Very light reductions leaves
compressive residual stresses on the workpiece surface which
improves fatigue strength.
Residual Stresses
FIGURE 6.68 Residual stresses in cold-
drawn AISI 1045 carbon steel round rod:
T = transverse direction
L = longitudinal direction
R = radial direction.
Source: After E. S. Nachtman.
Drawing Dies
FIGURE 6.69 Terminology for a
typical die for drawing round rod or
wire.
FIGURE 6.70 Schematic illustration of
a typical wear pattern in a wire-drawing
die.
Rotary Swaging
Also known as Rotary Forging, where a
solid rod or a tube is reduced in diameter
by the reciprocating radial movement of
two or four dies driven by a set of rollers
in a cage.
FIGURE 6.71 Schematic illustration of the swaging process: (a) side view and (b)
front view. (c) Schematic illustration of roller arrangement, curvature on the four
radial hammers (that give motion to the dies), and the radial movement of a hammer
as it rotates over the rolls.
in a cage.
Rotary Swaging (continued)
Mandrels are used to control the internal
diameter and/or shape (example
gun/rifle barrels).
The workpiece diameter is limited to 2
inches, while the length is limited to the
length of the mandrel.
Generally performed at room
temperature.
FIGURE 6.72 Reduction of outer and inner diameters of tubes by swaging. (a) Free
sinking without a mandrel. The ends of solid bars and wire are tapered (pointing) by this
process in order to feed the material into the conical die. (b) Sinking on a mandrel.
Coaxial tubes of different materials can also be swaged in one operation.
Cross-Sections Produced By Swaging
FIGURE 6.73 (a) Typical cross-sections produced by swaging tube blanks with a constant wall
thickness on shaped mandrels. Rifling of small gun barrels can also be made by swaging, using a
specially shaped mandrel. The formed tube is then removed by slipping it out of the mandrel. (b) These
parts can also be made by swaging.
Die Failures
Failure of dies in metal forming operations results from one or more of the
following causes:
1. Improper die design
2. Defective die materials
3. Improper heat treatment and finishing operations
4. Improper installation, assembly, and alignment
5. Overheating and heat checking
6. Excessive wear
7. Overloading, misuse, and improper handling
Dies can fail by cracking, chipping, wear, heat checking (from thermal cycling),
or deformation (especially in hot working)
Space Shuttle Launch
FIGURE 6.74 The Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched by two strap-on solid rocket
boosters. Source:NASA
Solid Rocket Booster
FIGURE 6.75 Assembly of steel case segments to form a solid rocket booster. Note that
nose of the rocket casing is below the platform level. Source: NASA.
Forming Processes For Rocket Casings
FIGURE 6.76 The forming processes involves in the manufacture of solid rocket casings
for the U.S. Space Shuttle.