(Ch 31) and homeostasis (Ch 40.

1) (references to 9th ed)

Study Questions on Animal Body Plans

1. Review Fig 31.1 Phylogeny of Animals. Be familiar with the synapomorphies added at each node. Synapomprphies that we should note: 1. 2 embryonic cell layers + radial symmetry 2. 3 embryonic cell layers + bilateral symmetry 3. Protostomes + Deuterostomes 4. Exoskeleton molting 5. Radialsymmetry appearing again in Echinoderms 6. Notochord 2. What traits are characteristic of animals? (31.1) Their type of cell junctions (tight junction, desmosomes, and gap junctions. Matrix with collagen and proteoglycans. Hetertrophs Internal Organs 3. If not all animals have these traits, on what basis do we classify an organism in the animal kingdom? (31.1) Phylogenetic analyses and gene sequences. 3. What features of embryonic developmental patterns are used to classify animals? (31.1) Cleavage patterns which are influences by the configuration of the yolk. Cleavage patterns could be complete or incomplete. If complete cleavage occurs, it could be radial cleavage or spiral cleavage (mutation of the radial one). Another patterns is the number of cell layers during the embryonic development. The number of cell layers could be 2(diploblastic) or 3(triploblastic).

4. What are four key features of animal body plans? How does each of these affect the way an animal moves? (31.2) 1. Symmetry 2. Body Cavity: acoelomates typically move by beating cilia;pseudocoelomates have some control of fluids in their body cavities, allowing them to have more movements than acoelomates; coelomates have more control of movement out of all. 3. Segmentation: allows even more control over movement since it allows the animal to alter its shape in complex ways. Segments could be controlled independently. 4. External appendages: could be used for walking swimming, etc. 5.Describe the 5 major strategies animals use to acquire food. Why are these strategies not used as a basis for classification? (31.3)

1. Filter feeders capture small organisms delivered to them by their environment. 2. Herbivores eat plants or parts of plants. 3. Predators capture and eat other animals that typically are relatively large. 4. Parasites live in or on other, generally much larger, organisms from which they obtain energy and nutrients. 5. Detritivores actively feed on dead organic material. Animals have many ways of acquiring food. Filter feeders strain food particles from the water or air. Herbivores have digestive adaptations that allow them to eat plants, whereas predators are physically adapted to capture and subdue other animals (prey) and consume them. Parasites obtain their nutrition from a host organism. Detritivores consume decaying organic matter and make important nutrients available for use by other organisms. 6. What adaptations would be needed by an animal that eats plants? (31.3) Long, complex guts to digest them. 7. What adaptations would be needed by an animal that captures prey for food? (31.3) Sensative sensory organs that allow predators to locate their prey. They also have sharp claws and teeth which allow them to capture and subdue their prey. 8. What purposes can a larval stage fulfill in an animals life cycle? (31.4) Dispersal 9. What adaptations do parasites have that make them suited for their life cycle? (31.4) Many are hermaphrodites; they are long and thin, meaning they have a large surface area to volume ratio. This facilitates nutrient exchange across their skin. 10. What trade-offs are part of a colonial life style? (31.4) The characteristics an animal has in any one life cycle stage may improve its performance in one activity but reduce its performance in another. This is a situation known as a tradeoff. An animal that is good at filtering small food particles from the water, for example, probably cannot capture large prey. Similarly, energy devoted to building protective structures such as shells cannot be used for growth. Some major trade-offs can be seen in animal reproduction. Some animals produce large numbers of small eggs, each with a small energy store. Other animals produce a small number of large eggs, each with a large energy store. With a fixed amount of available energy, a female animal can produce

many small eggs or a few large eggs, but she cannot produce many large eggs. Thus there is a trade-off between the number of offspring produced and the energy resources each offspring receives from its mother. The larger the energy store in an egg, the longer an offspring can develop before it must either find its own food or be fed by its parents. Birds of all species lay relatively small numbers of relatively large eggs, but incubation periods vary. 11. Sponges Describe their body structure and how it is adaptive for their lifestyle. What moves water through their body? What purpose do spicules serve? (31.5) They are single layered (not a distinct embryonic layer) and have specialized cells. They have hard skeletal elements called spicules,which are supporting structures. A flagellum in their collar cells known as choanocytes moves water through their bodies. 13. Comb jellies have rows of fused cilia, called ___comb plates or ctenes_______, used for what purpose? ___swimming in the direction of the mouth_________ In what ways are comb jellies different from cnidarian jellyfish? (31.5) Comb jellies do not have nemocysts. 14. Name several animals that are Cnidarians. What is their basic body plan? What purposes does the gastrovascular cavity serve? (name 4) What structure is a unique feature of Cnidarians? (31.5) Corals, hydras, jellyfish, sea anemones, sea whips and sea fans. They are bilateral and are diploblastic. The gastro vascular cavity, as the name suggests, functions in both digestion and the distribution of nutrients and particles to all parts of the body. Nematocysts is unique among cnidarians. 15. Explain the polyp and medusa stages of cnidarian life cycles. Which is produced by asexual reproduction? By sexual reproduction? (31.5) The life cycle of most cnidarians has two distinct stages: a sessile polyp stage and a motile medusa. A fertilized egg develops into a free-swimming larval planula, which settles to the bottom and develops into a polyp. Medusa develops asexually within an enlarged polyp. The medusa is the sexual reproductive stage, producing eggs and sperm in organs called gonads. 16. Coral reefs suffering from pollution will bleach and lose their ability to photosynthesize. Given that corals are animals, how could this be? (31.5) Corals flourish in clear, nutrient-poor tropical waters. They grow well in such environments because unicellular photosynthetic dinoflagellates live endosymbiotically within their cells. These dinoflagellates provide the corals with products of photosynthesis; the corals, in turn, provide the dinoflagellates with nutrients and a place to live. This endosymbiotic relationship explains why reef-forming corals are restricted to clear surface waters, where light levels are high enough to support photosynthesis. Coral reefs throughout the world are threatened both by global warming,

which is raising the temperatures of shallow tropical ocean waters, and by polluted runoff from development on adjacent shorelines. Warming can lead to the loss of coral endosymbionts, resulting in coral bleaching, and an over-abundance of nitrogen in runoff gives an advantage to algae, which overgrow and eventually smother the corals. 17. If the water around corals becomes higher in nitrogen, they end up dying. Why? That is, an excessive supply of nitrogen (which can be thought of as a fertilizer) can paradoxically lead to nutrient starvation. It does this by over-fertilizing the symbiotic algae on which corals depend, making them grow more quickly than the more limited supply of phosphorus can support. Eventually the algae starve, and subsequently the corals die too.

Study Questions for Deuterostomes

Ch 33 1. Describe the 3 major developmental characteristics that define the deuterostomes. What other traits do they have in common? (33.1) 1. Radial cleavage 2. The mouth forms at the opposite end of the blastopore, and the blastopore devolps into the anus. 3. Development of coelom from mesodermal pockets that bud off from the gastrula. Characrteristics in common 4. Skeletal support are internal 5. Triploblastic 6. Bilaterals (except sea stars)

2. Describe the body plan of an echinoderm. Include an explanation of oral and aboral sides. Why arent they classified with other animals that have radial symmetry? (32.2) While many echinoderms begin life as a bilateral larva, later in life they take a radical change of course. They become radial with five-part symmetry and no central brain. Echinoderms also generally have spines, which are pronounced in sea urchins, but not as obvious in some of the other echinoderms. They have an oral side containing the mouth and an aboral surface containing the anus. They are not classified with other animals that have radial symmetry because it is triploblastic, unlike other radial animals which are diploblastic. This is evident I the echinoderms larva stage. 3. Explain the multiple functions of the water vascular system. How does this system operate to provide locomotion? (32.2)

The water vascular system in echinoderms is a network of waterfilled canals, which lead to extensions called tube feet. This system functions in: Gas exchange, locomotion, and feeding. Water enters the ampullae (bulb-like structures) from the water vascular system and forces water into tube feet (at least in sea stars) and creates movement allowing for locomotion

4. Describe several different ways in which echinoderms use tube feet to catch prey. (32.2) Sea Stars use their tube feet to pry apart mussels and they then insert their stomach into the shells to eat the prey. The brittle star eats by collecting food from the current with their tube feet and put it into their mouth. 5. What are hemichordates and what is their body plan? Name an example. (33.2) Hemichordates are made up by acron worms and pterobranchs. Their bodies is organized in the proboscis (to capture prey), collar (mouth) and trunk (othe body parts). 6. What are the defining traits of chordates? Explain why, although humans do not have all these traits at birth, they are classified as chordates. (33.3) These traits or characteristics are present in all chordates in at least one stage in their development. 1. A rod called the notochord 2. A hollow nerve chord 3. Post-anal tail 4. Pahryngeal slits. During development, human embryos have both gill slits and a post-anal tail. Even though these characteristics are lost in adults, because they existed at one point during development, humans are classified as chordates. The only two characteristic retained in adulthood are the notochord and hollow nerve chord.

7. Describe pharyngeal slits and their purpose. (33.3) Pharyngeal slits are filter-feeding organs found in nonvertebrate chordates (lancelets and tunicates) andhemichordates living in aquatic environments. Pharyngeal slits become gill slits in vertebrates such as fish. These gills open to outside and do gas exchange 8. Describe the body plan of sea squirts (tunicates). How do they get food? (33.3)

It has a bag-like body, which is surrounded by a tough tunic (composed of proteins and complex polysaccharides). Its pharynx is enlarged into a pharyngeal basket through which water passes to filter prey.

9.Example of cyclostomes are ________lampreys____ and ______hagfishes_____, neither of which has a _____jaw______, as do other vertebrates. How do these two groups of animals get their food? (33.3) Hagfishes burrow in the ocean mud , from which they extract small prey. They also scavenge on dead or dying fish. Lampreys are ectoparasites that attach to living fish and use their jawless mouth to suck blood and flesh. 10. What are the diagnostic features of vertebrates? (33.3) All vertebrates share the following characteristics: Four key features characterize vertebrates: 1. An anterior skull with a large brain. 2. A rigid internal skeleton supported by the vertebral column. 3. Internal organs suspended in a coelom. 4. A well-developed circulatory system driven by a ventral heart. 11. What advantages and challenges does an internal skeleton provide? (33.3) Advantages: It allows for flexibility and can grow throughout the organisms life. Disadvantages: Does not give that armor-plate protection. 12., What animals are included in the Chondrichthyans? How do they differ from other vertebrates? (33.3) It includes sharks, rays, skates, and chimaeras. They differ from other vertebrates in that their skeleton is made up of cartilage, not bones. 13. What is a swim bladder and what is its purpose? From what other organ did the swim bladder evolve? (33.3) The swim bladder is an internal gas-filled organ that contributes to the ability of a fish to control its buoyancy, and thus to stay at the current water depth without having to waste energy in swimming. Another function of the swim bladder is the use as a resonating chamber to produce or receive sound. The swim bladder originated from lung-like sacs as an outpocketing from the gut. 14. Describe several adaptations of ray-finned fishes. (33.3) They have a bony skeleton. They have a flat, thin, and light weight scales which provide protection or enhance movement through the water. The operculum improves the flow of water over the gills. A lateral line to detect water movements and currents.

15. What is the adaptation of Coelocanths that made it possible for vertebrates to move onto land? (33.4) Two pairs of muscular jointed fins. 16. Why do amphibians generally live in moist environments? (2 reasons) (33.4) Because they lose water fast through the skin when exposed to dry air. Also because their eggs are enclosed in a membranous envelope that cannot prevent water loss in dry condition. 17. Explain the difference between metamorphosis and paedomorphosis. Metaporphosis is the rapid transformation of a larva into an adult that occurs in certain animals, for example the stage between tadpole and frog. Paedomorphosis occurs when the organism retains in the juvenile form during adult life. 18. Vertebrates colonized drier land when they acquired what 3 adaptations? (33.4) The 3 water-conserving traits are: 1. Amniote egg. 2. A tough, impermeable skin, covered with scales or modifications of scales such as hair and feathers, greatly reduced water loss. 3. Vertebrate excretory organs, such as the kidneys, which allowed amniotes to excrete concentrated urine, ridding the body of waste nitrogen without losing a large amount of water in the process

Study Questions for Fertilization and Embryogenesis

Ch 43.1, 2; Ch 44.1, .2, .3 1. When might asexual reproduction be advantageous compared to sexual reproduction? (43.1) When the environment does not change and when it produces genotypes that are successful in that particular environment. Asexual reproduction also requires less energy. 2.Define parthenogenesis and explain how it can be the basis of sex determination. (43.1) It is a mode of asexual reproduction in arthropods, some fishes, amphibians and reptiles and it results in the production of offspring from unfertilized eggs. In some species, parthenogenesis is the mechanism that determines sex. This occurs with bees ant, and wasps where the unfertilized eggs are males. 3. Compare the formation of sperm with that of eggs, noting similarities and differences. (43.2) Gametogenesis: Male and female germ cells proliferate by mitosis and produce diploid spermatogonia and oogonia that mature into primary spermatocytes and oocytes before

entering meiosis. Spermatogonia continue to divide by mitosis in adults, producing a steady supply of spermatocytes that divide meiotically to produce haploid spermatids, which differentiate into sperm. In mammals, oogonia cease division in the embryo, and primary oocytes remain arrested in prophaseI of meiosis until they are ovulated and fertilized. Each oocyte will produce one haploid ootid which matures into an ovum. 4. Describe the process of fertilization of sea urchin eggs. (43.2, Fig 43.4) In the sea urchin, before a sperm could fertilized an egg, it must first penetrate the eggs outermost membrane called the jelly coat. When a sperm touches the coat, it begins a process called acrosomal reaction. In the first step of the reaction, the sperms plasma membrane and acrosomal membrane fuse together, releasing acrosomal enzymes on to the eggs jelly envelope. These enzymes are hydrolytic and begin to digest the eggs jelly coat. A thin extension called the acrosomal process grows out of the sperm to meet the vitelline layer (or vitelline envelope)of the egg. The acrosomal process contains actin filaments that lengthens through a process of polymerization. The acrosomal process is covered by proteins called binding, which attach to the receptors found on the vitilline layer of the egg. The receptor on the vitilline layer of one species only recognize the binding protein of sperm of the same species. So, the interaction of the binding proteins of the sperm and the receptors of the egg is specie-specific. The binding of the sperms biding to the eggs vitilline layers receptors complete the acrosomal reaction and allows the sperms plasma membrane to fuse with that of the egg. After fusion, sodium ions flow into the cell. This sudden influx of Na+ ions changes the polarity of the eggs membrane so that the interior is positively charged, relative to the exterior. The positive charge prevent other cells from fusing. This change in polarity is the fast block to polyspermy. The fusion also triggers the egg to release a wave of calcium ions from intracellular stores into the cytoplasm, beginning at the site of site entry. The calcium activates the egg and initiates, both, development and slow block to polyspermy. During the slow block, cortical granules fuse with the plasma membrane. During the slow block to polyspermy, the membrane polarity goes back to normal. The contents released from the cortical granules include enzymes, some of which break the molecular connection between the vitellin layer and the plasma membrane. Other enzymes remove the eggs binding receptors. The chemicals released from the cortical granules cause water to flood into the vitellin layer by osmosis, raising the layer from the plasma membrane. Other chemicals harden the layer, now called a fertilization mmembrane, which prevents other sperm cells from entering. To bring the nucleus of the sperm into the egg, the egg produces a fertilization cone. The cone surrounds the nucleus and draws it in. Once inside, the haploid nucleus of the sperm envetually fuses with the eggs haploid nucleus to create a single diploid nucleus of the zygote. 5. What mechanisms ensure that only sperm from the same species as the egg will penetrate the egg? (43.2) Fast and slow block polyspermy. This sudden influx of Na+ ions changes the polarity of the eggs membrane so that the interior is positively charged, relative to the exterior. The positive charge prevent other cells from fusing. This change in polarity is the fast block to polyspermy.

The calcium activates the egg and initiates, both, development and slow block to polyspermy. During the slow block, cortical granules fuse with the plasma membrane. During the slow block to polyspermy, the membrane polarity goes back to normal. The contents released from the cortical granules include enzymes, some of which break the molecular connection between the vitellin layer and the plasma membrane. Other enzymes remove the eggs binding receptors. The chemicals released from the cortical granules cause water to flood into the vitellin layer by osmosis, raising the layer from the plasma membrane. Other chemicals harden the layer, now called a fertilization membrane, which prevents other sperm cells from entering. 6. What mechanisms prevent multiple sperm from entering the egg? Discuss both the fast-block and slow-block mechanisms. (43.2) See question 4 and 5 7. How do animals with external fertilization improve the chances of successful fertilization? (43.2) They produce huge numbers of gametes. 8. What changes in reproduction allowed vertebrates to be so successful on land? (43.2) The shelled egg or amniote egg and internal fertilization. 9. Compare the contributions of egg and sperm to a zygote. Comment on the consequences of their different contributions. (44.1) In most species, eggs are much larger than sperm. Egg cytoplasm is well stocked with organelles, nutrients, and a variety of molecules, including transcription factors and mRNAs. The sperm is little more than a DNA delivery vehicle. Nearly everything the embryo needs during its early stages of development comes from the mother. In addition to providing its haploid nucleus, the sperm makes another important contribution to the zygote in most speciesa centriole. 10. Describe the components of a frogs egg, using these terms: animal pole, vegetal pole, gray crescent. How is the location of the gray crescent determined? (44.1) Rearrangement of egg cytoplasm following fertilization is easily observed in some frog species because of pigments in the cytoplasm. The nutrients in an unfertilized frog egg are dense yolk granules that are concentrated by gravity in the lower halfof the egg, called the vegetal hemisphere. The haploid nucleus of the egg is located at the opposite end, in the animal hemisphere. The outermost (cortical) cytoplasm of the animal hemisphere is dark, and the underlying cytoplasm is lighter. Sperm-binding sites are localized on the surface of the animal hemisphere, so that is where the sperm enters the egg. When a sperm enters the egg, bilateral symmetry is imposed by creating an anteriorposterior axis. Cortical cytoplasm rotates toward the site of sperm entry. This rotation brings different regions of cytoplasm into contact with each other on opposite sides of the egg, producing a grey cytoplasmic band. This band, called the gray crescent, which marks the location of important developmental events in some species of amphibians. 11. Explain why the type of cleavage at early stages of embryogenesis is so important for subsequent development. (44.1)

Differences in patterns of early embryonic development reflect differences in the way the egg cytoplasm is organized and the form of their blastulas. This is important in the success for the embryo to grow. 12. Describe unique features of mammalian cleavage. Why is mammalian cleavage so different from other animals? (44.1) The blastomeres do not undergo mitosis at the same time, therefore the number of cells in the embryo does not increase in the regular (2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.) manner. The pattern of mammalian cleavage is rotational. Another unique feature of the slow, rotational mammalian cleavage is that gene products expressed during cleavage play roles in cleavage. 13. Why is mammalian cleavage so different? A key factor is that mammalian eggs contain no yolk and must derive all nutrients from the mother. Mammals are viviparous: the embryo develops within the uterus of the mother. 14. What are the three tissue layers created during gastrulation and what parts of the embryo do they form? (ch 44.2) The endoderm is the innermost germ layer, created as some blastomeres move to the inside of the embryo. The endoderm gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract, respiratory tract, pancreas, and liver. The ectoderm is the outer germ layer, formed from those cells remaining on the outside of the embryo. The ectoderm gives rise to the nervous system, including the eyes and ears; and to the epidermal layer of the skin and structures derived from skin, such as hair, feathers, nails or claws, sweat glands, oil glands, and even teeth and other tissues of the mouth. The mesoderm is the middle layer and is made up of cells that migrate between the endoderm and the ectoderm. The mesoderm contributes tissues to many organs, including the heart, blood vessels, muscles, and bones. 15. Describe and compare how gastrulation occurs in sea urchins and frogs. What features do these two processes have in common? (44.2) Sea urchin blastulas are one cell thik, unlike frogs blastula which is more than one. Gstrulation is more complex in amphibians. Gastrulation in reptiles and birds differs from that in sea urchins and frogs because the large amount of yolk in reptile and bird eggs causes the blastula to form a flattened disc of cells. 16. What tissue serves as the Organizer in frog embryos? By what means does it direct the determination of other cells? (44.2) The dorsal lip induces embryonic organization in frog embryos. More specifically, the cells of the dorsal blastopore lip can induce other cells to change their developmental fates. Transcription factors underlie the organizers actions. So, the dorsal lip of the amphibian blastopore is a critical site for cell determination. It has been called the primary embryonic organizer because it induces determination in cells that pass over it during gastrulation. 17. Describe cleavage and gastrulation in birds. Be sure to use these terms: epiblast, primitive groove, Hensenss node. What structure in amphibians is analogous to Hensens node? Why? (44.2)

Because their eggs contain a large yolk mass, bird and reptile embryos have a flattened blastodisc and display a pattern of gastrulation very different from that of amphibians. Cleavage in the chick embryo results in a flat, circular layer of cells called a blastodisc. Between the blastodisc and the yolk mass is a fluid-filled space. Some cells from the blastodisc break free and move into this space. These cells come together to form a continuous layer called the hypoblast, which will later contribute to extraembryonic membranes that will support and nourish the developing embryo. The overlying cells make up the epiblast, from which the embryo proper will form. Thus, the avian blastula is a flattened structure consisting of an upper epiblast and a lower hypoblast, which are joined at the margins of the blastodisc. The blastocoel is the fluid-filled space between the epiblast and hypoblast. Gastrulation begins with a thickening in the posterior region of the epiblast, caused by the movement of cells toward the midline and then forward along the midline The result is a midline ridge called the primitive streak. A depression called the primitive groove forms along the length of the primitive streak. The primitive groove functions as the blastopore, and cells migrate through it into the blastocoels to become endoderm and mesoderm. In the chick embryo, no archenteron forms, but the endoderm and mesoderm migrate forwardto form the gut and other structures. At the anterior end of the primitive groove is a thickening called Hensens node, which in birds, reptiles, and mammals is the equivalent of the dorsal lip of the amphibian dorsal blastopore lip. Many signaling molecules that have been identified in the frog organizer are also expressed in Hensens node. Some cells that pass over Hensens node become the notochord and organize the chick embryo in a manner similar to that of the frog embryo. 18. Explain the role of signaling molecules in determination of cells in the embryo. What are the sources of these signals? (44.2)
Signaling molecules interact to produce different combinations of signals that convey positional and temporal information. This information guides cells into different paths of determination and differentiation.

Studies of early gastrulas revealed that primary embryonic organizer activity is generated by the interaction of -catenin with signals coming from the vegetal cells. Together, they activate the expression of the transcription factor Goosecoid. 19. Describe the process of neurulation in frog embryos, using these terms: notochord, chordomesoderm, neural crest cells, neural tube. (44.3) Chordamesoderm forms a rod of mesoderm called the notochord, which extends down the center of the embryo. These cells also have important organizer functions. The notochord gives structural support to the developing embryo and is eventually replaced by the vertebral column. The organizing capacity of the chordamesoderm enables the overlying ectoderm to become neural ectoderm. At the start of neurulation, the ectoderm of the neural plate is flat. The neural plate invaginates and folds, forming a tube. Cells from the most lateral portions of the neural plate do not become part of the neural tube, but disassociate from it and becomes the neural crest. 20. What are somites and how do they develop? How are they related to body segmentation? (44.3) As the neural tube forms, mesodermal tissues gather along the sides of the notochord to form separate, segmented blocks of cells called somites. The somites produce cells that

will become the vertebrae, ribs, muscles of the trunk and limbs, and the lower layer of the skin. The notochord and neural crest cells participate in the segmental organization of mesoderm into structures called somites along the body axis. Rudimentary organs and organ systems form during these stages. 21. What are Hox genes? What do they control? (44.3 and Fig 19.19, 20.1) In vertebrates, the homeotic genes that control differentiation along the anteriorposterior body axis are called Hox genes. In vertebrates, Hox genes determine the pattern of anteriorposterior differentiation along the body axis in mammals. Other genes, such as sonic hedgehog, contribute to dorsal ventral differentiation.

Digestion
Ch 51 BIO 225 1. The amount of energy is measured in units called ______calories_______. Define energy budget and explain how it can be used to predict foraging behavior. (51.1)

2. What categories of molecules do animals need to ingest? Explain the purposes of each type of molecule. (51.1) Fats: Carbohydrates Proteins. 2. What are the 5 major processes that are part of digestion? Give a specific example of each process and organ in which it occurs. Ingestion: Food is taken in and broken down mechanically in the oral cavity by the teeth. Secretion: Salivary glands begin to secrete amylase once food is placed in the mouth. Mixing and movement: This is acoomplished Digestion: Physical and chemical means to break down complex organic molecules into smaller usable parts. Absorption: Puling in digested molecules into the cells of the digestive tract and then into the blood. Excretion: The removal of food waste materials form the body.

4. What advantages does a 2-opening tube digestive system have compared to a bag system with one opening? Which animal phyla have a gastrovascular cavity?

5. What role do teeth have in digestion? Describe the dentition of a carnivore versus an herbivore. (51.2) Carnivores have greatly enlarged canine teeth for gripping, for gripping, killing and tearing their prey. Herbivores use their incisors and canine teeth, which are found far forward on the lower jaw only, to tear leaves off plants. Their large molars and premolars then grind the plant matter. 6. What 3 functions are performed by saliva? (51.3) Amylase found in saliva begins the process of digestion by breaking down carbohydrates into small parts. Saliva helps form the bolus and lubricates the bolus as it is swallowed. Saliva protects mucosal surfaces of the oral cavity.

7. Describe how the structure of the stomach is suited for its functions. Name at least three features. (51.3) The stomach contains ruggae which allow the stomach to distend as food is stored. Gastric pits, which are deep folds in the stomach mucosal epithelium, allow a greater surface area for the secretion of pepsin, hydrochloric acid, and mucosal secretions. The stomachs smooth circular, longitudinal, muscle layers allow peristalsis to move food along the gut. Oblique muscle layers allow the food to be churned in the stomach.

8. What is an ulcer? What is heartburn? Explain the causes of each condition.(51.3) Stomach ulcers occur in places where the muscosal lining of the stomach is damaged. Stomach ulcers can lead to indigestion, heart burn, to gastroc bleeding, and cancer. A bacteria called Helicobacter Pilory (H. pylori) 9. What are the components of gastric juice? Describe the purpose of each component. (51.3, 4) It is a mixture of proteolytic enzymes such as pepsin, hydrochloric acid. Pepsin begins the digestion of proteins. HCL kills most ingested microorganisms.

10. What is peristalsis and in which parts of the digestive system does it occur? (51.3) Peristalsis propels the bolus from the mouth to the anus by coordinated actions of the circular and longitudinal muscle layers of the gut. 11. Describe pancreatic secretions that enter the digestive tract (exocrine) and the purpose of each component. (51.3) The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes such as pancreatic amylases to break down carbohydrates, lipases to break down fats, proteases such as trypsin to break down proteins, and nucleases to break down nucleotides. The pancreas also secretes bicarbonate ions to neutralize the pH of the chime that enters the duodenum.

12. The pancreas is also an endocrine gland and secretes two hormones directly into the bloodstream. What are they and what do they do? (51.4) Why is blood glucose level so important? The pancreas secretes insulin and glucagon. Insulin allows the uptake of glucose into the cell and glucagon stimulate the breakdown glycogen and to carryout gluconeogenesis. 13. What is the gall bladder? What role does it play in digestion? (51.3) The gallbladder stores bile which is produced in the liver. When fats enter the duodenum, the hormone CKK, stimulates the gallbladder to contract rhythmically to release bile which travels from the gall bladder, through the cystic duct to the common bile duct, and then joins the pancreatic duct until it reached the duodenum where the bile is released. 14. Describe the structure of the small intestine and how that helps it to perform its major functions, which are __digestion____ and _________absorption_____. The small intestines is long and has folds, with villi and microvillihave in its lining. This allows a large surface area for nutrient absorption. The duodenum part of the small intestines is where most digestion occurs. The jejunum and ileum is where most of the absorption occurs. 15. Describe the roles of the liver in metabolism. What other functions does it perform? (51.3, 4, and slides) The liver synthesizes bile salts from cholesterol and secretes these salts as bile + other substances, which are used to emulsify fat. It stores glycogen. It detoxifies the blood. It stores nutrients, and also converts nutrients to molecules needed by the body.

16. Compare the absorption pathway from the small intestine of proteins and sugars to that of lipids. (51.3) Dietary fats are emulsified by bile into small micelles that present a large surface area for lipases to break down fat into monoglycerides and fatty acids. The products of fat digestion are absorbed by intestinal mucosal cells, where they are resynthesized into triglycerides which are packaged with phospholipids and cholesterol in protein-coated chylomicrons, which then enter the lymphatic system. Sugars and proteins can be directly absorbed into the blood.

17. What are the 3 classes of lipoproteins and what roles do they have? (51.4) A lipoprotein is a particle made up of a core of hydrophobic fat and cholesterol and a hydrophilic protein covering, which allows the lipoprotein to be suspended in water or travel in the blood stream. Lipoproteins are synthesized in the liver. There 3 kinds of lipoproteins and they are classified according to their density. They are: High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) remove cholesterol from tissues and carry it to the liver, where it can be used to synthesize bile. HDL consists of about 50% protein, 35% lipids,and 15% cholesterol. These are the good lipoproteins, and their levels are higher in people who exercise and are fit. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) transport cholesterol around the body for use in biosynthesis and for storage. LDL consists of about 25% protein, 25% lipids, and 50% cholesterol. These are the bad lipoproteins associated with a high risk for cardiovascular disease. Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) contain mostly triglyceride fats, which they transport to fat cells in adipose tissues around the body. VLDL consists of about 2% protein, 94% lipids, and 3% cholesterol. These are the ugly, as they are associated with excessive fat deposition as well as a high risk for cardiovascular disease.

18. The major digestive function of the large intestine is _____water absorption_____________. 19. Describe three helpful roles performed by bacteria in our intestine. Bacteria help train the immune system to recognize pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria. Just having the bacteria there prevents other pathogenic species from taking up

the same space and so prevents some diseases. They also produce some vitamins notably biotin and vitamin K and some ferment carbohydrate foods which we could not otherwise digest 20. How do ruminants digest cellulose? (51.3) Herbivores such as ruminants rely on bacteria fermentation in two of their stomach chambers where the fermented bacteria produce cellulase. It is this cellulose which ultimately breaks down the cellulose. The ruminants regurgitates the grass, allowing further breakdown of the grass, and increasing thereby the surface area of exposed cellulose for bacteria to work on. 21. Predict the general structure of the digestive system of a newly discovered worm species that is an intestinal parasite of cats. How would you expect it to differ from that of a caterpillar that consumes grass? (51.2)

28. BMR stands for __Basal Metabolic Rate_________________ and is defined as what? It is the minimum rate of energy turnover in a mammal or awake bird that is not spending energy for thermoregulation. In other words, it is the energy required to maintain vital bodily function in a body at rest. 29. Why is BMR is affected by an organisms surface area? The greater the surface area, the greater the energy demands per unit of body surface area. 30. DDT is a lipid-soluble compound that is an effective pesticide. How has its solubility contributed to its record of bioaccumulation in organisms? (15.5) DDT is soluble in lipids (fats). This means that once an animals ingests a little DDT, it will mix in with its fat. And as we all know, all organisms (including human beings) have a certain amount of residual fat in their bodies. Once DDT get in there, it tends to stay. Because DDT stays in the body, it can build up in the body if the organism continues to eat food with DDT. This build-up of DDT is what causes a bioaccumulation of DDT in an organism.

Study Questions on Salt and Water Balance, Excretory Systems

1. Why is it important for animals to control the composition of their body fluids? (51.1)

Because it is important to conserve the necessary solutes and water and excrete what is in excess or toxic. To control our bodys pH level. 2. By what two methods is water moved across membranes? (51.1) Water moves by osmotic pressure (down a pressure gradient) and diffusion (up its concentration gradient). 3. Describe the 3 general steps used by excretory systems. (51.1)

Filtration of water and dissolved substances out of the blood in the glomeruli and into Bowman's capsule; Reabsorption of water and dissolved substances out of the kidney tubules back into the blood (note that this process prevents substances needed by the body from being lost in the urine); Secretion of hydrogen ions (H+), potassium ions (K+), urea, and certain drugs out of the blood and into the kidney tubules, where they are eventually eliminated in the urine.

4. Explain the salt and water balance challenges faced by a salmon fingerling as it moves from fresh water to marine, then back to its original stream for spawning. How does it meet these challenges?

When in fresh water, salmon must osmoregulate in order to keep water from getting into its cells and bursting. In the ocean it must osmoregulate in order to keep coming out of its body and dehydrating to death. In the ocean it must drink a lot of water in order to offset dehydration. Since it is also taking in a lot of Na ions, it has an enzyme that hydrolizes ATP and then use this energy to pump Na and Cl ions out of the salmons blood and into the oacean water. This same pump does the opposite in fresh water.
5. A new organism has been found living in an estuary. The osmolarity of its cells is the same as the brackish water, which varies between 200 and 350 mOsm. Based on this information, what term would describe this organism? (51.1)

Osmoconformer
6. Which nutrients (as in, biological polymers) produce waste molecules containing nitrogen? (51.2)

Proteins and Nucleic Acids

7. Name the 3 molecules used to eliminate excess nitrogen and explain the adaptive value of each molecule. (51.2)

Amonia (NH3), which allows for fast diffusion across aquatic vertebrates (except sharks and rays). It easy diffuses in water. Urea which is a conversion from ammonia can also be excreted without excreting too much water. This is ideal for animals that do not love in marine environments.

Uric acid is another conversion from ammonia and this is ideal for animals that do not only live outside a marine environment, but for animals that live in dry and arid environments where they cannot afford to lose much water.
8. Describe the structure of a flatworms excretory system. What purpose do the flame cells serve? (51.3)

The structure consists of tubules ending with flame cells. The combination of these two is called pronephridia. In the region of the flame cells, body fluid is filtered between the tubule cells. A pressure difference between the inside of the tubules and the extracellular fluid, is what causes extracellular fluid to be filtered into the tubules. The composition of the filtrate is modified by reabsorbing most ions back into the the extracellular fluid and allowing excess water and waste to be excreted through the excretory pores. So the purpose of the flame cell is to beat its celia in order to create a negative pressure. This negative pressure insde the tubules and the positive pressure created outside the tubules, in the extracellular fluid, is what allows the extracellular fluid to go into the tubules where it gets filtered.
9. Describe the structure of the excretory system of annelids. In which portions do filtration, reabsorption, and secretion occur? Note that secretion is not the same as excretion. Which of these steps is dependent upon the closed circulatory system? (51.3)

Each segment of the worm contain a pair metanephria. Each metanephridium begins as as a cilitated, funnel-like opening called the nephrostome, though which coelemic fluid flows in. The cilia in nephrostome help sweep coelemic fluid into nephridium. Once in the nephridium, the cells in the tubes secrete some molecules and reabsorb other molecules. What leaves the animal is nitrogenous wastes and other solutes.
10. Insects have a system of _______Malpighian__________ ___tubules________, blindended tubes that are attached to the ____junction of the midgut and hindgut________. These tubules actively transport ___uric acid__, ____sodium__, and ____potassium______ into the tubules from extracellular fluid. ___Water______ follows by osmosis and pushes the solutes into the___gut____. Which ions are reabsorbed? What is left to be excreted? Why is this system adaptive for insects? (51.3) Sodium, potassium and water are reabsorbed, except uric acid which eventually gets excreted along with other wastes in the rectum. 11. Compare the challenges of salt and water balance of terrestial animals to that of marine organisms. In what ways are the challenges similar? different? (51.1, 4)

Both must conserve water and excrete salts. One difference is that marine animals such as bony fish (osmoregulators) cannot excrete concentrated urine like terrestrial vertebrate animals do and to compensate for this, they are constantly excreting out NaCl they ingest when they eat. This NaCl is excreted out across their gill membranes. Other marine vertebrates such as sharks and rays are osmoconformers which allows them to maintain an extracellular osmolarity close to the osmolarity found in the ocean, and therefore do not lose much water. In order to excrete salt, they have a different approach

than bony fish. Sharks and rays excrete excess salts by having a gland in the rectum that actively secretes Na and Cl.
12. Explain why sharks are called osmoconformers. (51.4)

They are able to maintain an extracellular osmolarity close to the osmolarity found in the ocean.
13. What adaptations of reptiles allow them to live in very arid habitats? (51.4, 33.4)

They are amniotes, meaning they do not need water to reproduce, because they employ internal fertilization and lay eggs with shells that helps conserve water inside the egg. They also have dry skin, which retards water loss. They also excrete uric acid, which once again minimizes water loss.
14. Describe the basic components of a nephron, including its associated vascular tissue. Use these terms: glomerulus, Bowmans capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct, peritubular capillaries, vasa recta.

The human kidneys lie against the back wall of the abdominal cavity, in the region of the middle back. A highly organized internal structure is the basis for kidney function. Certain parts of the nephrons are in the organs outer region, called the cortex; other parts are in the internal region, called the medulla. The glomeruli filtrates the blood and pressure causes the filtrate to go into the Bowmans capsule. The filtrate then passes to the proximal convoluted tubules where water, sugar and Na and Cl and a.a. get reabsorbed back into the peritubular capillaries. The filtrate continues its way down the loop of Henle where even more water gets reabsorbed and then up the ascending loop of Henle where even more Na and Cl gets reabsorbed. Water gets more concentrated at the loop of Henle and starts to become less concentrated as it goes up the loop until it reached the distal convoluted tubules where more water starts being reabsorbed. This also occurs in the collecting duct, thereby resulting in concentrated urine.
15. In which portions of a nephron do the basic processes of filtration, reabsorption , and secretion occur? (51.4)

Filtration occurs at the glomerular capillaries. Reabsorption occurs at the proximal and distal convoluted tubules, as well as the loop of Henle and collecting duct. Secretion occurs in the proximal convoluted tubule.
16. What structures are involved in the process of countercurrent multiplier effect? What is the overall effect of this countercurrent on urine formation? (51.5) The loop of Henle is involved in this counter current multiplier effect. The end result is to make the filtrate more concentrate.

The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water but impermeable to solutes, due to the presence of aquaporin 1 in its tubular wall. Thus water moves across the tubular wall into the medullary space, making the urine hypertonic. The ascending limb is impermeable to water (because of a lack of aquaporin, a common transporter protein for water channels in all cells except the walls of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle) but permeable to solutes, but here Na+, Cl, and K+ are actively transported into the medullary space, making the filtrate hypotonic (with a higher water concentration). This constitutes the single effect of the countercurrent multiplication process. Active transport of these ions from the thick ascending limb creates an osmotic pressure drawing water from the descending limb into the hyperosmolar medullary space, making the filtrate hypertonic (with a lower water concentration). The countercurrent flow within the descending and ascending limb thus increases, or multiplies the osmotic gradient between tubular fluid and interstitial space.
17. How is the concentration of urine adjusted? In other words, what controls the amount of water that is used to discharge unwanted solutes? (51.5)

Gas Exchange
1. A gas exchange system is made up of: 1) the ____lungs_______ where the gasses _______________oxygen_______ and ___carbon dioxide________ are exchanged; 2) a mechanism for ____inhalation____________ and 3) a mechanism for _exhalation_, in which the blood is circulated over the gas exchange surface. (p1028) 2. What does Ficks Law describe? What are the factors that affect gas exchange? (48.1) It is an equation that describes diffusion of gasses in a system and reflects all environmental variables that limit and maximize respiratory gas exchange. It applies to all systems of gas exchange. Ficks law: Q=(DA)(P1-P2)/L, where Q is the rate at which gasses such as O2 and CO2 diffuses across between two locations. D is the diffusion coefficient, which will depend on the medium and temperature of the medium. A is the cross-sectional area across which the gas is diffusing. P1 and P2 are the pressures of the gasses at the two locations (this creates the concentration gradient) L is the distance between the two locations. The environmental factors that affect gas exchange are: The type of medium (e.g air is a better reparatory medium than water). This is D in the equation.

Temperature; an increase in temperature reduces O2 supply, thereby reduces gas exchange. Tis is also included in D in the equation. Partial pressure gradient. This is (P1-P2)/L in the equation. Altitude; an increase in altitude reduces O2 supply, thereby reduces gas exchange.

3. What is partial pressure? Why does the partial pressure of oxygen change with altitude, even though the percentage of oxygen does not change? (48.1) Partial pressure is the pressure of a gas in a mixture of gasses. At all altitudes, O2 percent is the same for dry air (up to 20.9%); however, at high altitudes, the total amount of O2 per unit of volume unit decreases. 4. Explain three reasons why oxygen is easier to obtain from air than from water. (48.1) 5. Why does warmer water cause double trouble for aquatic organisms? (Fig 48.2) Water breathers need more O2 as the temperature of the water gets warmer, but warm water holds less O2 than cold water does. More energy is required to move air over their gas exchange surfaces.

6. Marine flatworms have no special respiratory system. What adaptation do they have for adequate gas exchange? (Fig 48.1) By having, flat thin bodies with a large surface area so that no cell in its body is more than a millimeter away from water. This way, gas exchange is enhanced

7. Describe the gas exchange system of insects. For what purposes do they use blood? Would you predict that insects have hemoglobin? (48.2) Insects use a system of air tubes called tracheae which extends throughout the insects body to allow gas exchange to all tissues in its body. The trachea branches into smaller tubes called tracheoles, which end in small air capillaries which are the actual gas exchange surface. Spiracles in the side of the abdomen open to allow air in and close to prevent water loss. Blood in insects is used in respiration to create osmotic pressure, which allows air to be drawn in for gas exchange. I would not expect these insects to have hemoglobin.

8. Describe the position and structure of gills in fish. How does the operculum aid gas exchange? (48.2)

The internal gills of fish are supported by gill arches, which are found between the fishs mouth cavity and the opercular flaps on the sides of the fish. Water flows unidirectional into the fishs mouth, over the gills and under the opercular flaps. This uniedirectional water flow maximizes PO2 over the external gill surfaces. On the internal side of the gill membranes, the circulation of blood minimizes the PO2 by sweeping O2 away as rapidly as it diffuses in. The lamellae are the actual gas exchange surfaces. The expansion of the opercular cavity prior of opening of the opercular flaps pulls water over the flaps.

9. What is countercurrent flow? How is this used in gills to maximize gas exchange? (48.2) Blood flows in the lamella of fish in the direction opposite to the flow of water. This counterflow between blood circulation in the lamella and water flow, is called countercurrent flow, which optimizes the O2 gradient between water and blood, making gas exchange more efficient. 10. What is the unique feature of bird lungs? What purpose do the air sacs serve? What are the benefits of this adaptation? (48.2) Air sacs and air spaces in the bones are unique to birds. The structure of bird lungs allows air to flow unidirectionally trough the lungs. Bird lungs have very little dead space and constantly have a supply of fresh air. In this way, a high PO2 gradient is maintained. Besides the lungs, birds also have air sacs which connect with each other and the lungs. Air flows from the trachea to bronchioles, to parabronchioles to air capillaries which is the actual gas exchange surface in birds. Birds can sustain high levels of activity for a long time. For example, they can fly for long distance and at high altitude where oxygen supply is limited.

Note: Birds take 2 breaths to get rid of air going in, while in humans it takes 1. 11. What is tidal ventilation? What organisms use this system? (48.2) Tidal ventilation occurs when ventilation is bidirectional. Tidal ventilation occurs when air flows in and exhaled gases flow out through the same route. All air breathing organisms, with the exception of birds, have tidal ventilation. 12. Explain these terms: tidal volume, inspiratory reserve, expiratory reserve, residual volume, vital capacity.

Tidal Volume (TV) is the amount of air that moves in and out in a single breath while at rest. Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) is the additional amount of air is in our body after we breath in as much air as possible . Expiratory Reserve Volome (ERV) is the amount of air that remains in the body when we exhale as much air as possible. The Vital Capacity is the sum of the TV, IRV and ERV. Residual Volume (RV) is the dead space in the body.

13. What functions do the conducting airways serve in human respiratory system? (48.3) Respiratory tract secretions aid in ventilation by producing mucous to which small particle can stick to. Cilia in the airway can then sweep the mucus to the pharynx where it can be expectorated. Surfactant is also produced by cells in the alveoli which reduces the surface tension in a liquid. This surfactant reduces the work necessary to inflate the lungs.

14. Describe the process of ventilation in humans. Be sure to include the role of pleural membranes and surfactant. (48.3) Inhalation is an active process stimulated by the diaphragm. Exhalation is generally a passive process as the diaphragm relaxes. There is always negative pressure in the pleural cavity, which is the space between the pleural membranes. Variations in this negative pressure cause the lungs in inflat and deflate during the breathing cycle. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts, the thoracic cavity expands, interpleural pressure becomes more negative, lungs expand and air rushes in. During relaxation, the diaphragm relaxes, the thoracic cavity contacts, interpleural pressure becomes less negative, lungs contract, and gasses in the lungs are expelled.

15. Describe the path by which a molecule of CO2 created in a cell is exhaled from the lungs. In what forms is it transported in the blood? (48.4) Carbon dioxide is transported as bicarbonate ions. In body tissues, CO2 diffuses from cells into plasma and into red blood cells (RBCs).About 5% of the CO2 is carried as a whole molecule in solution the plasma. About 20% of the CO2 combines with hemoglobin (Hb). In RBCs, and in the endothelium, about 70% of the CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid with the aid of carbonic anhydrase. Carbonic acid then turns

into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions. Bicarbonate ions enter the plasma in exchange for chlorine ions. In the lungs, these processes are reversed. 16. Oxygen binds to _________hemoglobin_____________ for transport using positive cooperativity. What is the advantage of this type of binding? (48.4, Fig 48.12) Positive cooperativity is very effective in making O2 readily available to tissues precisely when and where it is needed most. Note: Binding of O2 to hemoglobin depends on PO2. 17. What affects the binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen? Describe how each of these 3 factors helps to load and unload oxygen at the appropriate points in the circulatory system. (48.4) The factors that affect binding affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen are: Temperature; at high temperatures, hemoglobin has less affinity for O2. pH; at low pH, hemoglobin has less affinity for O2. 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric (BPG); high levels of BPG, hemoglobin has less affinity for O2. Composition of the hemoglobin (e.g fetal and adult hemoglobin have different compositions, thereby both types of hemoglobins have different O2 affinity. ) 18. What is myoglobin and what does it do? Where is it found? (48.4) Myoglobin, found in muscle cells, holds an O2 reserve for times when metabolic demands are high and blood flow is interrupted. Myoglobin has a higher affinity for O2 than hemoglobin.