CHAPTER 6 WATERS Sub: All life depends on bodies of salt and fresh water that cover most of the

earth. Yet abuse and degradation are destroying the marine environment and its inhabitants, and man has to fully understand that these resources are no longer unlimited

PART I: The Sea Sub: Coral and mangrove destruction, overfishing, climate change and contamination are killing our oceans at an alarming rate THE EARTH is blue because it is made up mostly of water. Three-fourths of the Earth is made up of water, and only 1/4 is made up of land. Once upon a time, all life began in the sea. In the Earths 4.5 billion -year history, 3.2 billion of it is the story of life in the sea. It was only about 250 million years ago when the Earths atmosphere became ri ch enough with oxygen to sustain life outside of the water. It was about that time when creatures from the sea began to crawl out of the water, develop lungs and adapt to life on land. Until today, there are perhaps some 10 million species of plants and animals in the sea, and man knows about only 2% of this. In the story of human civilization, the sea was always the bank of food security and the pathway of transportation and trade. Ancient cultures and modern cities sprang up along the coasts, where the supply of fish was abundant. Archeological diggings from the sea-faring people of the Western Pacific reveal that the Homo erectus, our hunting and gathering ancestor, built boats as far back as 800,000 years ago. Fossilized shells found along the coast of Peru also reveal that people harvested shellfish from tidal pools about 12,000 years ago. A sea of life The sea is where we get much of our food supply. Nearly one billion people, most of them in Asia, rely only on fish for their food protein requirements. A recent economic study conducted in the Philippines revealed that a single square kilometer of coral reefs can produce as much as 35 tons of fish and

aquatic life in one year. Protein-wise, this is enough to feed 700,000 people for one day. The same study also revealed that in terms of its economic and environmental value, that single square kilometer of coral reef can generate as much economic benefit as US$120,000 a year. Nature blessed the Philippines with 30,000 sq km of coral reefs. Philippine seas have the distinction of being the most biologically endemic and diverse body of seawater in the entire world. While the total land area of the Philippines is 30 million hectares, the territorial sea is more than seven times that size, about 220 million hectares. The countrys coastal zone is 1.1 million hectares, where almost all its provinces are located, and where 60% of its people live. But the sea also performs functions and services not immediately visible to the naked eye. Photosynthesis also converts the suns energy into biological life that, in turn, provides sustenance to the food chain in the underwater world. The base of the food chain in marine life is that tiny microscopic organism called plankton. Like any living thing, it absorbs carbon dioxide. As in any other plant on land, photosynthesis converts the gaseous carbon into solid carbon matter and oxygen. Of course, the solid matter that grows in the form of plants, and the oxygen released by these plants, are, in turn, the basic source of the gas and food supply of all animal life in the water world. The sea absorbs carbon dioxide and sunlight, and then pumps it out as oxygen and food. There is an overload of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere from the burning of fossil fuels, and the oceans, like the forests, also serve as a carbon sink. While much of the carbon is consumed by marine life and returned to the atmosphere through respiration, the unconsumed carbon descends into the deep waters of the oceans where it is stored. The oceans are so effective as a carbon sink that they absorb a large part of all the carbon dioxide emissions. Through the course of the millions of years of the oceans natural history, its marine sediments are now said to contain about 15 million gigatons of sequestered carbon. We are also beginning to discover that certain marine species are potential sources of medicine for some of the most deadly or troublesome human illnesses. In 1997, medical researchers ran across a new compound in dogfish sharks that stops the spread of cancer by cutting off blood supply to

tumors. It has also been discovered that the substance Didemnin, which is derived from sea squirts, is effective against a broad range of viruses which cause colds, herpes, or meningitis. In 1999, researchers from the University of California in Sta. Cruz tested a certain substance called diazonamide A for its anti-cancer properties. It has been scientifically determined that under laboratory conditions, diazonamide A kills cancer of the colon. First described in 1991 by marine chemist William Fenical of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, this chemical was isolated from a soft-shelled animal known a Diazona chinensis, found in an underwater cave in the Philippines. For the last seven years, researchers have been trying to synthesize the substance found within the tissues of this shell. The shallow portions of the sea also serve to cushion the impact of storm surges from the sea and regulate the terrestrial climate with their cooling effect. A recent international study revealed that almost 65% of the Earths environmental goods and servicesvalued at about US$21 trillion annuallywere provided by the coastal zones and its surrounding seas. Abuse of the oceans At the launch of the UN Year of the Ocean in January 1998, more than 1,600 marine scientists, biologists, conservationists, and oceanographers gathered from all over the world. Together they issued a common statement entitled Troubled Waters. The statement reiterated the fact that the most seri ous threats to the health of the seas were caused by humans. It also called attention to the threats and the dangers of humanitys abuse of the sea. It was then that they articulated the phenomenon of too much overuse, abuse and neglect. Over-use is when we take too much, e.g., over-fishing and habitat destruction. Abuse happens when you put in too many pollutants like raw sewage and toxic chemicals. Neglect results in unintended consequences such as climate change and invasive species. The modern-day irony of fishing is that, while the fishing methods seem to have become ever efficient in increasing the catch, they are now also the more wasteful. Large quantities of fish, about 20 million tons or a quarter of the whole fish catch of the world, are thrown away every year for being undersized, or for being a non-marketable species or sex, or for simply being an accidental by-catch. Some of these innocent bystanders are also among the most endangered species, such as dolphins and marine

turtles. When we eat shrimps, for example, little do we know that shrimp trawlers catch these with fine-mesh nets. For every kilogram of shrimp caught, kept, and eaten, as much as five kilograms of fish by-catch are also caught and thrown away. On the surface, over the last 50 years, the worldwide production of fish appears to have grown six times over, reaching an all-time high of 120 million tons in 1996. But today, three out of the four major fish species in the world have been over-exploited to the point of depletion. Eleven out of the 15 most important fishing areas in the world have been completely exhausted. In addition to depleting our natural fish supply, over-fishing poses a serious biological threat to the health of the oceans. Over-fishing only one kind of fish, like tuna, disrupts the natural interdependence of predator and prey. It results in an unnatural explosion in the population of other marine species in the lower rungs of the food chain which the tuna relied on. The long-term impact of the imbalance results in a permanent change and damage to the ecological system and natural balance of marine life. Take the case of the coral reefs of the Caribbean Seas. Pufferfish and triggerfish were over-harvested as souvenirs for the tourists who visited dive sites. The almost total removal of these kinds of fish from the marine ecosystem disrupted the health of the coral reefs themselves. Without the pufferfish and the triggerfish as natural predators, the natural preythe thorny sea urchinsexploded in numbers and suffocated the algae upon which the coral reefs themselves depended for food. Eventually, the suffocated corals died. With the corals went the reason for the scuba divers to visit. In the end, the diving tourism industry suffered, and so did the economic base of the people. Take the shark, a shy and harmless creature that is 400 million years older than man. Of late, sharks have suffered very bad press from silly movies and even sillier culinary habits. A movie shown in the 1970s, and viewed by practically the entire world, played on peoples fear of sharks. The author of the book on which the movie was based has since regretted having written the story, and has been going around the world working for the conservation of sharks. For reasons such as these, sharks have been hunted to near extinction. Yet,

in the Philippines, a place with many kinds of sharks, one has yet to find a documented incident of a fatal shark attack. On the other hand, estimates indicate that as many as 100 million sharks are killed all over the world every year. In a single study conducted on Hawaiibased long-line fisheries, some 61,000 blue sharks were killed in 1998, 25 times more than the 2,300 caught in seven years ago. And this figure was only for sharks caught by fishermen from Hawaii, and does not include the sharks killed elsewhere such as in the seas of the Philippines, Indonesia, Thailand and other parts of the world. Sharks are magnificent creatures. Their anatomy is hydrodynamically efficientthere are no wasted movements when they swim. The physiology of the shark is also quite fascinating. It was recently discovered that sharks are immune to cancer. Just as the tree is the climax species of plant life, the shark is the climax species of underwater life. In the food chain of marine life, sharks occupy the topmost position. What seems to be a fearsome animal of the sea, in size and in name, happens to inhabit the Philippine seas from the months of January to May every year. The whale shark, the largest fish in the world which grows up to 15 m in size and can weigh up to 12,500 kg, is a most gentle creature. It only feeds on plankton, krill (small shrimp), and occasionally, some small fish. Its soft meat is a delicacy for the Taiwanese, who call it doufu sha (shark tofu). Endangered habitats The line where the land meets the endless sea is a most active and productive area known as the coastal zone. This zone has characteristics that are unique in the ecology of the sea. It is where the waters of the sea mix with the Earths nutrients, which fall from the mountains. The regulated flow of nutrient-bearing soils from the highlands allows for the growth of marine life. The shallow parts of the coastal zone, being more exposed to energygiving sunlight, are also home of the coastal ecosystems: the coral reefs, mangrove forests, and sea grass beds. Corals are polyps, a simple form of animal consisting largely of a stomach and a mouth with fingerlike tentacles around the edges that are used to gather food. They are colonial in nature in that when they find a hard surface such as a rock, the coral larvae attach themselves in great numbers.

As they multiply, they produce limestone skeletons that grow into large, stony structures called a coral reef. Corals grow very slowly, adding only a few centimeters of mass in one year. During the day, most coral polyps stay inside their skeletons. At night, their tentacles come out and wave around to catch their food. The food of coral polyps is mainly plankton or other tiny sea creatures that float by. Corals also have tiny algae living within them, single-celled organisms that also supply food for the coral and help it produce the chemical needed to form the calcium-hardened skeleton. Part of its food also comes from tiny microscopic plants called zoothanthellae. The coral reefs provide shelter to fish and serve as a base for the plankton, algae and other microscopic plants that they host. Because there is such a community around the corals, larger animals also gather in and around the reefs to form an intricate web of interdependent lives. In terms of biological wealth and diversity, coral reefs have been likened to the tropical rain forest, except that life in the reefs is much more abundant. The coral reefs may be classified as those that fringe the land mass (fringing corals), those that occur some distance out into the sea (barrier reefs), and those that are isolated in deep water to form a ring with a central hollow lagoon known as an atoll. The coral reefs of the Philippines contain an estimated 488 species of corals and almost 1,000 species of bottom-dwelling algae. Marine life is highly dependent on coral reefs: Almost 1/3 of all the fish species live in coral reefs, while others depend on the reefs and sea grass beds for food during various stages of their life cycle. A single square kilometer can produce as much as 35 tons of edible aquatic life per year. In fact, 55% of the fish consumed by Filipinos depend on coral reefs. In fact, the bulk of the fish catch in the Philippines is taken from the nearshore areas where mangroves, sea-grass beds and coral reefs abound. One square kilometer of excellent coral reefs producing a conservative 15 tons of fish can feed 300,000 people for one day, and generate as much as US$120,000 per year. The Philippines once had a healthy coral reef area of 30,000 sq km. Today, less than 5% of that wealth remains. Mangrove forests are a different story altogether. They are a community of

trees partly submerged in sea water, populating the tidal flats of the coastal zone. Tidal flats are the areas in the coastal zones that are submerged during high tide and exposed during low tide. These areas are also known as the foreshore. What distinguishes a mangrove area from an ordinary foreshore area is that the former is populated with the mangrove species. Mangrove is a generic term for the wooded and palm plants that grow in the seams of land and water. There are freshwater mangroves and seawater mangroves. What is common to the Philippines is the seawater mangrove. There are 41 species of mangrove trees and associated plants identified in the Philippines. These mangrove areas are critical links in the chain of the marine ecosystem. Mangroves occur only in tropical and subtropical climates and coastlines. It is estimated that globally, there are about 150,000 sq km of mangroves left, less than 50% of the worlds original area. And this is being lost at an average of about 5% per year. That simply means that in the next 10 to 20 years, there is a great danger of wiping out most of the mangrove forests left in the world. In a span of only two years, between 1994 and 1995, the Philippines lost 1,200 sq km (120,000 hectares) of mangrove forests. Most of them were cleared to make way for fishponds and aquaculture. Of the original 5,000 sq km of mangroves found in the Philippines, approximately only 1,000 sq. km. are left, of which only about 300 sq km are estimated to be original old-growth mangrove forests. What accelerated the destruction in places like the Philippines and Thailand was the economic demand to grow prawns for export. In the 1980s, the price of prawns shot up in the export market, a market that consisted mainly of Japan. Those who had access to mangrove areas applied for fishpond leases and converted the mangroves into prawn farms. The farms made intensive use of artificial feed and large volumes of freshwater. This colossal use of water was particularly damaging to the very delicate water table and aquifers in the coastal zone. With everyone going into prawn farming during its boom years, there resulted an over-supply of prawns in the market. This was further aggravated by the fact that there was practically only a single market. When the demand in Japan subsided, coupled with the downturn of the countrys economy in the 1990s, the price of prawn became an excellent example of an economic Humpty Dumpty. Farmers and their capitalists who had earlier cut down,

cleared, and converted mangrove areas to highly intensive prawn culture lost serious money and abandoned their farms. An essential link between the coral reefs and the mangrove areas are the grasses of the sea. The physical structure of sea grass makes it suitable as a spawning and breeding ground and nursery. It also serves as a refuge for the young marine creatures from their natural predators. Shrimps, crabs, scallops, sea urchins, sea cucumber, mussels, and snails are some of the aquatic life that find protection in the sea grass beds. They are the habitat of endangered sea turtles such as the Olive Ridley, green sea, loggerhead and flatback. It is also the main food source of the highly endangered sea mammal of the Philippines, the dugong. This sea cow is almost completely herbivorous, and relies mainly on sea grasses for its food. Like the other links in the chain of the coastal ecosystems, sea grass beds are declining worldwide at an alarming rate. In the last 50 years alone, Thailand lost 30%, while Indonesia lost 40% of its sea grass beds. The Philippines has the dubious distinction of being topnotcher of the three for having lost half of all its sea grass beds. A dumping ground for wastes Because the sea is close to the land, the nutrients that flow from the land and the soil enrich the marine life of the coastal zones. It is this access to a rich food supply that attracts people to live close to the coast. Today, about 2.4 billion people live within 100 km of the shoreline. Natural sedimentation is beneficial and is a process that enriches the sea and its marine life. However, the activities of man resulting in deforestation and erosion clearing have been identified as among the principal causes of marine degradation. By the action of gravity and the rain, the soil is transported into the waterways and eventually brought all the way out to the sea. In the sea, the sediment accumulates and smothers the sea grass beds and the coral reefs, all of which eventually die. In studies conducted in highsedimentation areas, erosion and the resulting siltation is half the cause of marine resource depletion. It has been determined that half of all marine pollution comes from rivers, canals, and sewers. These waterways carry not only industrial wastes; the bulk of all this dirt comes from human settlements along the rivers, creeks and lakeshores and seashores. It is estimated that of the six billion people in

the world today, five billion do not have access to sewage treatment systems. Let us take the case of a coastal metropolis in Asia that has a population of 10 million people. Inasmuch as each and every one will discharge about 50 grams of human waste per day, the 10 million people would, therefore, be discharging 50,000 kilos of human excreta every day. A study conducted on the sewage system (or lack of it) in this metropolitan area revealed that the metropolis discharged about five million gallons of raw sewage per day into the nearby bay. The waste generated by the human consumption of consumer products also finds its way into its waters. Fishermen in Manila Bay will attest to the fact that for every 10 kilos they catch with their nets, nine kilos is made up pure and simple garbageplastic, wrappers, styrofoam, cans, rubber, plastic bottles, torn slippers. The excess nutrients that accumulate in the sea from heavy erosion and the continuous loading of nutrient-rich organic wastes take their toll on the chemical and physical balance of the sea. There are different kinds of algae in plant form: green algae, brown algae and red algae. All of them are naturally present in sea water. In fact, they are part of the delicate balance of the interdependencies in the food chain of marine life. However, when a particular algae is excessively fertilized by nutrients way beyond the tolerable limit, an outbreak of its own population takes place. This results in what is known as an algal bloom. When the red algae is unduly fertilized and goes into an algal bloom, the color of the sea appears to be red, earning for itself the label of red tide. While red tide is a natural phenomenon and has been recorded since Biblical times, the frequency and severity of occurrence has increased in the last two decades. In recent times, there has also been the mysterious appearance of a novel kind of red algae that is quite toxic. The effect of ingesting this toxic red tide is what lands on the front pages of newspapers and in the headline stories of the airwavespeople get sick and die. The first symptom of the poisoning process is the numbing of the lips, tongue and mouth. This is followed by a disorder in the nervous system that paralyzes the muscles of the heart. In time, this leads to cardiac arrest. The details on the causes and effects of red tide are still under study. However, this much is known: Red algae is part of the diet of marine

organisms such as fish, crabs, shrimps, mussels and oysters. The fish, crabs, and shrimps are able to expel the excess red algae from their system through the lower ends of their digestive canal. Mussels and oysters, however, do not have an anus through which to expel the excess algae. When these are caught or harvested and then eaten by man, the toxin is already in concentrated form. When the chemical imbalance occurs in the physiological system of the human body, what follows is paralytic poisoning resulting in death. Marine scientists have linked the recent outbreaks of red tide to the increased loading of nitrogen and phosphorous from nutrient-rich wastewater and excessive agricultural run-offs. This is especially noted in areas that are poorly flushed by currents, such as semi-enclosed bodies of water like gulfs and bays. There appears to be a direct link between the volume of human wastes dumped in the surrounding waters and the incidence of red tide poisoning. Between the years 1976 and 1986, the population living in the vicinity of the Tolo Harbor in Hong Kong increased sixfold. Of course, nutrient loading also increased. In the same period, the annual incidence of red tide episodes increased eight times. For Manila Bay, preliminary findings indicate a causal link between the level of pollution and frequency of red tide occurrences. In other cases, red tides follow in the wake of a heavy concentration of fish farms. In their artificial enclosures, the fish in fish pens must be intensively fed by nutrientrich organic feeds. Between the excess feeds unconsumed by the fish and the wastes that the fish expel, the volume of nutrients in the sea is increased, and it floats around and unduly fertilizes the red algae normally occurring in the surrounding sea. Worldwide, the incidence of paralytic shellfish poisoning has doubled from 1970 to 1990, as the red algae carrying the mysterious toxin spreads from the northern hemisphere to the south, in such places as Hong Kong and the Philippines. There are other things that we also put into our seas: synthetic chemicals, non-biodegradable substances, and other kinds of toxic and hazardous industrial wastes. We have seen how persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are carried by the winds and accumulate in the fatty tissues of the fish in a process called bio-accumulation. As animals higher in the food chain eat the fish, the pollutant accumulates, and its volume magnified by the number of fish eaten by the higher predator. At every step of consumption, the level of concentration is increased.

Naturally, those in the higher rungs of the food chain get the total volume of the POPs ingested by the life forms in the lower rungs. In animals at the top of the food chain (seabirds, polar bears, and people) scientists have found accumulated concentrations of 100 to 1,000 times the input level of chemical concentration ingested by the animal at the bottom of the food chain. These chemicals are highly volatile in warm temperature. Thus, POPs tend to move from the south to the north, and to the higher and colder altitudes. A survey conducted among the native Inuit people in the Baffin Island of northern Canada, people we commonly call the Eskimo, revealed an alarming level of POPs in their blood. It was discovered that the main diet of the Inuit people, meat from walrus and seal, contained high levels of pollutants resulting from bioaccumulation. The pollutants were identified as toxaphene and chlordane, two insecticides long banned from use in the United States. Medical examination revealed that the Inuits blood levels contained the pollutants 20 times higher than the tolerable health limit. Of course, these people were not the users of these chemicals. They were transported in gaseous form all the way from the USA. In a cutting-edge study, POPs were implicated in a range wide of animal and human health abnormalities, such as the suppression of the immune systems. Like the AIDS virus, it breaks down the bodys ability to resist ailments. With the immune system disabled, even a simple cold can become fullblown pneumonia. POPs have also been linked to the disruption of the endocrine system. The book entitled Our Stolen Future, published as a result of this study, may well signal the advent of an interesting phenomenon: man-made chemicals may yet become the accidental cause of human population control. In countries located in the northern hemisphere, sperm counts of human males have been reduced by as much as 40-50%, from an average of 130 million spermatozoa per ejaculation to only about 65 million. In a well-documented 20-year research carried out in China, it was reported that environmental pollution caused a 10% drop in the quantity of the living sperm cells among Chinese. It was further reported that the volume of sperm released during ejaculation dropped by almost 20%. What a beautiful irony it would be if the very chemicals that man made to help himself would be the cause of the reduction, or even the extinction, of his race. The climate and the environment

Marine life is extremely sensitive to temperature changes, climactic shifts and the undue modification of atmospheric conditions. The thinning ozone layer above the Earth allowed for the more intensified penetration of the ultraviolet rays into the sea, thereby increasing its ambient temperature. Scientists have linked the latest phenomenon of coral bleaching to an increase in the temperature at seas surface by a mere one degree Celsius. The excess sunlight adversely affects the growth of the base of the food chain, planktons. It has also been confirmed that the impact of increased ultra-violet radiation damages the larvae of crabs, shrimps and some kinds of fish. A double-strike against both the larval development of marine life and against its food base will have quite catastrophic consequences. When corals are subjected to the stress of warm water, they expel more than normal of those tiny plants called zoonxanthallae, otherwise a beneficial part of the food chain in a marine ecosystem. The excess volume of these plants results in giving the corals the appearance of having been bleached. The growth of the corals is stunted and also prevents them from reproducing. The process was first documented in the mid-1980s, during and after the 1982-83 El Nio, when the temperature of the sea surface increased by one degree Celsius. It has also been recently observed and documented among the coral reefs in the Philippines. If the glaciers melted, they would transfer water to the sea. These glaciers: they contain twice the volume of freshwater that we find in aquifer, lakes, rivers and in all of the rainfall at any given time. The documented incidents have been many. In 1994, a large portion of Antarctica melted. Again, in February 1998, a large sheet of ice in Antarctica fell off into the Southern Sea. From March 1998 to March 1999, two more large sheets of ice nearly 3,000 sq kmcollapsed. Other disturbing trends have also been recorded. In India, the Gangotri Glacier is retreating at almost 100 feet per year. In Russia, half of all the glacial ice has disappeared over the last 100 years. A NASA high-tech study and aerial survey shows that more than 11 cubic miles is disappearing from the Greenland ice sheet every year. That is equal to about 1.25 trillion gallons. By itself, that volume of water is enough to raise sea level by 0.13 mm a year. In Peru, the Qori Kalis glacier in the Andes Mountains is also receding by 100 feet per year, seven times faster today than in the 60s and 70s.

In a futuristic film made in the 90s, Waterworld, the main protagonist finds himself in a world almost totally made up of seawater. While it did not do too well at the box office, a copy of this movie must be preserved in the archives of the film industry and of humanity. When, a mere 200 years from today, our descendants will view it again, we can only imagine what they will have to say. They will see how irresponsible their forefathers were not to have seen it coming. El Nio is a Spanish term which, when transliterated, means the child. It was coined by Peruvian fishermen because of its occurrence on or about the Christmas season, the traditional birth date of the child Jesus Christ. The El Nio is technically also called the El Nio Southern Oscillation. It takes place when the trade winds and the surface currents in the seas of the southeastern and Central Pacific Ocean change direction. The La Nia is the reverse phenomenon. As a result of El Nio, warm surface waters collect in the eastern Pacific. They prevent the cold waters from upwelling, which would have been the normal flow and flotation of cold water from the deeper parts of the Pacific Ocean. This results in the building up and hovering of a low-pressure area over South America, collecting heat and moisture that would otherwise, have been distributed elsewhere around the globe. Because of the concentration of heat and moisture in one place, the climates delicate balance is disrupted. Severe weather patterns result in other parts of the world, from increased rain or snow and heavy flooding to drought and forest fires. The inverse of this phenomenon is the La Nia, which results in massive rainfall. Scientists are still trying to determine the cause of this phenomenon and what triggers the shift in tidal and current flows. The most reasonable explanation appears to be that the El Nio is actually a normal phenomenon that naturally occurs in the atmosphere. However, the theory goes on to explain, because of all the gaseous waste that we have placed in the air and atmosphere, the normal balance is disturbed. Thus, the intensity of this otherwise natural occurrence is increased to the point of being destructive to human life and human activities. What has been the subject of study at a more intense level is the economic impact of El Nio. The dry season is often prolonged into an extended

drought. During the 1997-1998 El Nio, Argentina alone lost more than US$3 billion in agricultural products, while Peru reported a precipitous 90% drop in the harvest of anchovies. In the Philippines, losses because of El Nio have been estimated in the tens of billions of pesos. Unwanted invasion Imagine if we introduced 100,000 mature piranhas into Laguna de Bay. The piranha, a carnivorous fish from South America with no known predators in this part of the world, will naturally consume much of the fish and other aquatic life in the Lake. In time, they will multiply to such an extent and in such great numbers that they will soon become the more dominant species. In the process, the population of the native fish of the Lake such as the kanduli and the dalagang bukid would be wiped out. This is an example of species invasion. Foreign species that are introduced into a different environment are also called exotic species, as distinguished from the native (or indigenous) ones. Over the last 30 years, invasive species have become a cause for increased concern. An aquatic environment subjected to an invasion of foreign species is like a virus invading a human body. Like a weakened human body, the natural resistance system malfunctions, thereby resulting in the increased susceptibility of the organism to the slightest ailments. An aquatic environment weakened by invasion of exotic species also becomes highly vulnerable to systemic malfunction. This is what happened in the Black Sea in southeastern Europe. Weakened by a combination of habitat degradation and pollution, the Black Sea was ripe when it was invaded by the American comb jellyfish unknowingly set loose by the ballast waters of ships calling at its ports. With no natural enemies and predators in this new environment, the jellyfish flourished by feeding on fish larvae and the tiny animals upon which the small fish fed. The population of jellyfish exploded and reached a total mass of some 900 million tons10 times the annual fish harvest of the entire world. This in effect, wiped out nine of the 10 marine species in the Black Sea, including the majority of its commercial fish stocks. The process of invasion by alien species through the ballasts of ships goes something like this: Ships normally take in water in their ballast tanks to provide stability and balance when the cargo hold is empty. Upon reaching port, the water in the ballast tanks is flushed out and the cargo is loaded.

However, it is not just seawater that is taken in and flushed out by the ballast tanks. Whenever the boat takes in seawater, the marine organisms in that body of water are also sucked into the tanks and stay there during the trip, all the way to the boats destination. Upon reaching port, the boat releases the water, and with it, the accidental hitchhikers are also released into the new aquatic environment. Since the ports and harbors are usually located in relatively enclosed bodies of water such as gulfs, bays, and coves, it is difficult for the foreign species to easily escape from this new environment. Of course, even they are able to leave the semi-enclosed body of water, it is practically impossible for the marine organisms to return to their original home because of the distance traveled by the. In effect, therefore, the foreign organisms took a one-way trip. They either die, or, as in many cases, adapt and establish themselves to their new marine environment. Globally, it is estimated that several thousand species of aquatic life are in ships ballasts at any given time. The sea waters of the US alone rece ive at least 56 million tons of discharged ballast water every year. A recent study done on the city by the bay revealed that San Francisco Bay, with its hourly docking and undocking of ships from the seven seas, contains about 234 invasive species, introduced into the bay at the rate of one every 14 weeks.

PART II: A Sea of Problems Sub: Illegal fishing methods and commercial fishing are hurting our oceans, but effective leadership and law enforcement can provide the necessary defense THE situation of the Philippine Seas painted above mirrors the threats faced by global fisheries and marine resources. Cases of over-fishing, habitat degradation, and pollution of the waters are among the better-documented causes of these threats. But destructive fishing methods also persist until today, in the form of blast (dynamite) fishing, cyanide fishing, trawling, muro-ami, dragging heavy weights or chains through the coral reefs, the illegal use of superlights, and the unabated intrusion and poaching in the municipal waters.

Death by fishing Blast fishing used to be called dynamite fishing because, at one time, dynamite was largely used to carry it out. The hand grenades and other explosives left by the Japanese and American forces after the Second World War provided the convenient materials. Lured by the easy and plentiful fish catch, and thinking that the fish supply was limitless, Filipino fishermen blasted away their most valuable natural treasures, the coral reefs. Later on, with the increasing difficulty in obtaining dynamite, ingenious Filipinos resorted to the use of ammonia, an ostensibly harmless substance, as a substitute for gunpowder. The substance is known as ammonium nitrate, and is widely available in agricultural supply stores. In addition to permanent damage to the corals, which may take as long as half a century to restore, blasting kills all the other small fish and aquatic life in the vicinity of the blast, animals which are not considered useful to human needs. In the realm of military science, they are referred to as collateral damage. In the terminology of fisheries, they are the by-catch. Fish caught from blast fishing bear the marks of severe trauma. They have a soft body texture, a result of the massive concussion; red eyes, a result of the blood that shoots up to the eyes upon impact; and a crushed skeleton, liver, intestines and other internal organs, as a result of the shock waves. Almost unheard of 15 years ago, fishing with the use of cyanide is now reported in reef fisheries from Eritrea in the Red Sea, to Fiji in the South Pacific, and the Philippines in East Asia. Sodium cyanide is mixed with water and placed in a small plastic container, usually a plastic ketchup dispenser. The fisherman dives into the water and approaches a reef, and where there is a profusion of fish, squirts the contents of the dispenser. When the fish ingests the poison, they are stunned into temporary paralysis, making it easier for the fishermen to catch them. The stunned fish is then placed in plastic bags filled with seawater. On board the fishermans boat, the plastic bag is oxygenated and the groggy fish is revived. The fish is then quickly transported to sellers of high-priced marine aquarium fish or to the expensive banquet tables of rich Asian countries. The effect of cyanide on the sensitive coral line life is a different story. The coral reefs that are touched by the dissolved cyanide are doomed. The first thing to perish is the reef algae, on which the fish feed. Days later, the living coral starts to expire. Soon the reef loses its function as habitat for the fish, which eat both the algae and the invertebrates that cling to the coral. The reef is converted into a bleached graveyard. Soon, its skeletal remains become brittle, and are broken up into pieces by the pounding action of the waves.

Bad as it is, the destructive impact of cyanide and blast fishing is seen as less harmful in its overall effect than lead-weighted trawling. In trawling, the fishing method consists of dragging chains and nets across vast areas of the ocean floor or sea bed, sweeping up everything in the way. With the bulldozing of all bottom-dwelling species, local fish diversity is drastically reduced and the balance of demand and supply in the food chain is disrupted. The muro-ami fishing method is equally destructive. This technique consists of using weights to pound on the corals to scare away the fish. Once the schools of fish are disturbed enough to float, they are carried downcurrent, where fishing nets await. Not only is the volume of unintended and wasted by-catch unacceptably large, but the impact of the weights on the coral formations is obvious. In the 1980s, the muro-ami fishing method was exposed not only for the destruction it caused but also for the employment of minors in hazardous underwater diving conditions, which often resulted in death. Muroami operators were known to recruit boys as young as 10 years old from impoverished coastal towns in the Visayas. The boys are sent on these underwater dives with no training and no protective gear to handle the fishnets. The pa-aling method was supposed to be a benign substitute for muro-ami. The technique is supposed to use bubbles, instead of rocks and lead, to scare the fish away from the coral reefs and grab them in nets. In 1998 and 1999, however, pa-aling workers who escaped the miserable slave-labor conditions of a fishing operation described their method of fishing as the muro-ami method of pounding on coral reefs, and not the approved government and prescribed pa-aling technique. In a sworn statement executed by one of them, the deadly efficiency of the fishing method used was confirmed. In it, the fisherman stated that, after they hauled in the big net, they could not see a single fish left in the area where they operated. The fisherman also stated that after the entry of pa-aling fishing boats, three or four years would pass before the fish would return because even the fish eggs are destroyed. Other forms of destructive methods are what is known in the Visayas as the zipper and the hulbot-hulbot. Another kind involves the use of superlights. The use of light several thousand watts bright stuns the fish, and the catch becomes indiscriminate and wasteful. Despite the strict regulation of these fishing methods, many still persist because of poor enforcement. Under the law, large commercial fishing boats are not allowed within the 15-km zone from the coastline. The policy objective of this law is to reserve the area for small-scale and subsistence fishermen as well as to protect the fishery resources from intensive

fishing operations. However, since there are neither boundary markers in the open sea nor any effective surveillance equipment to monitor the movement of commercial fishing boats (CFBs), this law is observed in the breach. Why do all these acts, destructive as they are, continue almost unabated? Often because of sheer government indifference as evidenced by the meager resources allocated for operations against illegal fishing. Sometimes, it is also because of the attitude of local government officials and front-line law enforcers who choose to look the other way. This is especially the case where the culprits are the political ward leaders of the local officials, or sometimes, their own relatives and friends. From destruction to protection The sea is a living thing. It is filled with life; it is finite; it is delicate; and it is beginning to tell us the story of suffering. It was also here long before we came around; it will be here long after our arrogant species has become extinct. The sea was once considered so vast and so boundless that the principle of mare liberium (freedom of the seas) was developed, first articulated by Hugo Grotius, a Dutch lawyer, and has since gained wide acceptance. In the 17th century, the Spanish and Portuguese tried to lay exclusive claim to trade with Asia and its Spice Islands. Grotius, representing his client the Dutch Trading Company, argued that the sea was common to all, and that because it was so limitless, it could not become the possession of (any) one... whether... (for) navigation or (for) fisheries. Although credited by scholars for the advancement of the international law principle of freedom of the seas, there was actually nothing new in the theory. The concept dated back to early Roman law, and was long practiced in Asian maritime societies. The naturally friendly and commercially fair Asian peoples had long welcomed everyone who sought peaceful trade with themthe Spanish, British, Portuguese and the Dutch. Trade between Asian countries predated any form of trade with the Europeans by a good millennium. Jewelry, vases, and other artifacts unearthed from archeological sites in the Philippines are evidence of such trade. However, the European visitors were not satisfied with merely being guests. Instead, they sought domination and became Asias conquerors and colonizers. The principle of mare liberium has been used to justify not only freedom of navigation but also the freedom of, and license to exploit without regulation. A new paradigm which carries with it the moral duty to care for the sea is needed at

this time. We must advance the model from mare liberium to mare nostrum (our seas). Under this paradigm and operating principle of law, the sea is considered the source of life and, as such, must be the object of collective care by all humans. The legal principles of this paradigm shift are beginning to take shape in the provisions of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The Philippine Fisheries Code also articulates the need for marine conservation and food security. While the law states that no commercial fishing is allowed within municipal waters for the reasons earlier stated, this law has been generally ignored and violated, for several reasons. First, because it is difficult to determine the boundary lines of the 15-km zone encompassed by the municipal waters. Second, the local government units have no effective surveillance system to monitor and apprehend commercial fishing boats intruding into their waters. Third, the small motorized outrigger boats often used by coastal municipal governments in their own Bantay Dagat (Sea Watch) patrol efforts can barely go beyond five kilometers out to the open sea, especially during the heavy monsoon winds. Fourth, cost and navigational considerations make it difficult and unfeasible to set up buoys in the 15 km margins. Defense against commercial fishing boats What are some measures that can be used to prevent the commercial fishing boats (CFBs) from continuous intrusions and fishing in the municipal waters? 1) Physical mappingIn cooperation with NAMRIA and using their maps, identify and mark the 15-km band of the municipal waters. 2) Social mappingIdentify the owners and principal stockholders of the CFBs, (i.e. the Chairman of the Board; CEO; the majority stockholder/s, and other officers). These are the people who will have the biggest stake in the enterprise and make the major decisions for its operations. 3) Institutional linkagesLink up with the Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA), the agency that issues the certificate of seaworthiness for commercial boats. Find out whether a GPS is required to be used by all vessels. Whether or not it is required, the common navigation skills of the crew will, for all practical and legal purposes, be more than enough to let everyone know that the areas identified as municipal waters are off-limits for commercial fishing operations. 4) Enforcement paradigmShift the enforcement operation from the physical to the psychological. The Bureau of Fisheries and other enforcement officials can then conduct a dialogue with small groups of commercial fishing boat operators over lunch or dinner. Meeting in small groups starting with the big boys over a meal has distinct advantages in the dynamics of human psychology. The meeting is culturally appropriate, as the

discussion is more personal and intimate. It helps avoid public confrontation and posturing. It takes advantage of the psychology of food, as a person who has eaten the food of another will always be susceptible to friendly suggestion. It is an expression of political will, and it is an efficient use of resources. 5) Airborne PatrolThere being minimal resources for sea-borne patrol operations, surveillance could be shifted into the air. It may be necessary to deputize pilots from the Air Force and from the private sector to assist in the conduct of continuous surveillance and monitoring operations against commercial fishing boats intrusions. A system must then be developed for them to report any intrusion into the municipal waters, to a central, quick-reaction base. Empower large numbers of people to watch over potential violators so that the commercial fishing boat operators will know that there are many eyes watching them. 6) Medium and messageUse the principle of the medium is the message in the meeting with CFB operators, by high-ranking environmentalist-officers of the Air Force, Coast Guard, Navy, or Maritime Police, private pilots and the president of the inter-island commercial shipping association. The presence of uniformed officers will enhance the seriousness and credibility of the message being delivered. 7) Information and educationAt the lunch or dinner meeting, request the help of all concerned, especially the CFB owners. Request the CFB operators to help prevent the intrusion of commercial fishing boat operations into municipal waters. Distribute maps of the areas open to commercial fishing operations. As softly, gently, and tactfully as possible, advise CFB owners that the Bureau of Fisheries has sought for and has received the utmost cooperation of the Philippine Air Force and other agencies in this campaign. Whos in charge? The problem of illegal fishing is a classic case of having too many cooks spoiling the broth. There are several agencies that have jurisdiction over the sea. The Maritime Group of the Philippine National Police has legal jurisdiction over criminal activities along the coastline. While correct in concept, it is saddled with a meager operating budget and very few boats. Then, there is the Philippine Coast Guard, mandated to protect the coastline and seawaters of the Philippines from marine pollution. The Coast Guard is also grossly under-funded, with little or no airborne capability and very few operating fast boats. The Philippine Navy also has a mandate to protect the coastline and national security. It has more boats, but many are in a decrepit state. There is the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), the principal government agency with the primary mandate to conserve the countrys marine resources, as well as the Local Government Units with all-encompassing powers to protect local resources.

Finally, there is the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) with the principal mandate that includes the conservation of natural and coastal resources, especially areas proclaimed as marine parks or protected seascapes. Collaterally, there are other government agencies that play a role in the management of fisheries. The Maritime Industry Authority (MARINA) supervises the licensing of shipping vessels, including commercial fishing boats (CFBs). The Philippine Ports Authority supervises operations of ports; the Bureau of Internal Revenue has an interest in the bookkeeping practices and financial statements of the CFB operators. The Department of Health has jurisdiction over the health and sanitation requirements of these boats; the Department of Labor supervises the occupational and safety standards of the fish workers. Even the Department of Transportation and Communications through the National Telecommunications Commission (NTC) exercises supervision over the radio communications equipment and operation of the commercial fishing boats. At first sight, it looks like a tangled web that government has woven. On second thought, however, the legal mandates and resources of each of the agency-players may be harnessed to focus on the problem of illegal fishing. This is the principle behind the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Management Council (FARMC) at the national and local levels. If the practice of illegal fishing must be addressed and totally eliminated, the answer lies in finding the right leader, and the proper lead agency. For higher-ranking officials like the Minister of Agriculture and the Minister of the Environment and Natural Resources, this could be a checklist of musts in the fight against illegal fishing. 1) A championThere is need for a person to lead the way and put together all the necessary ingredients to make it work. Either of the Ministers may take the lead. Only when a person devotes much of his time, abilities and resources to a particular objective for a focused and extended period can anything be done. 2) A multi-agency teamThe crew would comprise a multi-agency team of like-minded people. They need to have only one criteriona commitment and a passion for the sea. 3) CompositionFrom each of the principal concerned agencies (PNP Maritime Group, Coast Guard, Philippine Navy, LGU (DILG), BFAR, DENR, etc.), it is necessary to create a team and house its members in a single office. Logically, this should be on the premises of the lead agency. The office as well as the assigned personnel must be provided with fixed official tenure and provided with sufficient logistical support. The operational budget for such an office can be allocated from the budget of the lead agency and, if possible, contributions from other concerned agencies.

4) BudgetHe who provides the funds sets the agenda. In the world of getting things done, money is the oil that lubricates the machinery of human society. 5) Equipment and facilitiesThe team must be provided with modern telecommunications facilities (fax, modem, cellular phones, landlines, VHF and SSB radios, satellite phones, etc.) and, of course, computers and printing equipment. The role of telecommunications capabilities cannot be overemphasized, given the location of the places that must be contacted and the archipelagic configuration of the Philippines. 6) Time frameAn effective anti-illegal fishing operation must have a fixed, mediumterm project life. The long-term task of the team would be to make itself irrelevant and unnecessary. Rather than indefinitely prolong the life of the task force, it must seek to inseminate and transfer the knowledge, skills, and attitude to all concerned in the shortest time possible. That will happen if and when it has become effective in the conduct of anti-illegal fishing operations so that ultimately it changes behavior, such that the people themselves will no longer tolerate destructive fishing activities in their locality. A maximum time frame for any massive anti-illegal fishing project must be about six years. Operational guidelines It is necessary to set an achievable goal that everyone in the team can visualize and identify with. The goal or mission statement may be simplified: eliminate organized illegal fishing operations. The term organized illegal fishing means an activity conducted by two or more individuals on a regular basis and for a sustained period. Targeting the three concerns of blast fishing, cyanide fishing and commercial fishing boat intrusions in sequence will keep the team busy for three to four years. The Fisheries Code of 1998 already makes it clearly illegal to practice such fishing methods and to possess or sell fish caught in such manner. The latter years of this six-year project could be devoted to mopping up and institutionalizing, not the task force, but the attitudinal change. The first phase of the teams term could be fixed for a period of 1,000 days. The operational timetable must include the various components in the anti-illegal fishing campaign, among them, LGU capacity building, anti-blast fishing operations, anticyanide fishing interdictions, commercial fishing boat intrusions and the like. Legal marketing techniques create an impact in orders of magnitude. The principles used to neutralize CFB intrusions may also be used to neutralize blast-fishing operations. Targeting the sources of blasting paraphernalia, e.g., blasting caps and ammonium nitrate, is one approach. Another would be to employ market-denial techniques in order to

strangle the market for illegally- caught fish. This could consist of the confiscation of the catch when apprehended in the market. In the long-term, this effort would empower consumers to identify illegally caught fish and simply refuse to buy it. The latter is a more powerful form of market denial. As in any marketing campaign, a legal marketing approach to illegal fishing must determine the target market, and address the basic questions of who, what, when and how. The target market would be: (a) suppliers of ammonium nitrate; (b) suppliers of blasting caps; (c) notorious fishermen; and (d) buyers of the fish (the market). The aforementioned individuals are requested to help in trying to solve the problem of blast fishing, and may even be requested to help convince others. The subliminal message that accompanies this strategy is that the persons requested now know that they are being monitored. The timing of the operations must be considered well. It should be soon enough to convey the impression that government means business. Yet, it must allow for time enough to plan and prepare for the extensive legal strikes. The strikes must also be timed and spaced to avoid ningas cogon operations, to impress others that it is a sustained operation, and to develop and continually keep the team in combat ready condition. Having given the parties due notice and having solicited their help, the Team may later conduct intensive surveillance operations, say, from 30 days after the meeting and continuously for the next 300 days. This will gather evidence as to whether such persons are still engaged in their unwholesome and nefarious activities. If behavior has not changed, the Team can launch a sweeping legal strike against all persisting personalities. Hotspots can be identified and all efforts focused on these areas. If anything is to be accomplished in the battle against illegal and destructive fishing operations, the time and passion of the concerned people must be focused. Sea patrols are not as effective a deterrent as airborne patrols. Sea-borne surveillance is slow and limited by the speed of the boat, while an aircraft has a wider range of flight and view of the horizon. Cost-wise and in the long-term, between a patrol boat and a light plane, effectively used, the latter will turn out to be more cost-effective. With respect to the flying assets of the Philippine Air Force, their helicopters and planes may likewise be put to good use. Note that these flying assets must be flown regularly, in what are called maintenance flights. A little training for the Air Force pilots in fisheries

law enforcement surveillance patrol techniques will go a long way in getting their indispensable cooperation. In military parlance, the patrol and surveillance mission may be piggy-backed on the routine missions of the Air Force plane or chopper. The ultimate goal of airborne operations is to create deterrence. The punishment they deserve A few points need to be emphasized in the prosecution of illegal fishing violations. Criminal prosecution is always a tedious and aggravating exercise. In many cases it is also politically difficult because of the socio-political and budget considerations. These realities must be kept in mind before any law enforcement operation is activated. The offenses in illegal fishing are relatively easy to prosecute. The preparation of a standardized trial brief with the facts, the laws and implementing rules outlined for orderly and efficient presentation will hasten the process of litigation considerably. Because illegal fishing is a victimless crime, it can easily be politically resolved or extra-judicially settled, particularly with the intercession of influential figures. On the other hand, those caught most are not large-scale operators. Putting the offender in prison for the entire period provided by the penalty would deprive the family of a breadwinner. This humane consideration is what usually gets in the way of effective prosecution. One of the possibilities is for the Department of Justice to designate a small group of highly motivated and trained special prosecutors to handle cases involving environment and natural resources law violations especially in regions where illegal fishing is rampant. These prosecutors can also serve as inquest officers. The Department of Justice shall embark on a program to strengthen the prosecution and conviction aspects of fishery law enforcement through augmentation of the current complement of state prosecutors and through their continuous training and reorientation of fishery laws. Section 125, Fisheries Code A legal arsenal for marine resource protection has been prepared by a group of selected judges, prosecutors, and law enforcement personnel. This is an easy-to-use manual that contains a checklist of things that need to be done as well as the standard legal forms necessary for the investigation, filing, and prosecution of illegal fishing cases. This handbook can be widely disseminated to make it more convenient for law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judges to carry out their functions and expeditiously prosecute illegal fishing cases. The checklist is very useful for enforcement

personnel. In the heat of the action, especially during the stages of apprehension, arrest, and investigation, papers and procedural steps have a tendency to be omitted or forgotten. The Supreme Court of the Philippines may designate Special Environment Courts, especially in hotspot areas. The judges of these courts would be selected on the basis of their interest in the subject matter. Their courts can then have jurisdiction to hear cases involving civil and criminal violations of fisheries and other environmental laws. The introduction of substances into the aquatic environment which result or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as to harm living and non-living aquatic resources, poses potential and/or real hazard to human health, hindrance to aquatic activities such as fishing and navigation, including dumping/disposal of waste and other marine litters, discharge of petroleum or residual products... or solid substances... shall be punished by imprisonment of 6 months to 12 years and/or a fine of P80,000 plus P8,000 per day until the violation ceases. R.A. 8550, Sec. 102, in relation to Sec.4 This provision of the Fisheries Code is potentially very powerful. The wording of the provision encompasses a wide range of activities that can cause marine pollution. The penalty is also a cause for concern among would-be violators. The question arises, however, as to how realistic the penalties are and how practical are the procedures for prosecuting offenders. Note that the criminal penalty is in addition to any liability that may arise as a result of violating the Pollution Control Law. It shall be unlawful for any person to gather or possess corals. Violators shall be punished with imprisonment of six months to two years, and a fine of P2,000 to P20,000. The corals, as well as the vessel used (being the fruits and instrument of the crime), shall be subject to forfeiture. R.A. 8550, Sec. 91 It must be emphasized that the boat used to collect the corals is also subject to forfeiture in favor of the Government. The boat can then be used for marine protection and rehabilitation projects and activities. The fine is quite substantial, and the funds generated can help support environmental protection activities. However, lest it be forgotten, the general purpose of imposing a punishment is three-fold: to punish the offender for the wrong committed (retribution); to rehabilitate the offender to the norms of society (rehabilitation); and to set an example so that others may not follow (deterrence)

However, something good must come out of the punishment. To achieve this, one must experiment in what may be known as creative justice. For many of the offenses, the penalty provided is less than six years, thus subject to probation. In law, probation refers to the suspension of a sentence of imprisonment. Thus the person is granted conditional freedom. This is especially granted to first-time offenders of relatively small offenses punished by imprisonment of six years or less. The provisional freedom granted is, however, conditioned on the promise of good behavior. Here again lies an opportunity to make something good out of the situation. One of the options available to the judge, as it is to the Local Government Unit, is to require the person convicted to undertake marine resources rehabilitation efforts. He can, for example, be required to serve time as a fish warden guarding the local marine sanctuary. He can also be required to conduct marine resources law education to other fishermen. The substantial fine can also be put to good use. It can, for example, be ordered by the court to be set aside as a special fund for the establishment of a marine sanctuary in the locality. The local government unit concerned will be only too happy to receive and be entrusted with the funds, properly monitored by the Court. This can be used for community organization and efforts towards the establishment, maintenance and operation of marine sanctuaries in the seas surrounding the place where the offense was committed. In fact, the funds could even be used to provide for a logistical allowance to the fish wardens and volunteers assisting in the establishment of marine refuge and sanctuaries. Opportunities in the Philippine islands Filipinos are a sea-loving and a sea-faring people. We have the richest marine waters in the world. We have abused these to near total destruction, but we have the opportunity to use our natural love for the sea to repair and restore our marine resources. As an aside, the Philippines has another dubious distinction. It experienced the worst peacetime maritime disaster in history, worse even than the famous sinking of the Titanic. On 20 December 1987, the sinking of the MV Doa Paz cost 4,341 lives. We need to pause for a while and think of how we can turn things around and make them work for us. There are many opportunities are available to Filipinos and the Philippines Islands. 1. Marine ScienceIn the sea, the Filipino is like fishhe is a natural. The country has,

for example, some of the best marine scientists in the world. And this has been achieved despite lack of funding and governmental support for such training. For that reason alone, the Philippines can rise to become an island of excellence in the marine sciences not only in the Asia-Pacific region, but in the whole wide world. 2. Finest sea-rescue teamThe lessons we have learned (and are still learning) from the many marine disasters in the country can be transformed into something beneficial. We can, for example, begin to beef up our marine rescue capabilities to world-class standards. The logistical requirements are simple: half a dozen specially designed helicopters assigned to critical regions, a communications base (with land, cellular and satellite phone availability), and 50 dedicated men and women from the Navy, Coast Guard, and Maritime Police services, hand-picked for their passion for the sea and rescue skills. 3. The best dive sites in the worldHectare for hectare, coral for coral and fish for fish, the Philippines has the best scuba-diving sites in the world. A single dive site off the coast of a town south of Manila called Devils Point, measuring only a few hectares in size, has more species of coral than the Caribbean Sea. The Tubbataha Marine Park alone has more coral species than the entire Great Barrier Reef of Australia. The Philippines can, for example, begin a 10-year-program to rehabilitate the coral reefs of the countrys seas. Practically all of the divers in the world are simply looking for opportunities to put their diving skills to good use. A creative social-marketing campaign and promotion can be undertaken by the government to channel the energies, talents, and resources of scuba divers and sea-lovers in the country and in the world. An immediately practical project is to conduct a nationwide campaign to rehabilitate the coral reefs of the Philippines. Such a project would no doubt energize and accelerate the change in the attitude of Filipinos towards their beloved sea. 4. World-class water sportsWater sports events such as windsurfing, sailing, sport fishing and kayaking are activities for which the Philippines can be a haven. So many other collateral opportunities arise from these options, even economic ones. Among others, the Philippines can be the host of annual events for world-class sailing competitions. It can also be the center of the design and construction of pleasure crafts such as sailboats, motorboats, surfboards, and kayaks.

CHAPTER 6 PART III: Fresh Water

Sub: The security of fresh water supply is threatened by saltwater invasion, excessive impounding and diversion, and contamination, as is evident in the Philippine situation LIKE the human body, 70% of the Earth is made up of water. It was when the water vapor in the air began to condense that water began to form in the depressions of the Earth. First it was in the form of puddles, then ponds, then lakes and ultimately, the seas and oceans of the world. Next only to air, water is the most pervasive substance on Earth. Of all the water in the world, 97% is salty seawater, and only 3% is fresh water. If all the water in the world were to be placed in a gallon, the total volume of freshwater available for the use of all the plant and animal lives is equivalent to only three tiny drops. The problem is that two drops of the three are locked up in glaciers. Only about one drop is what we find floating in the atmosphere as rain and water vapor and in the aquifers as groundwater. Almost all of the water used by humanity today comes from two sources. There is surface water that falls from the sky as rain or snow. This is what accumulates in lakes, rivers, and man-made dams. Ground water is surface water that has seeped into the ground and is stored in the aquifers. It is estimated that there are only about 528 million cubic km of freshwater available. Man is already using more than half of it today. After using it, man generally throws water away, often in its dirty state. With the eight to10 billion people expected in 2025, each eating 300 kg of grain per year, the world will need an additional 780 billion cubic meters of fresh water. With surface water running out, man has looked to the underground and discovered water. To draw water from the underground water table, man invented the water pump. With the power afforded by electricity in the 20th century, the rate of withdrawal of underground water became faster, much faster than the rate at which it could be replenished. What humans failed to see in this haste is that this underground water well is not limitless. It is delicate, and highly dependent on the supply of rainwater that is able to seep into the ground to replenish the underground supply. In Asia where more than half of the human population lives, almost 9/10 of

the fresh water used is devoted to agriculture, and the balance is used for industry and household needs. This can be attributed to the fact that Asians are generally a rice-eating people, and rice is the most water-intensive grain. The low proportion of domestic water use is probably due to the fact that a very small segment of the population actually has access to running water. Nature herself has not been equitable in her distribution of fresh water. While Asia has more than half of the worlds population, the region only ha s a third of the global freshwater run-off. Moreover, rainfall is not evenly distributed throughout the year. During the months of May to October, more than 80% of the rainwater falls, often resulting in monsoon floods. The intervals between the extremely dry and excessively wet seasons result in uncontrolled flooding during heavy monsoon rains, and makes water storage quite difficult when the season is dry. People in such countries, however, should count themselves lucky they have water. Today, 400 million to one billion people in the world live in regions with severe water shortages. By the year 2025, it is expected that this number will rise to a staggering four billion people. In many parts of the Philippines, despite the countrys once abundant natural springs and water bodies, people now have to travel hundreds of meters just to fetch a bucketful of potable water. And this is all because the springs have dried up as a result of the deforestation of the surrounding watersheds. In towns and cities, the situation is even much worse in places where there is supposed to be running and piped-in water. Here, clean drinking water must be bought, at a price higher than the cost of gasoline! Too little water, too much salt The water that we find underneath the soil took all of Earths time to form and be stored in the underground water table, a period of over four billion years. When we remove water from this underground deposit, we are actually mining it. Like the removal of mineral deposits, the mining of water is essentially also an irreversible process. The proportion of the volume of water removed from the underground is much, much more than is restored. Whatever is replenished is, in fact, done quite indirectly through the process of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, and then, if at all, percolation (the process of the water infiltrating back into the aquifer). The continuous withdrawal of water from the underground deposit has

irreversible consequences not immediately visible to the naked eye. The more obvious consequences are that when water in the upper layers of the aquifer has dried up, the water table reaches deeper and deeper in the underground. In time, that deeper layer also eventually dries up. Serious overdrafts from the aquifer are taking place the world over: In the aquifer system of the high plains of the United States, the aquifer is being depleted at the rate of 12 billion cubic meters per year. In the state of California, groundwater overdraft averages 1.6 billion cubic meters per year. Two-thirds of this depletion happens in the Central Valley of California, the countrys vegetable basket. The Ogallala aquifer is one of the Earths greatest aquifers, which spans across eight US states, including Colorado, Kansas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas. It is currently being depleted at the rate of 12 billion cubic meters a year, a volume equal to the flow of 18 Colorado rivers. At its peak in 1978, the total area irrigated by the Ogallala aquifer was 5.2 million hectares. In 1988, it fell to 4.2 million hectares. A long-range study revealed that by the year 2020, 40% of the irrigated area would have to be taken away from production for lack of irrigation water. In the densely populated countries of India and China, this is cause for even greater alarm. In Indias breadbasket states of Punjab and Haryana, groundwater levels have been falling. In Gujarat, groundwater levels fell 90% in all the wells monitored in the 1980s. In Beijing, the capital of China, the water table dropped by 37 m over the last 40 years. China, the worlds largest grain producer, is running a chronic water deficit with its overpumping of 30 billion cubic meters a year. Across Northern China, which produces roughly 40% of the countrys grain, the water table has been dropping 1-1.5 million cu m per year. In the African Sahara, a place that cannot afford to lose any water, there are vast but non-recharging aquifers. Here the depletion rate is estimated at 10 billion cubic meters per year. In the Arabian Peninsula, groundwater use is three times more than the rate of recharge. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia depends almost solely on nonrenewable groundwater resourcesthree out of the four glasses of water that a Saudi Arabian drinks comes from non-renewable water sources. At the depletion rates projected in the 90s, oil-rich Saudi Arabia will run out of

usable ground water reserves within the next two generations. Nearer home, significant overdrafts have occurred in and around Bangkok, Manila, and Jakarta. Over-pumping has caused land subsidence beneath Bangkok at a rate of 0.61 to 5.1 cm per year over the past two decades. This subsidence is also occurring in Manila, Jakarta and Mexico. Six thousand years ago, people living in the highlands of Mesopotamia settled in the lowlands. In the plains near the two great rivers of the Tigris and the Euphrates lived people later known as the Sumerians. Having discovered and learned agriculture, the Sumerians had a little problem: Their new homeland was drier than their former mountain dwellings. They discovered that while the seeds they planted would sprout and grow, before harvest time their crops would wither and die because the climate was so dry. So they dug a ditch and diverted some of the waters of the Euphrates River to their fields. This started the practice of artificially watering farmland to force it to grow more food. This is now known as irrigation. However, since water contains salt, and since the Sumerians used so much water for irrigation, in time the salt accumulated in the soil of their farms. Of course, since plants cannot stand salt, in time the seeds they planted ceased to sprout and grow. The land that they tilled on the plains of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers became a desert. This place is now Southern Iraq. As agriculture freed man from the uncertainty of hunting, irrigation liberated him from the uncertainty of the harvest. Freed from non-farm chores, there was more time to spend on endeavors other than on feeding himself. Indeed, irrigation is said to be one of the landmarks of human civilization. Irrigation has come a long way. Almost half of the worlds food now comes from irrigated farmlands, mainly from India, China, and the United States. However, what first appeared to be a boon for food production carried with it a pricethe salinization of soil. By artificially supplying a constant amount of water to a patch of land, the salt contained in the water accumulated over time. In time, the water not only compacts the surface of the soil (known as water logging), but the amount of salt also accumulates on that particular patch of earth. This process of saline water seeping into the soil by too much irrigation is also known as saline seeps.

Six thousand years later, the lesson learned by the Sumerians is still to be learned. Today, one out of every five hectares of irrigated land is damaged, most of it irreversibly, by salt. From China and India in the East to the prairies of Canada, saline seeps have taken out millions of hectares of land. The lands located in the coastal areas are more vulnerable to the double trouble of saline seeps: It impacts both the surface waters and the ground waters. Take the case of Israel. On the surface, Israel has created a garden of plant life in the midst of the Middle East desert. However, this water did not come for free. The price that Israel now pays for the 40 years of overpumping is that seawater has irreversibly invaded the coastal aquifer. Water officials predict that two of every five of all the coastal wells in Israel may need to be closed within a few years because of saltwater intrusion. Saltwater intrusion into the aquifer is even more critical and should be a special cause of concern for island nations. In the Philippines, the intensive pumping of groundwater and the resulting saltwater intrusions have been noted in various parts of the countryin the towns and cities of Las Pias and Paraaque in Metro Manila; Bacoor, Kawit and Noveleta in the province of Cavite; and most notably, in the metropolitan area of Cebu, the second largest urban area in the country. In the case of Cebu, the saltwater has intruded into the aquifer as far as four kilometers inland. The situation has been described as fast approaching terminal. The local water district has removed its deep wells three kilometers inland because the salt content in the water was already more than double the allowable health standard. It has been recorded that the saltwater intrusion is creeping in at the rate of about 200 feet per year. Another irreversible impact of groundwater depletion is compaction, which permanently reduces the Earths natural capacity to store water. The bane of dams The volume of water in the atmosphere is constant. It circulates in the form of water from rainfall that collects in ponds, lakes and the sea. There, it rises again by evaporation and water vapor collects in the clouds, and after condensation it falls again as rain. To satisfy mans need for fresh water, he learned to divert the running surface waters into his farmlands and there grow more of his food. In the last

50 years an exponential increase in the volume of surface water was diverted for human usewater needed for drinking, for irrigation, for the power to run turbines to produce electricity. It was also used for the domestic needs of modern man. The surface waters from the rivers of the world were so heavily used in the past 30 years, the entire water cycle seems to have been disturbed. As revealed by the physical evidence in many of the great rivers of the world, the flow of fresh water from the uplands has been so disrupted that hardly anything finds its way to the sea anymore. Surface waters have been converted into water reservoirs and dams for irrigation and hydroelectric energy. During the dry season in India, the country with the largest land area under irrigation, the river Ganges barely reaches the Bay of Bengal. In the US, the Colorado River, the river that once carved out the Grand Canyon, suffers the same fate. Over the last 100 years, the surface water of the Colorado River has been diverted to make 10 major dams, plus an assortment of diversions such that, today, barely a trickle finds its way to the Sea of Cortez. Once seen as a solution to the perennial problem of water supply, numerous large dams were built in a span of 100 years. In the last 35 years alone, the number grew by geometric proportions, from only 5,000 in 1950 to almost 40,000 in the latter half of the 20th century. The large-scale diversion of surface waters is showing signs of affecting their natural flow. Physical symptoms of ecological malfunction are beginning to appear. The United States, the country with the largest number of dams in the world, is showing the way to hydrological perdition. The water diversion in California has caused the state to lose almost all of its wetlands. With the loss of 95% of these wetlands, the population of migratory birds and other waterfowl animals, which depended on wetlands for their food and habitat, dropped from 60 million in 1950 to only about three million today. In Egypt, the colossal Aswan dam was constructed in the 1960s to harness the Niles waters and to provide a hedge against droughts. Before it was constructed, the Nile River had 47 commercial species of fish. Ten years after it was completed, only 17 harvestable species remained. In the eastern Mediterranean Sea, without the nutrient-rich silt entering the sea from the

Nile, eight out of 10 sardines caught every year are gone. The most severe impact of the Niles ecological disruption, however, has been on the river delta. The silt that would otherwise flow out and be deposited in the delta is now trapped in Lake Nasser. Instead of building up the delta and enriching it further with the soil nutrients, the delta is receding into the sea. Scientific researchers of the world-renowned Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute estimated in 1989 that Egypt could lose almost 20% of its habitable land within 60 years, displacing as much as 16% of its population and wiping out a corresponding part of its economic activity. Evidence of the most spectacular damage brought about by surface water diversion can be seen in the Aral Sea basin in Central Asia, once the fourth largest lake in the world. Because of the extensive diversions of the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya rivers, once considered a solution to allow the growing of cotton in the desert, the Aral Sea has lost half of its surface area. It has also lost 75% of its volume of water. From 55 billion cu m before 1960, today, a mere seven billion cubic meters flows into the Aral Sea. As a result, of the 24 species of fish formerly found in the Aral Sea, 20 have been permanently lost. Fish catch, which was about 44,000 tons in the 1950s, supporting 60,000 jobs, has been reduced to zero. Entire fishing villages have been abandoned. It is estimated that every year, the winds pick up up to 150 million tons of a toxic salt-dust (the dried mixture of salt and soil from the lakes bed) and blow it over the surrounding farmlands. As a result, some 28,000 people have had to leave these lands and seek livelihood opportunities elsewhere, an early example of what will soon become a 21st century phenomenonecological refugees. The biggest dam on Earth presently being constructed is the Three Gorges Dam in China. The jury is still out as to what environmental impact this dam will have on the land and the hydrological flow of its fresh water system. Waste and contamination It is a paradox of human behavior that since the earliest times, man has disposed of his wastes into the very water from which he drinks. The word wastewater is in itself a contradiction in terms. If water is so precious, it should not be wasted. If there is yet another dubious distinction that man can claim for himself, it is the fact that among all the animals, he is the only one who dirties the water that he uses, and in great volumes.

Wastewater, often in a dirty state, is what causes a change in the physical or chemical composition of the waters it is thrown into. This is when we say that the body of water is polluted. Pollution comes from what are called point sources and from non-point sources. Point sources are those that may easily be pointed to and identified, such as industrial establishments. On the other hand, non-point sources are those where the source cannot easily be identified, such as agricultural sources, household sewage, and storm waters. Clean water contains plenty of oxygen that aquatic life needs. But the load of pollution in the water reduces the supply of oxygen in water. When organic material is placed in water, bacteria decompose it. These microorganisms also need oxygen to survive. When the volume of organic matter placed in water is small, only a few air-consuming bacteria are needed for its decomposition. The more organic matter there is in water, the more bacteria will be needed to decompose it. Of course, the more bacteria there is, the greater their consumption of dissolved oxygen. The greater the consumption, the less oxygen is available for the other animals that share the waters. Thus, when there is so much organic matter dumped into a body of water, the multitude of bacteria needed to decompose it will need a greater amount of dissolved oxygen. When the water ceases to contain enough oxygen to sustain other animal life because it was consumed by the bacteria needed for decomposition, the water is said to be biologically dead. Why does a body of water stink when it is full of organic wastes? After the bacteria has played its role in decomposing organic matter in the water, there are residual side effects. The process of decomposition breaks up the organic matter into its basic elements containing compounds of potassium, phosphorous, nitrogen, and other nutrients. Having them in water is like giving the water an extra-large dose of fertilizer. Similar to what happens with sea water, algae are excessively fertilized. The algal bloom has the effect of further depleting the supply of oxygen. With the oxygen gone, anaerobic bacteria, the bacteria that do not need oxygen to survive, works on the remaining wastes. What emits the foul odor is the release of hydrogen sulphide, a by-product in the process known as eutrophication.

There are also chemical compounds and heavy metals such as cyanide, mercury and lead that are used in industrial activity and thereafter thrown away into the water. These chemicals either contaminate the underground or flow into waterways and eventually find their way into water bodies. The most dramatic example of this was the outbreak of the Minamata disease that struck a Japanese fishing village in 1953.40 The disease was traced to mercury poisoning. We need not look too far for examples. Because of the intensive mining that went on upstream of the Surigao River in the northeastern part of Mindanao, the mercury level of its waters is now 5,000 times higher than the normal standard of concentration. The question that remains for the people of Surigao City to answer for themselves in the near future is not whether they will eventually suffer the same fate as the people of Minamata; they simply have to ask when. It is estimated that approximately 450 cu km of wastewater is discharged into the coastal areas of the world every year, wastewater that has been thrown into the streams and the rivers. Even greater is the volume of clean freshwater that is needed to dilute this pollution load. In Asia, the rivers contain an average of 20 times more lead than the rivers of industrialized countries. They also contain 50 times more bacteria from human feces than the tolerable standards of the World Health Organization. As a result, some 500,000 Asians die every year from poor sanitation and dirty water. Millennia after millennia of human civilization, people have died off like flies simply because elementary habits of sanitation were not learned. The so-called lower forms of animals, in fact, have better sanitary habits than man. We have yet to find a pig or a monkey or any other animal that will defecate in its source of food. We now know that it has taken billions of years to get that store of water into the underground water table. It may be noted that these aquifers are the repositories of 97% of the liquid freshwater in the world. In the natural order of things, on average, water stays underground for about 1,400 years. In the science of hydrology, this is called the average residence time of groundwater. It is the time it stays underground before going out to the sea. The recharge rate is also slow. After being absorbed by the roots of plants,

only a fraction (10-20%) of the precipitation (in the form of rainfall or snow) actually goes back into the underground, deposited as a bank account of water. The chemical compounds that we use and then discard into the ground will eventually find their way into the groundwater. Because these artificial chemicals are toxic, the groundwater is contaminated. It takes only one tablespoon of mercury, for example, to contaminate 1,000 cu m of water. When groundwater is contaminated, the process is virtually irreversible. The technical difficulties of cleaning up contaminated groundwater are mind-boggling. To clean groundwater contaminated with mercury, we would have to dig out the water. How much of the contaminated water we can actually take out, and whether we can take out everything, no one can tell. After removing the water, the microscopic mercury content would have to be stripped away by a chemical process that is beyond the understanding of ordinary laymen. Assuming it can be done physically and chemically, it can only be done at an unimaginable cost. The path of intensive industrialization taken by the US in the past 50 years or so did not come without a price. As a result of industrialization and the consequential toxic wastes it generated, today the US has identified about 400,000 sites with its soil and groundwater heavily contaminated with chemical pollution. These tainted patches of land are the so-called Superfund sites. A very conservative estimate is that it will take at least $1 trillion to clean up these polluted sites. The groundwater contamination faced by the world today has become a matter of grave concern. All over the world, incidents have arisen from at least three general sources. Too much nitrogen is deposited into the soil from human and animal waste. In the United States alone, the waste of farm animals is 130 times more than the waste of the Americans. Not content with the nitrogen produced by animal waste, humans even add nitrogen-rich fertilizers to their plants, and in great volumes at that. Since only a fraction of the fertilizers is actually used by the plants, much of the nitrogen either runs off into the waterways or leaches into the groundwater. Nitrate pollution is particularly severe in areas where the demand for food productivity is greatest. In the northern counties of China such as in Beijing, Tianjin, Hebie and Shandong, nitrate concentrations have exceeded the 45

mg per liter (mg/l) standard set by the World Health Organization. In some places, it goes as high as 300 mg/l, or more than six times the acceptable health standard. In Punjab and Haryana in India, where nitrogen fertilizer was applied extensively for several decades to feed its population, nitrate concentration in wells that were examined indicated that it was five to 15 times higher than the safe limit. In an island in central Philippines, sometimes called the egg basket of the region for its great number of poultry farms, a water contamination study was conducted. Of the 70 communal wells monitored, each and every one was found with heavy nitrate pollution from the chicken manure. Man-made chemical compounds, such as the pesticides applied on plants, have seeped into the aquifer and present even more serious hazards. As we have seen, the contaminating impact of toxic chemicals is exponential. Both the rich and the poor countries are victims of their own excess. In the US, for example, more than half of all the water wells sampled in the mid-1990s contained pesticide contamination. Indias practice of spraying too much DDT in the states of West Bengal and Bihar came with a heavy price. The Central Pollution Control Board of India found that the DDT level present in the groundwater was several thousand times higher than was considered acceptable. Salt is a naturally occurring chemical present in soil and, in concentrated form, in the waters of the sea. Seawater intrudes into the aquifer to replace the vacuum created by the removal of freshwater. In this manner, saltwater has intruded several kilometres inland into the aquifers beneath the coastal cities of Jakarta, parts of Florida in the US, Turkey and China. In Manila, where groundwater levels have fallen 50-80 m because of overdraft, seawater has flowed as far as five kilometers into the Guadalupe aquifer that lies below the city. The politics of water At least 214 rivers in the world pass through two or more countries on their way to the sea, with their watersheds cutting across political boundaries. Upstream countries where the rivers pass treat the river as theirs, thus using the waters as they please. Syria and Turkey find themselves in such a situation. Turkey, the upstream nation, is undertaking a hydropower and irrigation scheme using the waters of the Euphrates River. This will reduce the flow of the river in Syria by about 35% in normal years, and even more

during the dry years. This will be in addition to the pollution from the irrigation drainage that will result from the project. Further downstream is Iraq, which is also worried about Syrias using more water from the Euphrates. While both Turkey and Syria have signed a protocol guaranteeing Syria a minimum flow of 500 cu m per second, Syria wants more, and Turkey has refused. In another scenario, the River Nile flows down from Ethiopia and Sudan into Egypt, with Ethiopia controlling approximately 86 % of the Niles water flow. If Ethiopia irrigated even half of its 3.7 million hectares of arable land from the waters of the Nile, downstream flow to Egypt could reduce by at least nine billion cu m per year. However, Egypt has more military power than Ethiopia. If its water supply is seriously threatened, there is no telling what it can do. In yet another part of the world, Bangladesh receives the polluted waters of the Ganges River after it winds through India. Because it is an economically poorer country, Bangladesh just has to grin and bear it. In fact, the closest thing to a truly environmental case that reached the International Court of Justice was related to upstream water impounding. The Gabcikovo Dam case involved a dispute between Hungary and Slovakia over the construction and operation of a series of locks on the Danube River. Upstream Slovakia wanted the dam project to proceed. However, downstream Hungary alleged that the project would result in ecological damage, including damage to the riverbank flora and fauna, the water quality and the fish breeding cycles. Groundwater use is also a potential source of conflict by competing users. One of the principal irritants between the Arab dwellers of the Palestinian West Bank and the Israelis has been the fact that water supply is strictly regulated for the Arab users. On the other hand, the Israeli settlers use four times more water than the Arabs; some of them even have swimming pools. Israel has not permitted the Arabs to drill new wells for agriculture since 1967, while Israel itself has drilled more than 30 wells. The Oslo accord between Israel and Palestinian, in fact, specifically included a provision recognizing Palestinian water rights. An interesting legal case was brought before the courts of law in a perennially water-short island province in Central Philippines. Despite of the objection of the local government unit, the local water district of the city drilled 40 wells in a northern town. When the wells were about to become

operational, the water district applied for an electrical permit from the local government unit. The local government refused. Legal battles ensued. All of the above scenarios are actual examples of the increasing number of controversies arising from competing uses of this scarce liquid of life. With a growing population to feed and the increasing affluence of people, the conflicts among nations and among localities will only grow in intensity and complexity. It has been said that the wars of the 21st century will be fought over water. The Philippine situation THE countrys inland waters are primarily made up of 421 rivers with drainage areas ranging from 40 to 25,000 sq km, 58 natural lakes, and more than 100,000 hectares of freshwater swamps. Similar to much of Asia, on average, 84% of the fresh water is used to irrigate cropland, 8% for industrial and commercial purposes, and the remaining 8% for domestic water supply. However, these figures do not take into account the fact that many commercial, industrial, agricultural, and domestic users simply bore a hole in the ground and used the groundwater, with the government agencies concerned being none the wiser. Theoretically, fresh water supply in the Philippines appears to be more than sufficient. Taking into account surface run-off and ground infiltration, it is estimated that 431 million cu m (mcm) of water are available per day, while demand is placed only at 77 mcm per day. However, the readily accessible supply of potable water is largely available only in urban areas. In Metro Manila, for example, most of the domestic water supply of its 10 million people comes from the surface waters of the Angat and Ipo dams. The countrys lakes make up 2,000 sq km of freshwater area. The largest among these are Laguna de Bay, a 90,000-ha lake adjacent to Metro Manila; Lake Lanao in Mindanao with an area of 34,000 ha; and Taal Lake, in the Cavite-Batangas area, south of Manila, with an area of 24,356 ha. A principal source of concern is that the physical evidence indicates that almost all of the surface waters in the Philippines are in various stages of degradation. The four river systems of Metro Manilathe Pasig, TullahanTenejeros, Navotas, and Paraaque-Zapote riversare all biologically dead. Some parts of these rivers are so thick with garbage that one can almost walk on the surface. Almost all of the 10 million inhabitants of Metro

Manila do not have access to a sewage treatment facility. It is estimated that 60% of the total organic load of the Pasig River comes from domestic sewage, and the balance is from industrial sources. While there appears to be enough water supply in the Philippines for its various uses, a host of factors threaten the quality of this supply. The most serious of these is the degradation of watersheds, because it results in severe surface run-offs, ground water depletion, sedimentation of water bodies, and salinization of the aquifers. Watersheds, especially those that serve the urban areas, have recently drawn public attention because of the recurring water shortage during the dry season and flooding during the rainy season. This is probably natures way of making herself heard. A watershed is the geographic configuration of a land mass such that it is formed like a basin. It drains into streams and rivers and ultimately into a large body of water, usually the sea. In this illustration, the sides of the leaf are the land mass upon which rainfall drops, while the veins and mid-rib of the leaf are the waterways. The stream and the river that are spread out over the drainage area are the route of the water as it falls from the higher to the lower ground and eventually into the lake or the sea. The presence of vegetation on the watershed cushions the impact of rainfall and enables its root system to absorb the water and regulate its flow. The flow comes from the trickle of springs that fill the brooks and streams and later finds its way into rivers, and then, out to the lake or the sea. The absence of vegetation in a degraded watershed does exactly the opposite. Rainfall directly hits the land like a miniature bomb, and with its impact, loosens the soil and transports it through the waterways in a torrential flow of water and mud. Siltation, the accumulation of sediments in the waterways and sea bed, has been identified as one of the main causes of the destruction and depletion of marine and aquatic lives. While a watershed is a simple geographic reality, the reality of human occupation is far more complex. Pesky people live in watershed areas; people who use the land in various ways, the least of which is keeping it in vegetative condition. People clear the land and burn the plants, plow the soil, and then plant their seasonal crops. One can readily picture the absence of a

vegetative canopy that would have cushioned the impact of the rainfall. Having been plowed, the soil is loosened even more and becomes highly vulnerable to erosion, especially after the seasonal crops have been harvested. People also build communities of houses (now called subdivisions) and construct roads to get to them, thus intensifying soil movement, soil compaction, and the concrete paving of land. This results in even greater erosion and a faster water run-off. This is, of course, in addition to the permanent loss of the grounds capacity to absorb water as a result of the concrete roads and pavements of human settlements. This erosion and subsequent deposits of silt are nowhere more dramatically evident than in Laguna Lake. The deforestation and unabated conversion of land use in the surrounding watershed has resulted in the severe siltation of the lake. Indicative evidence reveals that in many parts of the lake, the mean depth has been reduced from seven meters 50-80 years ago, to a mere two meters today. The degradation from competing uses of watershed areas recently came into sharp focus in the water-short city of Cebu. A high-end housing development project was being constructed along a new highway that literally cut across a legally proclaimed watershed area. The opening up of a highway across a land area always brings forth active interest in private land acquisition and speculation. This is especially true in areas with a cool climate and spectacular scenery. This trans-central highway of Cebu is interesting if only for the policy and legal issues that it has spawned. First is the policy question of whether a major highway may be allowed to traverse a protected area, a critical watershed at that. After that, there is the question of who and what agency of government should decide. Is it the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB), the multi-sectoral body created by law? Is it the Secretary of the DENR who has been designated by law with authority to determine the uses of the watershed and adopt a classification and zoning map? In case both of the above fail to fulfill their functions, can the local government unit concerned pass a zoning ordinance that classifies 200 m of each side of the highway as a commercial zone? Waste not, want not

Fresh water will be the issue that the world will have to face within the next 20 years. We now understand that it is indeed the liquid of life. The dangers are as clear as the noonday sun. First, we must realize that literally, every single drop of fresh water is precious and must not be wasted. Second, we must understand that at the rate we are now using water and then throwing it away, water supply is not going to last. Third, we must learn that the chemical balance of this liquid its contents of dissolved oxygen and minute particles of plants and animal lifeis extremely delicate and adversely altered by chemical contamination. Fourth, we must realize that all the water we have wasted was not without a cost. Fifth, our children are bound to run out of fresh water in their time. For better recall, the options available may be summarized into the three Es of effective policy implementation: Education, Engineering and Enforcement. An understanding of the basics of water, as you now understand, is the first order of business. When people understand the need to properly value water on their own, they will adopt conservation practices. In time, they will even innovate. When the way people view water has been changed, the wasteful ways will also naturally change. The first thing to do is to remove the idea of wastewater from our vocabulary. If freshwater is so limited and therefore so precious, wasting water is not wise. Since irrigation uses up so much water, it is time to consider drip and microdrip technology. After realizing that they could not afford all the water they were wasting in watering their crops, the people of Israel invented the drip irrigation system. Instead of irrigation water being sprayed (and much of it wasted to evaporation and on non-target areas), the tiny nozzles of the drip irrigation are specifically directed into the root system of the plants. Furthermore, instead of the water being released in a gush, the system makes it drip for better efficiency and maximum absorptive impact. The price of drip irrigation has come down dramatically to highly competitive levels and even to the point of commercial availability. If funding is made available, the technology can even be further improved. By so doing, we would not waste the 80-90% of water that we use today for irrigation. Putting up small impounding dams along streams can prevent the excessive

run-off of soil and water during the rainy season. It can also store the water and make it available for use in the dry season. Furthermore, the impounded water will serve to recharge the aquifer and become a habitat for birds and other aquatic plant and animal life. These mini and micro-impounding dams (with the water surface area measured in square meters instead of hectares) can have their own mini-or micro-watershed areas. Because of its small size, a mini-or micro dam has a negligible environmental impact, and the natural ponds and microwatersheds are also easier to manage and maintain. With the concept of wastewater now removed from our vocabulary, we can begin to start thinking of the term used water. Used water may be reused, almost indefinitely. It can be returned to where it came frominto the atmosphere in case of rain and surface waters, and into the aquifer, in the case of groundwater, through appropriate means. Liquid sewage need not be thrown away. Instead, it can be recycled in ponds where the used water would be cleaned and oxygenated. With the use of gravity, it can flow down to different levels of treatment ponds. With the use of pumps, it can be transported back up to storage ponds upstream for reuse by human settlements. In fact, with modern technology, the resulting processed water can even be re-injected into the aquifer. Plants can be used to purify the liquid sewage. In our preoccupation with and reliance on human technology, we forgot that many varieties of water lily were designed by nature specifically for the purpose of cleaning dirty water. Another concern is the waste of clean water that we now pipe into the water closets of our toilets. If it is understood that more than 50% of the potable water used in homes is used for the simple purpose of flushing our toilet bowls, perhaps we will realize that it is not a wise thing to do. When we understand that the water we use to flush our toilets has taken millions and millions of years to form and become what it is today, in its present level of purity fit for human use, we will realize what a waste it is to simply flush a toilet. The implementation of the concept of eco-lien can go a long way in advancing soil and water conservation, especially in critical watershed areas.

To subsidize or fully finance its implementation, higher water rates need to be charged the water users in the lowlands, especially the commercial and industrial users. If the users of water actually understand that the little more that they pay will be used to protect and rehabilitate the watershed where their water comes from, the resistance will vanish. Industrial pollution is the simplest issue to addressfirst, because the industrial factories are point sources; second, the factory and its owners are in a better financial position to clean up their own act. Third, the technology for cleaning up industrial and chemical pollution is well developed; the only consideration is cost. Fourth, as we have now learned, nothing is for free, and the polluter must pay. Fifth, the magnitude and irreversibility of the impact of reckless chemical pollution are too great and irreversible to even think about. By all means it must be prevented. This leads us to an inescapable conclusion: that there must be a zero tolerance level for any kind of groundwater chemical pollution. The secret lies in the effort to engage the cooperation of the people concerned. They must believe that they too have a stake in maintaining the cleanliness of the water. Once they are convinced of this, the effort can then be directed to empower them to do something about it. On this, government can intervene, if only to jumpstart the process and trigger a chain reaction. Some pump-priming techniques in the art of legal marketing include socio-cultural engines of behavioral change, in which the proceeds from the basic truth that law is only one of the tools for behavioral change, and a revolving environmental fund, where a fee for the discharge of any kind and volume of pollutant may be assessed. This is fair and follows the polluter-pays principle. The money collected from the discharge fees should not go into that black hole of the National Treasury. Instead, the funds may be used to establish a cooperative fund. This is the concept of the revolving environmental fund (REFUND), a fund available to undertake studies and finance water pollution prevention projects. Many pollution problems can be reduced to manageable bite-size. Financing and alternative strategies for pollution control range from pollution prevention, environmental management systems (EMS), clustered waste treatment systems, and projects financed and operated by any of the

BOT (build-operate and transfer) modalities. In coastal cities, the use of sea water for flushing toilets could be explored. Many establishments in Hong Kong now use sea water for flushing. In inland areas, used water, also known as grey water, can be perpetually used to flush the toilets of industrial and commercial establishments, and even of residences. All it takes is to modify the plumbing system. This can be done through innovation in the implementation of the building and construction rules. At local level, the government can require subdivision projects to install a natural waste water treatment system that will in turn be pumped back into a tank for use by the households for flushing, gardening, and general washing. The science of hydrological engineering tells us that a three-tier or threechamber natural treatment system can turn even raw domestic sewage into potable water. Inasmuch as the start-up costs of this system may be substantial for an average land and subdivision developer, this natural sewage treatment system may be co-financed by the national and local governments. The project can even be treated as a commercial venture and part of the water system of the locality. In places where the institutional mechanism of a water district is available, it is a proper investment to make. The start-up costs would include, among others, the establishment of sedimentation and filtration ponds as well as the re-plumbing of households. The costs can be recovered over time from revenues derived from the sale of used water. One of the pre-requisites to the orderly and well-balanced growth of urban areas is an effective system of local utilities, the absence of which is recognized as a deterrent to economic growth, a hazard to public health and an irritant to the spirit and well-being of the citizenry. Excerpt from the Philippine law on local water utilities Last, but not least, is the matter of enforcement. Voluntary enforcement occurs when the behavior of the person whose conduct is the target of the law has already been modified as a result of a change in his way of thinking. Semi-voluntary enforcement is when people follow the desired course of conduct as a result of policy guidance from government. As we learned earlier, price is the best conservationist. Something that is expensive is not wasted.

Involuntary enforcement is the realm of pure law enforcement. In this game of cops-and-robbers, we need to recall only two basic principles: The best form of law enforcement is when the law does not need to be enforced, and if the legal hammer must fall at all, it must fall in a manner that is swift, painful and public.