Scalars, Vectors and Tensors

A scalar is a physical quantity that it represented by a dimensional number at a particular point in space and time. Examples are hydrostatic pressure and temperature. A vector is a bookkeeping tool to keep track of two pieces of information (typically magnitude and direction ) for a physical quantity. Examples are position, force and velocity. The vector has three components. v1 vi xi = v2 v3

velocity vector

v = v1 x 1 + v2 x 2 + v3 x 3 =
i

Figure 1: The Velocity Vector The magnitude of the velocity is a scalar v |v | What happens when we need to keep track of three pieces of information for a given physical quantity? We need a tensor. Examples are stress and strain. The tensor has nine components. 11 12 13 stress tensor ij = 21 22 23 (1-25) 31 32 33 For stress, we keep track of a magnitude, direction and which plane the component acts on.

The Stress Tensor

stress tensor 11 12 13 ij = 21 22 23 31 32 33 (1-25)

The rst subscript keeps track of the plane the component acts on (described by its unit normal vector), while the second subscript keeps track of the direction. Each component represents a magnitude for that particular plane and direction.

Figure 2: Four of the nine components of the stress tensor acting on a small cubic uid element.

The stress tensor is always symmetric

ij = ji

(1-26)

Thus there are only six independent components of the stress tensor. Tensor calculus will not be required in this course.

The Stress Tensor EXAMPLE: SIMPLE SHEAR

12 = 21 = F/A 13 = 31 = 32 = 32 = 0 11 0 ij = 22 0 0 0 33 (1-27) (1-28)

(1-29)

EXAMPLE: SIMPLE EXTENSION

11 0 0 ij = 0 22 0 0 0 33 (1-30)

EXAMPLE: HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

P 0 0 ij = 0 P 0 0 0 P (1-30)

The minus sign is because pressure compresses the uid element. Polymers (and most liquids) are nearly incompressible. For an incompressible uid, the hydrostatic pressure does not aect any properties. For this reason only dierences in normal stresses are important. In simple shear, the rst and second normal stress dierences are: N1 11 22 N2 22 33 The Extra Stress Tensor is dened as ij ij + P ij for i = j for i = j (1-35) (1-32) (1-33)

Strain and Strain Rate Tensors

Strain is a dimensionless measure of local deformation. Since we want to relate it to the stress tensor, we had best dene the strain tensor to be symmetric. ij (t1 , t2 ) ui (t2 ) uj (t2 ) + xj (t1 ) xi (t1 ) (1-37)

u = u1 x1 + u2 x2 + u3 x3 is the displacement vector of a uid element at time t2 relative to its position at time t1 .

Figure 3: Displacement Vectors for two Fluid Elements A and B. The strain rate tensor (or rate of deformation tensor) is the time derivative of the strain tensor. ij dij /dt (1-38)

The components of the local velocity vector are vi = dui /dt (1-39). Since the coordinates xi and time t are independent variables, we can switch the order of dierentiations. ij vi vj + xj xi (1-40)

Strain and Strain Rate Tensors EXAMPLE: SIMPLE SHEAR

0 0 ij = 0 0 0 0 0 Where the scalar = u1 /x2 + u2 /x1 (1-41) 0 0 0 0 ij = 0 0 0 Where the scalar d/dt.

(1-51)

EXAMPLE: SIMPLE EXTENSION

2 0 0 ij = 0 0 0 0 Where the scalar u1 /x1 . 2 0 0 0 ij = 0 0 0 Where the scalar d/dt. (1-47)

(1-48)

The Newtonian Fluid

Newtons Law is written in terms of the extra stress tensor ij = ij (1-49)

Equation (1-49) is valid for all components of the extra stress tensor in any ow of a Newtonian uid. All low molar mass liquids are Newtonian (such as water, benzene, etc.)

EXAMPLE: SIMPLE SHEAR

0 ij = 0 0 ij = 0 The normal components are all zero 11 = 22 = 33 = 0 (1-53) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (1-48)

(1-48)

and the normal stress dierences are thus both zero for the Newtonian uid N1 = N2 = 0 (1-54)

EXAMPLE: SIMPLE EXTENSION

2 ij = 0 0 2 ij = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 (1-48)

(1-55)

Vector Calculus (p. 1)

velocity v = vx i + vy j + vz k i, j , k are unit vectors in the x, y , z directions

acceleration a = a=
dv dt

dv dt

= ax i + ay j + az k

involves vectors so it represents three equations: ax =

dvx dt

ay =

dvy dt

az =

dvz dt

a=

dvy dvz dvx i+ j+ k dt dt dt

The vector is simply notation (bookkeeping).

vy y

Divergence n .

vx x

vz z

y x z If v > 0 and v > 0 and v >0 x y z and vx > 0 and vy > 0 and vz > 0 then you have an explosion! the name divergence.

Vector Calculus (p. 2)

Gradient n . P
P i x

P j y

P k z

3-D analog of a derivative Gradient operator makes a vector from the scalar P . (whereas divergence made a scalar from the vector v ).
2 vx x2 2 vy y 2 2 vz z 2

Laplacian n .

2 v

2 vx 2 vx 2 vx v = + + i x2 y 2 z 2 2 vy 2 vy 2 vy + + j + x2 y 2 z 2 2 vz 2 vz 2 vz + + + k x2 y 2 z 2
2

Laplacian operator makes a vector from a the vector v . Also written as v , divergence of the gradient of v .

Conservation of Mass in a Fluid (p. 2) THE EQUATION OF CONTINUITY

Consider a Control Volume = density (scalar) v = velocity vector n = unit normal vector on surface (v n)dA = net ux out of the control volume through small area dA.
S

(v n)dA = net ow rate (mass per unit time) out of control volume. dV = total mass inside the control volume.
V

V d dt

dV = rate of accumulation of mass inside the control volume.

d dt V

Mass Balance:

dV =

(v n)dA

Conservation of Mass in a Fluid (p. 2)

d dt dV =
V S

(v n)dA

Integral mass balance can be written as a dierential equation using the Divergence Theorem. Divergence Theorem: (v n)dA =
S V

(v )dV

+ (v ) dV = 0 t

Control volume was chosen arbitrarily + (v ) = 0 t

Derived for a control volume but applicable to any point in space. Cornerstone of continuum mechanics!!! Applies for both gases and liquids.

Conservation of Mass in a Liquid

A liquid is incompressible Density is always the same
t

=0

= constant

Integral Mass Balance d dt becomes (v n)dA = 0

S

dV =
V S

(v n)dA

Continuity Equation

+ (v ) = 0

becomes v = 0 for incompressible liquids In Cartesian coordinates: v = vx i + vy j + vz k vx vy vz + + =0 x y z (1-57)

Incompressible Continuity Equation for Liquids

Cartesian Coordinates: x, y , z vx vy vz + + =0 x y z

Cylindrical Coordinates: r, , z 1 v vz 1 (rvr ) + + =0 r r r z

Spherical Coordinates: r, , 1 1 v 1 2 (r vr ) + (v sin ) + =0 2 r r r sin r sin

All are simply v = 0