Yoga From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia For the branch of yoga that explains and emphasizes the

physical practices or disciplines, see Hatha Yoga. For other uses, see Yoga (disambiguation). art of a series on Hindu philosophy !um "stika #chools$sho%& '(stika #chools$sho%& ersonalities$sho%& ) t e art of a series on *uddhism +harma Wheel.s)g History$sho%& +harma ,oncepts $sho%& ractices$sho%& 'ir)(a$sho%& -raditions ,anons $sho%& .utline ortal icon *uddhism portal ) t e -his article contains /ndic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see 0uestion marks or boxes, misplaced )o%els or missing con1uncts instead of /ndic text. Yoga (#anskrit2 !bout this sound pronunciation (help3info)) is the physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines %hich originated in ancient /ndia %ith a )ie% to

attain a state of permanent peace of mind in order to experience one4s true self.$5&$6& -he term yoga can be deri)ed from either of t%o roots, yu1ir yoga (to yoke) or yu1 sam(dhau (to concentrate).$7& -he Yoga #8tras of ata91ali defines yoga as :the stilling of the changing states of the mind:$5& (#anskrit2 2 ; 2). Yoga has also been popularly defined as :union %ith the di)ine: in other contexts and traditions.$<& =arious traditions of yoga are found in Hinduism, *uddhism and >ainism.$?&$@&$A&$@& /n Hinduism, yoga is one of the six (stika schools (accepts authority of =edas)$B& of Hindu philosophy.$C& Yoga is also an important part of =a1rayana and -ibetan *uddhist philosophy.$5D&$55&$56& reEphilosophical speculations and di)erse ascetic practices of first millennium *,F %ere systematized into a formal philosophy in early centuries ,F by the Yoga #utras of atan1ali.$57& *y the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.$5<& $5?& /t, along %ith its many modern )ariations, is the style that many people associate %ith the %ord yoga today. =a1rayana *uddhism, founded by the /ndian Gahasiddhas,$5@& has a parallel series of asanas and pranayamas, such as ca(lH$56& and trul khor. Iurus from /ndia later introduced yoga to the %est,$5A& follo%ing the success of #%ami =i)ekananda in the late 5Cth and early 6Dth century.$5A& /n the 5CBDs, yoga became popular as a system of physical exercise across the Western %orld. -his form of yoga is often called Hatha yoga. Gany studies ha)e tried to determine the effecti)eness of yoga as a complementary inter)ention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart disease.$5B& $5C&$6D&$65& /n a national sur)ey, long;term yoga practitioners in the Jnited #tates reported musculoEskeletal and mental health impro)ements.$66& ,ontents 5 -erminology 6 urpose 7 History 7.5 .rigins 7.6 /ndus =alley ,i)ilization 7.7 =edic period 7.7.5 -extual references 7.7.6 !scetic practices 7.< reclassical era 7.<.5 Jpanishads 7.<.6 *haga)ad Iita 7.<.7 Gahabharata 7.? ,lassical yoga 7.?.5 Farly *uddhist texts 7.?.6 #amkhya 7.?.7 Yoga #utras of atan1ali 7.?.< Yoga Ya1na)alkya 7.?.? >ainism

7.?.@ Yogacara school 7.@ Giddle !ges 7.@.5 *hakti mo)ement 7.@.6 -antra 7.@.7 =a1rayana 7.@.< Hatha Yoga 7.@.? #ikhism 7.A Godern history 7.A.5 Keception in the West 7.A.6 Gedicine 7.A.6.5 otential benefits for adults 7.A.6.6 hysical in1uries 7.A.6.7 ediatrics < Yoga compared %ith other systems of meditation <.5 Len *uddhism <.6 -ibetan *uddhism <.7 ,hristian meditation <.< /slam ? #ee also @ 'otes A Keferences B #ources C Fxternal links -erminology /n =edic #anskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of the #anskrit %ord yoga %hich is :to add:, :to 1oin:, :to unite:, or :to attach: from the root yu1, already had a much more figurati)e sense, %here the yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings such as :employment, use, application, performance: (compare the figurati)e uses of :to harness: as in :to put something to some use:). !ll further de)elopments of the sense of this %ord are post;=edic. Gore prosaic moods such as :exertion:, :endea)our:, :zeal:, and :diligence: are also found in Fpic #anskrit.$citation needed& -here are )ery many compound %ords containing yog in #anskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as :connection:, :contact:, :method:, :application:, :addition:, and :performance:. /n simpler %ords, Yoga also means :combined:. For example, guM;yoga means :contact %ith a cord:N chakrM;yoga has a medical sense of :applying a splint or similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the thigh):N chandrM; yoga has the astronomical sense of :con1unction of the moon %ith a constellation:N pu; yoga is a grammatical term expressing :connection or relation %ith a man:, etc. -hus, bhakti;yoga means :de)oted attachment: in the monotheistic *hakti mo)ement. -he term kriy(;yoga has a grammatical sense, meaning :connection %ith a )erb:. *ut the same compound is also gi)en a technical meaning in the Yoga #utras (6.5), designating the

:practical: aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the :union %ith the #upreme: due to performance of duties in e)eryday life$67& /n Hindu philosophy, the %ord yoga is used to refer to one of the six orthodox ((stika) schools of Hindu philosophy.$note 5& -he Yoga #utras of atan1ali are often labelled as K(1a yoga.$6?& !ccording to (ini, a @th;century *,F #anskrit grammarian, the term yoga can be deri)ed from either of t%o roots, yu1ir yoga (to yoke) or yu1 sam(dhau (to concentrate).$7& /n the context of the Yoga #utras of atan1ali, the root yu1 sam(dhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional commentators as the correct etymology.$6@& /n accordance %ith (ini, =yasa (c. <th or ?th century ,F), %ho %rote the first commentary on the Yoga #utras,$6A& states that yoga means sam(dhi (concentration).$6B& /n other texts and contexts, such as the *haga)ad IHt( and the Hatha Yoga radipika, the %ord yoga has been used in conformity %ith yu1ir yoge (to yoke).$6C& #omeone %ho practices yoga or follo%s the yoga philosophy %ith a high le)el of commitment is called a yogi (may be applied to a male or a female) or yogini (traditionally denoting a female).$7D& urpose -he ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation) though the exact definition of %hat form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system %ith %hich it is con1ugated. /n #hai)a theology, yoga is used to unite kundalini %ith #hi)a.$75& Gahabharata defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the indi)idual "tman %ith the uni)ersal *rahman that per)ades all things.$76& /n the specific sense of atan1ali4s Yoga #utras, yoga is defined as citta;)tti;nirodha (the cessation of the perturbations of the mind).$6<& -his is described by atan1ali as the necessary condition for transcending discursi)e kno%ledge and to be one %ith the di)inely understood :spirit: (:purusha:)2 :!bsolute freedom occurs %hen the lucidity of material nature and spirit are in pure e0uilibrium.:$77& /n the Yoga #utras, atan1ali indicates that the ultimate goal of yoga is a state of permanent peace or Oai)alya in order to experience one4s true self.$6& !part from the spiritual goals, the physical postures of yoga are used to alle)iate health problems, reduce stress and make the spine supple in contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise program and physical therapy routine.$7<& History -he origins of yoga are a matter of debate. /t may ha)e pre;=edic origins.$7?& #e)eral seals disco)ered at /ndus =alley ,i)ilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose.$7@& !scetic practices, concentration and bodily postures used by =edic priests to conduct =edic ritual of fire sacrifice may ha)e been precursors to yoga. re;philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. ?DDE6DD *,F. *et%een 6DD *,FE?DD ,F philosophical schools of Hinduism, *uddhism and >ainism %ere taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.$7A& -he Giddle !ges sa% the de)elopment of many satellite traditions

of yoga. Yoga came to the attention of an educated %estern public in the mid 5Cth century along %ith other topics of /ndian philosophy. .rigins -he origins of yoga are a matter of debate.$7B& !ccording to ,rangle, /ndian researchers ha)e generally fa)oured a linear theory, %hich attempts :to interpret the origin and early de)elopment of /ndian contemplati)e practices as a se0uential gro%th from an !ryan genesis:,$7C&$note 6& 1ust like traditional Hinduism regards the =edas to be the source of all spiritual kno%ledge.$<D&$note 7& .ther scholars ackno%ledge the possibility of non; !ryan components.$7C& #ome argue that yoga originates in the /ndus =alley ,i)ilization. $<7& !ccording to Limmer, Yoga is part of the pre;=edic heritage, %hich also includes >ainism, #amkhya and *uddhism.$<<&$note <&$note ?& #amuel argues that yoga deri)es from the Pramana tradition.$<B&$note @& Ia)in Flood notes that such :dichotomization is too simplistic:2$<C& $-&his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found bet%een renunciation and )edic *rahmanism, %hile elements from non;*rahmanical, #ramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. $<C&$note A& /ndus =alley ,i)ilization #ee also2 ashupati seal Gale figure in a crossed legs posture on a mold of a seal from the /ndus )alley ci)ilization #e)eral seals disco)ered at /ndus =alley ,i)ilization sites, dating to the mid 7rd millennium *,F, depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or meditation pose, sho%ing :a form of ritual discipline, suggesting a precursor of yoga,: according to archaeologist Iregory ossehl.$7@& Kamaprasad ,handa, %ho super)ised /ndus =alley ,i)ilization exca)ations, states that, 'ot only the seated deities on some of the /ndus seals are in yoga posture and bear %itness to the pre)alence of yoga in the /ndus =alley ,i)ilization in that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also sho% Oayotsarga (a standing posture of meditation) position. /t is a posture not of sitting but of standing.$?5& #ome type of connection bet%een the /ndus =alley seals and later yoga and meditation practices is speculated upon by many scholars, though there is no conclusi)e e)idence. $note B& Gany scholars associate the ashupati seal %ith #hi)a.$note C& Yet, White notes2 $ &rior to the end of the first millennium ,F, detailed descriptions of (sanas %ere no%here to be found in the /ndian textual record. /n the light of this, any claim that sculpted images of cross;legged figuresQincluding those represented on the famous clay seals from third millennium *,F /ndus =alley archeological sitesQrepresent yogic postures are speculati)e at best.$@?&

=edic period -extual references !ccording to White, the first use of the %ord :yoga: is in the Kig =eda, %here it denotes a yoke, but also a %ar chariot.$@@& Yoga is discussed 0uite fre0uently in the Jpanishads, many of %hich predate atan1ali4s #utras.$@A& -he actual term :yoga: first occurs in the Oatha Jpanishad$@B& and later in the #h)etas)atara Jpanishad.$@C& White states2 -he earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier =edic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Oathaka Jpanisad(Ou), a scripture dating from about the third century *,F$...& $/&t describes the hierarchy of mind;body constituentsQthe senses, mind, intellect, etc.Qthat comprise the foundational categories of #(mkhya philosophy, %hose metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the Y#, *hg, and other texts and schools (Ou7.5DE55N @.AEB).$AD& !ccording to +a)id Fra%ley$unreliable sourceR&, )erses such as Kig =eda ?.B5.5 %hich reads, #eers of the )ast illumined seer yogically $yun1ante& control their minds and their intelligence$A5& sho% that :at least the seed of the entire Yoga teaching is contained in this most ancient !ryan text:.$A6& !n early reference to meditation is made in *rihadaranyaka Jpanishad, the earliest Jpanishad (c. CDD *,F).$note 5D& /n the Gahabarata yoga comes to mean :a di)ine chariot, that carried him up%ard in a burst of light to and through the sun, and on to the hea)en of gods and heroes.:$AD& !scetic practices !scetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by =edic priests to conduct ya1na (=edic ritual of fire sacrifice), might ha)e been precursors to yoga.$note 55& =ratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in the !thar)a)eda, emphasized on bodily postures %hich probably e)ol)ed into yogic asanas.$A<& Farly =edic #amhitas also contain references to other group ascetics such as, Gunis, the OeSin, and =ratyas.$A@& -echni0ues for controlling breath and )ital energies are mentioned in the *rahmanas (ritualistic texts of the =edic corpus, c. 5DDDEBDD *,F) and the !thar)a)eda.$A<&$AA& 'asadiya #ukta of the Kig =eda suggests the presence of an early contemplati)e tradition.$note 56& -he =edic #amhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices kno%n as (tapas) are referenced in the *r(hmaas (CDD *,F and ?DD *,F), early commentaries on the =edas.$BD& -he Kig =eda, the earliest of the Hindu scripture mentions the practice.$B5& Kobert #chneider and >eremy Fields %rite,

Yoga asanas %ere first prescribed by the ancient =edic texts thousands of years ago and are said to directly enli)en the body4s inner intelligence.$B6&$unreliable sourceR& !ccording to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind %as practiced since the =edic times.,$B7& and yoga %as fundamental to =edic ritual, especially to chanting the sacred hymns$B<& reclassical era +iffused pre;philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c. ?DDE 6DD *,F such as the middle Jpanishads, the *haga)ad Iita and Gokshadharma of the Gahabharata. -he terms samkhya and yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies rather than the philosophical systems %hich de)eloped centuries later.$B?& Jpanishads !lexander Wynne, author of -he .rigin of *uddhist Geditation, obser)es that formless meditation and elemental meditation might ha)e originated in the Jpanishadic tradition. $B@& -he earliest reference to meditation is in the *rihadaranyaka Jpanishad, one of the oldest Jpanishads.$A@& ,handogya Jpanishad describes the fi)e kinds of )ital energies (prana). ,oncepts used later in many yoga traditions such as internal sound and )eins (nadis) are also described in the Jpanishad.$A<& -aittiriya Jpanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and senses.$BA& -he term :yoga: first appears in the Hindu scripture Oatha Jpanishad (a primary Jpanishad c. <DD *,F) %here it is defined as the steady control of the senses, %hich along %ith cessation of mental acti)ity, leads to the supreme state.$A@&$note 57& Oatha Jpanishad integrates the monism of early Jpanishads %ith concepts of samkhya and yoga. /t defines )arious le)els of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being "tman. Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of consciousness.$BC&$CD& /t is the earliest literary %ork that highlights the fundamentals of yoga. #h)etash)atara Jpanishad (c. <DD;6DD *,F) elaborates on the relationship bet%een thought and breath, control of mind, and the benefits of yoga.$CD& Tike the Oatha Jpanishad the transcendent #elf is seen as the goal of yoga. -his text also recommends meditation on .m as a path to liberation.$C5& Gaitrayaniya Jpanishad (c. 7DD *,F) formalizes the sixfold form of yoga.$CD& hysiological theories of later yoga make an appearance in this text.$C6&$C7& While breath channels (n(is) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Jpanishads, it %as not until the eighth;century *uddhist He)a1ra -antra and ,ary(giti, that hierarchies of chakras %ere introduced.$C<&$C?& Further systematization of yoga is continued in the Yoga Jpanishads of the !thar)a)eda ()iz., P(ilya, (Supata, Gah()(kya)$clarification needed&.$C@& *haga)ad Iita Orishna narrating the Iita to !r1una. Gain article2 *haga)ad Iita

-he *haga)ad Iita (4#ong of the Tord4), uses the term :yoga: extensi)ely in a )ariety of %ays. /n addition to an entire chapter (ch. @) dedicated to traditional yoga practice, including meditation,$CA& it introduces three prominent types of yoga2$note 5<& Oarma yoga2 -he yoga of action.$note 5?& *hakti yoga2 -he yoga of de)otion.$note 5@& >nana yoga2 -he yoga of kno%ledge.$note 5A& /n ,hapter 6 of the *haga)ad Iita, Orishna explains to !r1una about the essence of yoga as practiced in daily li)es2 2 2 (yoga;stha kuru karmani sanyugam tyakt)( dhanan1ay siddhy;asiddhyo samo bhut)( samat)am yoga ucyate) ; *haga)ad Iita 6.<B !. ,. *hakti)edanta #%ami rabhupada translates it as :*e steadfast in yoga (yoga; stha), . !r1una. erform your duty (kuru karmani) and abandon all attachment (sangam) to success or failure (siddhy;asiddhyo). #uch e)enness of mind (samat)am) is called yoga.:$5D6& Gadhusudana #aras)ati (b. circa 5<CD) di)ided the Iita into three sections, %ith the first six chapters dealing %ith Oarma yoga, the middle six %ith *hakti yoga, and the last six %ith >nana (kno%ledge).$5D7& .ther commentators ascribe a different 4yoga4 to each chapter, delineating eighteen different yogas.$5D<& !urobindo, a freedom fighter and philosopher, describes the yoga of the Iita as :a large, flexible and many;sided system %ith )arious elements, %hich are all successfully harmonized by a sort of natural and li)ing assimilation:.$5D?& Gahabharata +escription of an early form of yoga called nirodhaEyoga (yoga of cessation) is contained in the Gokshadharma section of the 56th chapter (#hanti ar)a) of the Gahabharata epic. -he )erses of the section are dated to c. 7DDE6DD *,F. 'irodhaEyoga emphasizes progressi)e %ithdra%al from the contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc. until purusha (#elf) is realized. -erms like )ichara (subtle reflection), )i)eka (discrimination) and others %hich are similar to atan1ali4s terminology are mentioned, but not described.$5D@& -here is no uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Gahabharata. #eparation of self from matter, percei)ing *rahman e)ery%here, entering into *rahman etc. are all described as goals of yoga. #amkhya and yoga are conflated together and some )erses describe them as being identical.$76& Gokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental meditation.$5DA& ,lassical yoga

+uring the period bet%een the Gauryan and the Iupta era (c. 6DD *,FE?DD ,F) philosophical schools of Hinduism, *uddhism and >ainism %ere taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.$7A& Farly *uddhist texts Werner notes that :only %ith *uddhism itself as expounded in the ali ,anon: do %e ha)e the oldest preser)ed comprehensi)e yoga practice2 :*ut it is only %ith *uddhism itself as expounded in the ali ,anon that %e can speak about a systematic and comprehensi)e or e)en integral school of Yoga practice, %hich is thus the first and oldest to ha)e been preser)ed for us in its entirety:$5DB& !nother yoga system that predated the *uddhist school is >ain yoga. *ut since >ain sources postdate *uddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish bet%een the nature of the early >ain school and elements deri)ed from other schools.$5DB& Gost of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Jpanishads and some ali canons are lost to time.$5DC&$55D&$note 5B& -he early *uddhist texts describe meditati)e practices and states, some of %hich the *uddha borro%ed from the ascetic (shramana) tradition.$556&$557& .ne key inno)ati)e teaching of the *uddha %as that meditati)e absorption must be combined %ith liberating cognition.$55<& Geditati)e states alone are not an end, for according to the *uddha, e)en the highest meditati)e state is not liberating. /nstead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental acti)ity must take place2 a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful a%areness.$55?& -he *uddha also departed from earlier yogic thought in discarding the early *rahminic notion of liberation at death.$55@& While the Jpanishads thought liberation to be a realization at death of a nondual meditati)e state %here the ontological duality bet%een sub1ect and ob1ect %as abolished, *uddha4s theory of liberation depended upon this duality because liberation to him %as an insight into the sub1ect4s experience.$55@& -he ali canon contains three passages in %hich the *uddha describes pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.$55A& Ho%e)er there is no mention of the tongue being inserted into the nasopharynx as in true khecarH mudr(. -he *uddha used a posture %here pressure is put on the perineum %ith the heel, similar to e)en modern postures used to stimulate Oundalini.$55B& #amkhya Further information2 #amkhya #amkhya emerged in the first century ,F.$55C& When atan1ali systematized the conceptions of yoga, he set them forth on the background of the metaphysics of samkhya, %hich he assumed %ith slight )ariations. /n the early %orks, the yoga principles appear together %ith the samkhya ideas. =yasa4s commentary on the Yoga #utras, also called the

#amkhyapra)acanabhasya (,ommentary on the Fxposition of the #ankhya hilosophy), brings out the intimate relation bet%een the t%o systems.$56D& Yoga agrees %ith the essential metaphysics of samkhya, but differs from it in that %hile samkhya holds that kno%ledge is the means of liberation, yoga is a system of acti)e stri)ing, mental discipline, and dutiful action. Yoga also introduces the conception of god. #ometimes atan1ali4s system is referred to as #esh)ara #amkhya in contradistinction to Oapila4s 'iri)ara #amkhya.$565& Yoga #utras of atan1ali Gain articles2 Ka1a Yoga and Yoga #utras of atan1ali -raditional Hindu depiction of atan1ali as an a)atar of the di)ine serpent #hesha. Yoga #utras of atan1ali$566& ada (,hapter) Fnglish meaning #utras #amadhi ada .n being absorbed in spirit ?5 #adhana ada .n being immersed in spirit ?? =ibhuti ada .n supernatural abilities and gifts ?@ Oai)alya ada .n absolute freedom 7< /n Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (%hich accept the testimony of =edas) philosophical schools.$567&$56<& -he yoga school %as founded by atan1ali. Oarel Werner, author of Yoga !nd /ndian hilosophy, belie)es that the process of systematization of yoga %hich began in the middle and Yoga Jpanishads culminated %ith the Yoga #utras of atan1ali.$note 5C& #cholars also note the influence of *uddhist and #amkhyan ideas on the Yoga #utras.$56?&$56@& atan1ali4s Yoga #utras reminds us of *uddhist formulations from the (li ,anon, #ar)(sti)(da !bhidharma and #autr(ntika. $56A& -he yoga school accepts the samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the samkhya, as e)idenced by the addition of a di)ine entity to the samkhya4s t%enty;fi)e elements of reality.$56B&$56C& -he parallels bet%een yoga and samkhya %ere so close that Gax GUller says that :the t%o philosophies %ere in popular parlance distinguished from each other as #amkhya %ith and #amkhya %ithout a Tord....:$57D& -he intimate relationship bet%een samkhya and yoga is explained by Heinrich Limmer2 -hese t%o are regarded in /ndia as t%ins, the t%o aspects of a single discipline. #(khya pro)ides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co;operation in a state of bondage (:bandha:), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release (:moka:), %hile yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and outlines practical techni0ues for the gaining of release, or :isolation;integration: (:kai)alya:). Q$575& atan1ali is %idely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga philosophy.$576& -he )erses of Yoga #utras are terse and are therefore read together %ith the =yasa *hashya

(c. 7?DE<?D ,F), a commentary on the Yoga #utras.$577& atan1ali4s yoga is kno%n as Ka1a yoga, %hich is a system for control of the mind.$57<& atan1ali defines the %ord :yoga: in his second sutra, %hich is the definitional sutra for his entire %ork2 2 ; 2 (yogaS citta;)tti;nirodha) ; Yoga #utras 5.6 -his terse definition hinges on the meaning of three #anskrit terms. /. O. -aimni translates it as :Yoga is the inhibition (nirodha) of the modifications ()tti) of the mind (citta):.$57?& -he use of the %ord nirodha in the opening definition of yoga is an example of the important role that *uddhist technical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga #utrasN this role suggests that atan1ali %as a%are of *uddhist ideas and %o)e them into his system.$57@& #%ami =i)ekananda translates the sutra as :Yoga is restraining the mind;stuff (,itta) from taking )arious forms (=rittis).:$57A& ! sculpture of a Hindu yogi in the *irla Gandir, +elhi atan1ali4s %riting also became the basis for a system referred to as :!shtanga Yoga: (:Fight;Timbed Yoga:). -his eight;limbed concept deri)ed from the 6Cth #utra of the 6nd book, and is a core characteristic of practically e)ery Ka1a yoga )ariation taught today. -he Fight Timbs are2 Yama (-he fi)e :abstentions:)2 !himsa (non;)iolence), #atya (-ruth, non;lying), !steya (non;stealing), *rahmacharya (non;sensuality, celibacy), and !parigraha (non; possessi)eness). 'iyama (-he fi)e :obser)ances:)2 #haucha (purity), #antosha (contentment), -apas (austerity), #)adhyaya (study of the =edic scriptures to kno% about Iod and the soul), and /sh)ara; ranidhana (surrender to Iod). !sana2 Titerally means :seat:, and in atan1ali4s #utras refers to the seated position used for meditation. ranayama (:#uspending *reath:)2 r(na, breath, :(y(ma:, to restrain or stop. !lso interpreted as control of the life force. ratyahara (:!bstraction:)2 Withdra%al of the sense organs from external ob1ects. +harana (:,oncentration:)2 Fixing the attention on a single ob1ect. +hyana (:Geditation:)2 /ntense contemplation of the nature of the ob1ect of meditation. #amadhi (:Tiberation:)2 merging consciousness %ith the ob1ect of meditation. /n the )ie% of this school, the highest attainment does not re)eal the experienced di)ersity of the %orld to be illusion. -he e)eryday %orld is real. Furthermore, the highest attainment is the e)ent of one of many indi)idual sel)es disco)ering itselfN there is no single uni)ersal self shared by all persons.$57B& Yoga Ya1na)alkya Gain article2 Yoga Ya1na)alkya

sayogo yoga ityukto 1H)(tma;param(tmano Jnion of the self (1i)(tma) %ith the +i)ine (param(tma) is said to be yoga. QYoga Ya1na)alkya$57C& -he Yoga Ya1na)alkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the =edic sage Ya1na)alkya. /t takes the form of a dialogue bet%een Ya1na)alkya and his %ife Iargi, a reno%ned female philosopher.$5<D& -he text contains 56 chapters and its origin has been traced to the period bet%een the second century *,F and fourth century ,F.$5<5& Gany yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga radipika, the Yoga Oundalini and the Yoga -att)a Jpanishads ha)e borro%ed )erses from or make fre0uent references to the Yoga Ya1na)alkya.$5<6& /n the Yoga Ya1na)alkya, yoga is defined as 1i)atmaparamatmasamyogah, or the union bet%een the indi)idual self (1i)atma) and the +i)ine (paramatma).$57C& >ainism Gain article2 >ainism -irthankara ars)a in Yogic meditation in the Oayotsarga posture. !ccording to -att)arthasutra, 6nd century ,F >ain text, yoga is the sum of all the acti)ities of mind, speech and body.$A& Jmas)ati calls yoga the cause of :asra)a: or karmic influx$5<7& as %ell as one of the essentialsQsamyak caritraQin the path to liberation.$5<7& /n his 'iyamasara, !carya Oundakunda, describes yoga bhaktiQ de)otion to the path to liberationQas the highest form of de)otion.$5<<& !carya Haribhadra and !carya Hemacandra mention the fi)e ma1or )o%s of ascetics and 56 minor )o%s of laity under yoga. -his has led certain /ndologists like rof. Kobert >. Lydenbos to call >ainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that gre% into a full; fledged religion.$5<?& -he fi)e yamas or the constraints of the Yoga #utras of atan1ali bear a resemblance to the fi)e ma1or )o%s of >ainism, indicating a history of strong cross; fertilization bet%een these traditions.$5<@&$note 6D& Gainstream Hinduism4s influence on >ain yoga is noticed as Haribhadra founded his eightfold yoga and aligned it %ith atan1ali4s eightfold yoga.$5<B& Yogacara school Gain article2 Yogacara /n the late phase of /ndian anti0uity, on the e)e of the de)elopment of ,lassical Hinduism, the Yogacara mo)ement arises during the Iupta period (<th to ?th centuries). Yogacara recei)ed the name as it pro)ided a :yoga,: a frame%ork for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of the bodhisatt)a.$5<C& -he yogacara sect teaches :yoga: as a %ay to reach enlightenment.$5?D& Giddle !ges Giddle !ges sa% the de)elopment of many satellite traditions of yoga. Hatha yoga emerged as a dominant practice of yoga in this period.$5?5& *hakti mo)ement Gain article2 *hakti Yoga

-he *hakti mo)ement %as a de)elopment in medie)al Hinduism %hich ad)ocated the concept of a personal Iod (or :#upreme ersonality of Iodhead:). -he mo)ement %as initiated by the !l)ars of #outh /ndia in the @th to Cth centuries, and it started gaining influence throughout /ndia by the 56th to 5?th centuries.$5?6& #hai)a and =aishna)a bhakti traditions integrated aspects of Yoga #utras, such as the practical meditati)e exercises, %ith de)otion.$5?7& *haga)ata urana elucidates the practice of a form of yoga called )iraha (separation) bhakti. =iraha bhakti emphasizes one pointed concentration on Orishna.$5?<& -antra *y the turn of the first millennium, hatha yoga emerged from tantra.$5<&$5?& -antrism is a practice that is supposed to alter the relation of its practitioners to the ordinary social, religious, and logical reality in %hich they li)e. -hrough -antric practice, an indi)idual percei)es reality as maya, illusion, and the indi)idual achie)es liberation from it.$5??& *oth -antra and yoga offer paths that relie)e a person from depending on the %orld. Where yoga relies on progressi)e restriction of inputs from outsideN -antra relies on transmutation of all external inputs so that one is no longer dependent on them, but can take them or lea)e them at %ill. -hey both make a person independent.$5?@& -his particular path to sal)ation among the se)eral offered by Hinduism, links -antrism to those practices of /ndian religions, such as yoga, meditation, and social renunciation, %hich are based on temporary or permanent %ithdra%al from social relationships and modes.$5??& +uring tantric practices and studies, the student is instructed further in meditation techni0ue, particularly chakra meditation. -his is often in a limited form in comparison %ith the %ay this kind of meditation is kno%n and used by -antric practitioners and yogis else%here, but is more elaborate than the initiate4s pre)ious meditation. /t is considered to be a kind of Oundalini yoga for the purpose of mo)ing the Ioddess into the chakra located in the :heart:, for meditation and %orship.$5?A& =a1rayana Gain article2 =a1rayana While breath channels (n(is) of yogic practices had already been discussed in the classical Jpanishads, it %as not until the eighth;century *uddhist He)a1ra -antra and ,ary(giti, that hierarchies of chakras %ere introduced.$C<&$C?& Hatha Yoga Gain articles2 Hatha yoga and Hatha Yoga radipika -he earliest references to hatha yoga are in *uddhist %orks dating from the eighth century.$5?B& -he earliest definition of hatha yoga is found in the 55th century *uddhist text =imalaprabha, %hich defines it in relation to the center channel, bindu etc.$5?C& -he basic tenets of Hatha yoga %ere formulated by #hai)a ascetics Gatsyendranath and Iorakshanath c. CDD ,F. Hatha yoga synthesizes elements of atan1ali4s Yoga #utras %ith posture and breathing exercises.$5@D& Hatha yoga, sometimes referred to as the :psychophysical yoga:,$5@5& %as further elaborated by Yogi #%atmarama, compiler of

the Hatha Yoga radipika in 5?th century ,F. -his yoga differs substantially from the Ka1a yoga of atan1ali in that it focuses on shatkarma, the purification of the physical body as leading to the purification of the mind (ha), and prana, or )ital energy (tha).$5@6& $5@7& ,ompared to the seated asana, or sitting meditation posture, of atan1ali4s Ka1a yoga,$5@<& it marks the de)elopment of asanas (plural) into the full body 4postures4 no% in popular usage$5@?& and, along %ith its many modern )ariations, is the style that many people associate %ith the %ord yoga today.$5@@& /t is similar to a di)ing board E preparing the body for purification, so that it may be ready to recei)e higher techni0ues of meditation. -he %ord :Hatha: comes from :Ha: %hich means #un, and :-ha: %hich means Goon.$5@A& #ikhism =arious yogic groups had become prominent in un1ab in the 5?th and 5@th century, %hen #ikhism %as in its nascent stage. ,ompositions of Iuru 'anak, the founder of #ikhism, describe many dialogues he had %ith >ogis, a Hindu community %hich practiced yoga.$5@B& Iuru 'anak re1ected the austerities, rites and rituals connected %ith Hatha Yoga.$5@C& He propounded the path of #aha1a yoga or 'ama yoga (meditation on the name) instead.$5AD& -he Iuru Iranth #ahib states2 Tisten :. Yogi, 'anak tells nothing but the truth. You must discipline your mind. -he de)otee must meditate on the Word +i)ine. /t is His grace %hich brings about the union. He understands, he also sees. Iood deeds help one merge into +i)ination.: Q$5A5& Godern history Keception in the West !n early illustration of /ndians performing Yoga !sana in 5@BB Yoga came to the attention of an educated %estern public in the mid;5Cth century along %ith other topics of /ndian philosophy. /n the context of this budding interest, '. ,. aul published his -reatise on Yoga hilosophy in 5B?5. -he first Hindu teacher to acti)ely ad)ocate and disseminate aspects of yoga to a %estern audience, #%ami =i)ekananda, toured Furope and the Jnited #tates in the 5BCDs.$5A6& -he reception %hich #%ami =i)ekananda recei)ed built on the acti)e interest of intellectuals, in particular the 'e% Fngland -ranscendentalists, among them K. W. Fmerson (5BD7;5BB6), %ho dre% on Ierman Komanticism and the interest of philosophers and scholars like I. F. W. Hegel (5AAD;5B75), the brothers !ugust Wilhelm #chlegel (5A@A;5B<?) and Oarl Wilhelm Friedrich #chlegel (5AA6;5B6C), Gax Gueller (5B67;5CDD), !. #chopenhauer (5ABB;5B@D) and others %ho had (to )arying degrees) interests in things /ndian.$5A7& -heosophists also had a large influence on the !merican public4s )ie% of Yoga.$5A<& Fsoteric )ie%s current at the end of the 5Cth century pro)ided a further basis for the reception of =edanta and of Yoga %ith its theory and practice of correspondence bet%een

the spiritual and the physical.$5A?& -he reception of Yoga and of =edanta thus ent%ined %ith each other and %ith the (mostly 'eoplatonism;based) currents of religious and philosophical reform and transformation throughout the 5Cth and early 6Dth centuries. G. Fliade, himself rooted in the Komanian currents of these traditions,$citation needed& brought a ne% element into the reception of Yoga %ith the strong emphasis on -antric Yoga in his seminal book2 Yoga2 /mmortality and Freedom.$note 65& With the introduction of the -antra traditions and philosophy of Yoga, the conception of the :transcendent: to be attained by Yogic practice shifted from experiencing the :transcendent: (:!tman;*rahman: in !d)aitic theory) in the mind to the body itself. $5A@& -he modern scientific study of yoga began %ith the %orks of '. ,. aul and Ga1or +. *asu in the late 5Cth century, and then continued in the 6Dth century %ith #ri Yogendra (5BCA;5CBC) and #%ami Ou)alayananda.$5AA& Western medical researchers came to #%ami Ou)alayanandaVs Oai)alyadhama Health and Yoga Kesearch ,enter, starting in 5C6B, to study Yoga as a science.$5AB& -he West,$clarification needed& in the early 65st century typically associates the term :yoga: %ith Hatha yoga and its asanas (postures) or as a form of exercise.$5AC& +uring the 5C5Ds and 5C6Ds in the J#!, yoga suffered a period of bad publicity due largely to the backlash against immigration, a rise in puritanical )alues, and a number of scandals. /n the 5C7Ds and 5C<Ds yoga began to gain more public acceptance as a result of celebrity endorsement.$citation needed& /n the 5C?Ds the Jnited #tates sa% another period of paranoia against yoga,$5A<& but by the 5C@Ds, %estern interest in Hindu spirituality reached its peak, gi)ing rise to a great number of 'eo;Hindu schools specifically ad)ocated to a %estern public. +uring this period, most of the influential /ndian teachers of yoga came from t%o lineages, those of #i)ananda #aras%ati (5BBAE5C@7) and of -irumalai Orishnamacharya (5BBBE5CBC).$5BD& -eachers of Hatha yoga %ho %ere acti)e in the %est in this period included *.O.#. /yengar (5C5B; ), O. attabhi >ois (5C5?;6DDC), #%ami =ishnu;de)ananda (5C6A;5CC7), and #%ami #atchidananda (5C5<;6DD6).$5B5& $5B6&$5B7& Yogi *ha1an brought Oundalini Yoga to the Jnited #tates in 5C@C.$5B<& ! second :yoga boom: follo%ed in the 5CBDs, as +ean .rnish, a follo%er of #%ami #atchidananda, connected yoga to heart health, legitimizing yoga as a purely physical system of health exercises outside of counter;culture or esotericism circles, and unconnected to any religious denomination.$5A6& 'umerous asanas seemed modern in origin, and strongly o)erlapped %ith 5Cth and early;6Dth century Western exercise traditions.$5B?& #ince 6DD5, the popularity of yoga in the J#! has risen constantly. -he number of people %ho practiced some form of yoga has gro%n from < million (in 6DD5) to 6D million (in 6D55). W Yoga has become a uni)ersal language of spiritual exercise in the Jnited #tates, crossing many lines of religion and cultures,... F)ery day, millions of people practice yoga to impro)e their health and o)erall %ell;being. -hat4s %hy %e4re encouraging

e)eryone to take part in !T! ( residential !cti)e Tifestyle !%ard), so sho% your support for yoga and ans%er the challenge. X $citation needed& !s of 6D57 some schools in the Jnited #tates oppose the practice of yoga inside educational facilities, saying it promotes Hinduism in )iolation of the Fstablishment ,lause.$5B@& -he !merican ,ollege of #ports Gedicine supports the integration of yoga into the exercise regimens of healthy indi)iduals as long as properly;trained professionals deli)er instruction. -he ,ollege cites yoga4s promotion of :profound mental, physical and spiritual a%areness: and its benefits as a form of stretching, and as an enhancer of breath control and of core strength.$5BA& Gedicine Gain article2 Yoga as exercise or alternati)e medicine otential benefits for adults While much of the medical community )ie%s the results of yoga research to be significant, others argue that there %ere many fla%s that undermine results. Guch of the research on yoga has been in the form of preliminary studies or clinical trials of lo% methodological 0uality, including small sample sizes, inade0uate blinding, lack of randomization, and high risk of bias.$5BB&$5BC&$5CD& Tong;term yoga users in the Jnited #tates ha)e reported musculoskeletal and mental health impro)ements, as %ell as reduced symptoms of asthma in asthmatics.$66& -here is e)idence to suggest that regular yoga practice increases brain I!*! le)els and has been sho%n to impro)e mood and anxiety more than some other metabolically matched exercises, such as %alking.$5C5&$5C6& -he three main focuses of Hatha yoga (exercise, breathing, and meditation) make it beneficial to those suffering from heart disease. .)erall, studies of the effects of yoga on heart disease suggest that yoga may reduce high blood pressure, impro)e symptoms of heart failure, enhance cardiac rehabilitation, and lo%er cardio)ascular risk factors.$5C7& For chronic lo% back pain, specialist Yoga for Healthy To%er *acks has been found 7DY more beneficial than usual care alone in a JO clinical trial.$5C<& .ther smaller studies support this finding.$5C?&$5C@& -he Yoga for Healthy To%er *acks programme is the dominant treatment for society (both cheaper and more effecti)e than usual care alone) due to B.? fe%er days off %ork each year.$5CA& ! research group from *oston Jni)ersity #chool of Gedicine also tested yogaVs effects on lo%er back pain. .)er t%el)e %eeks, one group of )olunteers practiced yoga %hile the control group continued %ith standard treatment for back pain. -he reported pain for yoga participants decreased by one third, %hile the standard treatment group had only a fi)e percent drop. Yoga participants also had a drop of BDY in pain medication use.$5CB& -here has been an emergence of studies in)estigating yoga as a complementary inter)ention for cancer patients. Yoga is used for treatment of cancer patients to decrease depression, insomnia, pain, and fatigue and increase anxiety control.$5CC& Gindfulness *ased #tress Keduction (G*#K) programs include yoga as a mind;body techni0ue to

reduce stress. ! study found that after se)en %eeks the group treated %ith yoga reported significantly less mood disturbance and reduced stress compared to the control group. !nother study found that G*#K had sho%ed positi)e effects on sleep anxiety, 0uality of life, and spiritual gro%th in cancer patients.$6DD& Yoga has also been studied as a treatment for schizophrenia.$6D5& #ome encouraging, but inconclusi)e, e)idence suggests that yoga as a complementary treatment may help alle)iate symptoms of schizophrenia and impro)e health;related 0uality of life.$5C& /mplementation of the Oundalini Yoga Tifestyle has sho%n to help substance abuse addicts increase their 0uality of life according to psychological 0uestionnaires like the *eha)ior and #ymptom /dentification #cale and the Zuality of Keco)ery /ndex.$6D6& Yoga has been sho%n in a study to ha)e some cogniti)e functioning (executi)e functioning, including inhibitory control) acute benefit.$6D7& hysical in1uries #ee also2 #ports in1ury #ince a small percentage of yoga practitioners each year suffer physical in1uries analogous to sports in1uriesN$6D<& caution and common sense are recommended.$6D?& Yoga has been criticized for being potentially dangerous and being a cause for a range of serious medical conditions including thoracic outlet syndrome, degenerati)e arthritis of the cer)ical spine, spinal stenosis, retinal tears, damage to the common fibular ner)e, so called :Yoga foot drop,:$6D@& etc. !n expos[ of these problems by William *road published in >anuary, 6D56 in -he 'e% York -imes Gagazine$6DA& resulted in contro)ersy %ithin the international yoga community. *road, a science %riter, yoga practitioner, and author of -he #cience of Yoga2 -he Kisks and the Ke%ards,$6DB& had suffered a back in1ury %hile performing a yoga posture.$6DC& -orn muscles, knee in1uries,$65D& and headaches are common ailments %hich may result from yoga practice. $655& !n extensi)e sur)ey of yoga practitioners in !ustralia sho%ed that about 6DY had suffered some physical in1ury %hile practicing yoga. /n the pre)ious 56 months <.@Y of the respondents had suffered an in1ury producing prolonged pain or re0uiring medical treatment. Headstands, shoulder stands, lotus and half lotus (seated cross;legged position), for%ard bends, back%ard bends, and handstands produced the greatest number of in1uries.$6D<& #ome yoga practitioners do not recommend certain yoga exercises for %omen during menstruation, for pregnant %omen, or for nursing mothers. Ho%e)er, meditation, breathing exercises, and certain postures %hich are safe and beneficial for %omen in these categories are encouraged.$656& !mong the main reasons that experts cite for causing negati)e effects from yoga are beginners4 competiti)eness and instructors4 lack of 0ualification. !s the demand for yoga classes gro%s, many people get certified to become yoga instructors, often %ith relati)ely

little training. 'ot e)ery ne%ly certified instructor can e)aluate the condition of e)ery ne% trainee in their class and recommend refraining from doing certain poses or using appropriate props to a)oid in1uries. /n turn, a beginning yoga student can o)erestimate the abilities of their body and stri)e to do ad)anced poses before their body is flexible or strong enough to perform them.$6DA&$655& =ertebral artery dissection, a tear in the arteries in the neck %hich pro)ide blood to the brain can result from rotation of the neck %hile the neck is extended. -his can occur in a )ariety of contexts, for example, in a beauty shop %hile your hair is being rinsed, but is an e)ent %hich could occur in some yoga practices. -his is a )ery serious condition %hich can result in a stroke.$657&$65<& !cetabular labral tears, damage to the structure 1oining the femur and the hip, ha)e been reported to ha)e resulted from yoga practice.$65?& ediatrics /t is claimed that yoga can be an excellent training for children and adolescents, both as a form of physical exercise and for breathing, focus, mindfulness, and stress relief2 Gany school districts ha)e considered incorporating yoga into their .F. programs. -he Fncinitas, ,alifornia school district gained a #an +iego #uperior ,ourt >udge4s appro)al to use yoga in .F., holding against the parents %ho claimed the practice %as intrinsically religious and hence should not be part of a state funded program.$65@& Yoga compared %ith other systems of meditation Len *uddhism Len, the name of %hich deri)es from the #anskrit :dhyaana: )ia the ,hinese :ch4an:$note 66& is a form of Gahayana *uddhism. -he Gahayana school of *uddhism is noted for its proximity %ith yoga.$65B& /n the %est, Len is often set alongside yogaN the t%o schools of meditation display ob)ious family resemblances.$65C& -his phenomenon merits special attention since yogic practices ha)e some of their roots in the Len *uddhist school.$note 67& ,ertain essential elements of yoga are important both for *uddhism in general and for Len in particular.$66D& -ibetan *uddhism /n the 'yingma tradition, the path of meditation practice is di)ided into nine yanas, or )ehicles, %hich are said to be increasingly profound.$665& -he last six are described as :yoga yanas:2 :Oriya yoga,: :Jpa yoga,: :Yoga yana,: :Gah( yoga,: :!nu yoga: and the ultimate practice, :!ti yoga.:$666& -he #arma traditions also include Oriya, Jpa (called :,harya:), and Yoga, %ith the !nuttara yoga class substituting for Gahayoga and !tiyoga.$667& .ther tantra yoga practices include a system of 5DB bodily postures practiced %ith breath and heart rhythm. -he 'yingma tradition also practices Yantra yoga (-ib. :-rul khor:), a discipline that includes breath %ork (or pranayama), meditati)e contemplation and precise dynamic mo)ements to centre the practitioner.$66<& -he body postures of -ibetan ancient yogis are depicted on the %alls of the +alai Tama4s summer temple of Tukhang.

! semi;popular account of -ibetan yoga by ,hang (5CC7) refers to caalH (-ib. :tummo:), the generation of heat in one4s o%n body, as being :the )ery foundation of the %hole of -ibetan yoga.:$66?& ,hang also claims that -ibetan yoga in)ol)es reconciliation of apparent polarities, such as prana and mind, relating this to theoretical implications of tantrism. ,hristian meditation Gain articles2 ,hristian meditation, ! ,hristian reflection on the 'e% !ge, and !spects of ,hristian meditation #ome ,hristians integrate yoga and other aspects of Fastern spirituality %ith prayer and meditation. -his has been attributed to a desire to experience Iod in a more complete %ay.$66@& -he Koman ,atholic ,hurch, and some other ,hristian organizations ha)e expressed concerns and disappro)al %ith respect to some eastern and 'e% !ge practices that include yoga and meditation.$66A&$66B&$66C& /n 5CBC and 6DD7, the =atican issued t%o documents2 !spects of ,hristian meditation and :! ,hristian reflection on the 'e% !ge,: that %ere mostly critical of eastern and 'e% !ge practices. -he 6DD7 document %as published as a CD page handbook detailing the =atican4s position.$67D& -he =atican %arned that concentration on the physical aspects of meditation :can degenerate into a cult of the body: and that e0uating bodily states %ith mysticism :could also lead to psychic disturbance and, at times, to moral de)iations.: #uch has been compared to the early days of ,hristianity, %hen the church opposed the gnostics4 belief that sal)ation came not through faith but through a mystical inner kno%ledge.$66@& -he letter also says, :one can see if and ho% $prayer& might be enriched by meditation methods de)eloped in other religions and cultures:$675& but maintains the idea that :there must be some fit bet%een the nature of $other approaches to& prayer and ,hristian beliefs about ultimate reality.:$66@& #ome fundamentalist ,hristian organizations consider yoga to be incompatible %ith their religious background, considering it a part of the 'e% !ge mo)ement inconsistent %ith ,hristianity.$676& !nother )ie% holds that ,hristian meditation can lead to religious pluralism. -his is held by an interdenominational association of ,hristians that practice it. :-he ritual simultaneously operates as an anchor that maintains, enhances, and promotes denominational acti)ity and a sail that allo%s institutional boundaries to be crossed.: $677& /slam -he de)elopment of #ufism %as considerably influenced by /ndian yogic practises, %here they adapted both physical postures (asanas) and breath control (pranayama).$67<& -he ancient /ndian yogic text !mritakunda (: ool of 'ectar): %as translated into !rabic and ersian as early as the 55th century. #e)eral other yogic texts %ere appropriated by #ufi tradition, but typically the texts 1uxtapose yoga materials alongside #ufi practices %ithout any real attempt at integration or synthesis. Yoga became kno%n to /ndian #ufis gradually o)er time, but engagement %ith yoga is not found at the historical beginnings of the tradition.$67?&

Yoga is a gro%ing industry in /slamic countries (-%o *ikram Yoga studios in /ran). !lso, yoga is used in de)eloping countries like alestine to help the population manage stress. -his article is a comparati)e study of yoga and /slam, sho%ing their similarities. $67@&$67A&$67B& Galaysia4s top /slamic body in 6DDB passed a fat%a, %hich is legally non;binding, against Guslims practicing yoga, saying it had elements of :Hindu spiritual teachings: and that its practice %as blasphemy and is therefore haraam. Guslim yoga teachers in Galaysia criticized the decision as :insulting.:$67C& #isters in /slam, a %omen4s rights group in Galaysia, also expressed disappointment and said that its members %ould continue %ith their yoga classes.$6<D& -he fat%a states that yoga practiced only as physical exercise is permissible, but prohibits the chanting of religious mantras,$6<5& and states that teachings such as the uniting of a human %ith Iod is not consistent %ith /slamic philosophy.$6<6& /n a similar )ein, the ,ouncil of Jlemas, an /slamic body in /ndonesia, passed a fat%a banning yoga on the grounds that it contains :Hindu elements:$6<7& -hese fat%as ha)e, in turn, been criticized by +arul Jloom +eoband, a +eobandi /slamic seminary in /ndia.$6<<& /n Gay 6DDC, -urkey4s head of the +irectorate of Keligious !ffairs, !li *ardako\lu, discounted personal de)elopment techni0ues such as yoga as commercial )entures that could lead to extremism. His comments %ere made in the context of yoga possibly competing %ith and eroding participation in /slamic practice.$6<?& #ee also ortal icon Yoga portal ortal icon Hinduism portal ortal icon /ndia portal Tist of asanas Tist of yoga schools Yoga series Yogi 'otes >acobsen %rites, :Yoga has fi)e principal meanings2 yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goal yoga as techni0ues of controlling the body and the mind yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy (darSana) yoga in connection %ith other %ords, such as :hatha;, mantra;, and laya;,: referring to traditions specialising in particular techni0ues of yoga yoga as the goal of yoga practice.:$6<& Gonier;Williams includes :it is the second of the t%o #(khya systems,: and :abstraction practised as a system (as taught by ata91ali and called the Yoga philosophy): in his definitions of :yoga.:

#ee also Ia)in Flood (5CC@), Hinduism, p.BA;CD, on :-he orthogenetic theory: and :'on;=edic origins of renunciation:.$7B& ost;classical traditions consider Hiranyagarbha as the originator of yoga.$<5&$<6& Limmer2 :$>ainism& does not deri)e from *rahman;!ryan sources, but reflects the cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre;!ryan upper class of northeastern /ndia ; being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic metaphysical speculation as Yoga, #ankhya, and *uddhism, the other non;=edic /ndian systems.:$<?& Limmer4s point of )ie% is supported by other scholars, such as 'iniam #mart, in +octrine and argument in /ndian hilosophy, 5C@<, p.6A;76 ] p.A@,$<@& and #.O. *el)akar ] K.+. Kanade in History of /ndian philosophy, 5CA< (5C6A), p.B5 ] p.7D7; <DC.$<@& #ee ,rangle 5CC< page ?;A.$<A& Ieofffrey #amuel2 :.ur best e)idence to date suggests that $yogic practice& de)eloped in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana mo)ements (*uddhists, >ainas and !1i)ikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries *,F.:$<B& Ia)in Flood2 :-hese renouncer traditions offered a ne% )ision of the human condition %hich became incorporated, to some degree, into the %orld)ie% of the *rahman householder. -he ideology of asceticism and renunciation seems, at first, discontinuous %ith the brahmanical ideology of the affirmation of social obligations and the performance of public and domestic rituals. /ndeed, there has been some debate as to %hether asceticism and its ideas of retributi)e action, reincarnation and spiritual liberation, might not ha)e originated outside the orthodox )edic sphere, or e)en outside !ryan culture2 that a di)ergent historical origin might account for the apparent contradiction %ithin 4Hinduism4 bet%een the %orld affirmation of the householder and the %orld negation of the renouncer. Ho%e)er, this dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be found bet%een renunciation and )edic *rahmanism, %hile elements from non;*rahmanical, #ramana traditions also played an important part in the formation of the renunciate ideal. /ndeed there are continuities bet%een )edic *rahmanism and *uddhism, and it has been argued that the *uddha sought to return to the ideals of a )edic society %hich he sa% as being eroded in his o%n day.:$?D& #ee2 >onathan Gark Oenoyer describes one figure as :seated in yogic position.:$?6& Oarel Werner %rites that :!rcheological disco)eries allo% us therefore to speculate %ith some 1ustification that a %ide range of yoga acti)ities %as already kno%n to the people of pre;!ryan /ndia.:$?7& Heinrich Limmer describes one seal as :seated like a yogi.:$?<& -homas GcF)illey %rites that :-he six mysterious /ndus =alley seal images...all %ithout exception sho% figures in a position kno%n in hatha yoga as mulabhandasana or possibly the closely related :utkatasana: or :baddha konasana....:$??& +r. Farzand Gasih, un1ab Jni)ersity !rchaeology +epartment ,hairman, describes a recently disco)ered seal as depicting a :yogi.:$?@& Ia)in Flood disputes the idea regarding one of the seals, the so;called : ashupati seal,: %riting that it isn4t clear the figure is seated in a yoga posture, or that the shape is intended to represent a human figure.$?A& Ieoffrey #amuel, regarding the ashupati seal, belie)es that %e :do not actually :kno%: ho% to interpret the figure, nor do %e kno% %hat he or she represent.:$?B&

-he standing pose is a meditati)e penance, %hich is clear from the pose being associated in Oalidas4 literature as :-apas)inah #thanu:$?C& and tapas)in is the term for a mendicant. -he ashupati seal also depicts the mendicant in the yogasana %hich is another attributed associated %ith #hi)a from scriptures.$citation needed& -he standing yogic position, %hich in its earliest occurrences has been mentioned as the sthanu asanain Hindu scriptures, %hich is associated %ith #hi)a2 #hi)a has repeatedly been called #thanu in se)eral scriptures.$@D& #hi)a as #thanu in Oalidas4 literature has been described as :#thanu sthira;bhakti; yoga;sulabha: meaning :attainable through de)otion yoga.:$@5& /n modern Hindu yoga too the standing yoga asana is applied and called samabhanga asana$@6& and tadasana. -he seal reads :Tord of the ,attle: and :Tord of the animals:, and #hi)a has been described as both the lord of cattle and animals.$citation needed& /n reference to the bulls that appear on the /ndus =alley seals, archeologists ha)e linked them to #hi)a as the bull is associated %ith him in scriptures. /n the Kig =eda, #hi)a (Kudra) is termed =rishaba or :bull.:$@7& #hi)a connection %ith the three heads on the /ndus =alley yogi seal is that #hi)a has been described and portrayed a three;headed in certain parts of history. For example, in the an Flora temple he is depicted %ith three heads.$@<& Flood2 :...%hich states that, ha)ing become calm and concentrated, one percei)es the self (atman), %ithin oneself.:$A7& >acobsen %rites that :*odily postures are closely related to the tradition of tapas, ascetic practices in the =edic tradition. -he use by =edic priests of ascetic practices in their preparations for the performance of the sacrifice might be precursor to Yoga.:$A<& Whicher belie)es that :the proto;Yoga of the =edic rishis is an early form of sacrificial mysticism and contains many elements characteristic of later Yoga that include2 concentration, meditati)e obser)ation, ascetic forms of practice (tapas), breath control...:$A?& Wynne states that :-he 'asadiyasukta, one of the earliest and most important cosmogonic tracts in the early *rahminic literature, contains e)idence suggesting it %as closely related to a tradition of early *rahminic contemplation. ! close reading of this text suggests that it %as closely related to a tradition of early *rahminic contemplation. -he poem may ha)e been composed by contemplati)es, but e)en if not, an argument can be made that it marks the beginning of the contemplati)e^meditati)e trend in /ndian thought.:$AB& Giller suggests that the composition of 'asadiya #ukta and urusha #ukta arises from :the subtlest meditati)e stage, called absorption in mind and heart: %hich :in)ol)es enheightened experiences: through %hich seer :explores the mysterious psychic and cosmic forces...:.$AC& >acobsen %rites that dhyana (meditation) is deri)ed from =edic term dhih %hich refers to :)isionary insight:, :thought pro)oking )ision:.$AC& For the date of this Jpanishad see also Helmuth )on Ilasenapp, from the 5C?D roceedings of the :!kademie der Wissenschaften und Titeratur:$BB&

Flood %rites, :...*haga)ad Iita, including a complete chapter (ch. @) de)oted to traditional yoga practice. -he Iita also introduces the famous three kinds of yoga, 4kno%ledge4 (1nana), 4action4 (karma), and 4lo)e4 (bhakti).: $CB& Oarma yoga in)ol)es performance of action %ithout attachment to results.$CC& -he yoga of de)otion is similar to the yoga of action, but the fruits of action, in yoga of de)otion, are surrendered to Orishna.$5DD& >nana yoga is the path of %isdom, kno%ledge, and direct experience of *rahman as the ultimate reality. -he path renounces both desires and actions, and is therefore depicted as being steep and )ery difficult in the *haga)ad Iita.$5D5& .n the dates of the ali canon, Iregory #chopen %rites, :We kno%, and ha)e kno%n for some time, that the ali canon as %e ha)e it Q and it is generally conceded to be our oldest source Q cannot be taken back further than the last 0uarter of the first century *,F, the date of the !lu;)ihara redaction, the earliest redaction %e can ha)e some kno%ledge of, and that Q for a critical history Q it can ser)e, at the )ery most, only as a source for the *uddhism of this period. *ut %e also kno% that e)en this is problematic... /n fact, it is not until the time of the commentaries of *uddhaghosa, +hammapala, and others Q that is to say, the fifth to sixth centuries ,F Q that %e can kno% anything definite about the actual contents of $the ali& canon.:$555& Werner %rites, :-he %ord Yoga appears here for the first time in its fully technical meaning, namely as a systematic training, and it already recei)ed a more or less clear formulation in some other middle Jpanishads....Further process of the systematization of Yoga as a path to the ultimate mystic goal is ob)ious in subse0uent Yoga Jpanishads and the culmination of this endea)our is represented by atan1ali4s codification of this path into a system of the eightfold Yoga.:$C@& Worthington %rites, :Yoga fully ackno%ledges its debt to >ainism, and >ainism reciprocates by making the practice of yoga part and parcel of life.:$5<A& Fliade, Gircea, Yoga ; /mmortality and Freedom, rinceton, 5C?B2 rinceton Jni). r. (original title2 Te Yoga. /mmortalit[ et Tibert[, aris, 5C?<2 Tibr. ayot) :-he Geditation school, called 4,h4an4 in ,hinese from the #anskrit 4dhy(na,4 is best kno%n in the West by the >apanese pronunciation 4Len4:$65A& Fxact 0uote2 :-his phenomenon merits special attention since yogic roots are to be found in the Len *uddhist school of meditation.:$66D& Keferences *ryant 6DDC, p. 5D. *ryant 6DDC, p. <?A. +asgupta, #urendranath (5CA?). ! History of /ndian hilosophy 5. +elhi, /ndia2 Gotilal *anarsidass. p. 66@. /#*' B5;6DB;D<56;D. *ryant 6DDC, p. x)ii. +enise Tardner ,armody, >ohn ,armody, #erene ,ompassion. .xford Jni)ersity ress J#, 5CC@, page @B. #tuart Kay #arbacker, #am(dhi2 -he 'uminous and ,essati)e in /ndo;-ibetan Yoga. #J'Y ress, 6DD?, pp. 5E6. -att)arthasutra $@.5&, see Ganu +oshi (6DDA) -ranslation of -att)arthasutra, !hmedabad2 #hrut Katnakar p. 5D6

Flood 5CC@, pp. B6, 66<E<C ,hanging World Keligions, ,ults ] .ccult by >erry #tokes -he Tion4s Koar2 !n /ntroduction to -antra by ,hogyam -rungpa. #hambhala, 6DD5 /#*' 5;?AD@6;BC?;? Fdmonton atric 6DDA,pali and its sinificance p. 776 Tama Yeshe. -he *liss of /nner Fire. Wisdom ublications. 5CCB, pg.57?;5<5. Whicher, pp. 7BE7C. >ames Gallinson, :#(ktism and Hathayoga,: 6B >une 6D56. _JKT` $accessed 5C #eptember 6D57& pg.5 :#cholarship on hathayoga, my o%n included, unanimously declares it to be a reformation of tantric yoga introduced by the gurus of the 'ath sampradaya, in particular their supposed founder, Ioraksa.: *urley, Gikel (6DDD). Hatha Yoga2 /ts ,ontext, -heory and ractice. +elhi2 Gotilal *anarsidass. p. 5@. :/t is for this reason that hatha;yoga is sometimes referred to as a )ariety of 4-antrism4.: +a)idson, Konald. /ndian Fsoteric *uddhism. ,olumbia Jni)ersity ress. 6DD6, pg.5@C;67?. White 6D55, p. 6. #mith, Oelly *.N ,aroline F. ukall (Gay 6DDC). :!n e)idence;based re)ie% of yoga as a complementary inter)ention for patients %ith cancer:. sycho;.ncology 5B (?)2 <@?E <A?. doi25D.5DD6^pon.5<55. G/+ 5BB65?6C. =ancampfort, +.N =ansteeland, O.N #chee%e, -.N robst, G.N Onapen, >.N +e Herdt, !.N +e Hert, G. (>uly 6D56). :Yoga in schizophrenia2 a systematic re)ie% of randomised controlled trials:. !cta sychiatrica #candina)ica 56@ (5)2 56E6D., art.nr. 5D.5555^1.5@DD; D<<A.6D56.D5B@?.x #harma, Gano1N -a1 Haider (.ctober 6D56). :Yoga as an !lternati)e and ,omplementary -reatment for !sthma2 ! #ystematic Ke)ie%:. >ournal of F)idence; *ased ,omplementary ] !lternati)e Gedicine 5A (7)2 656E65A. doi25D.55AA^65?@?BA656<?7A6A. /nnes, Oim F.N ,heryl *ourguignon ('o)emberE+ecember 6DD?). :Kisk /ndices !ssociated %ith the /nsulin Kesistance #yndrome, ,ardio)ascular +isease, and ossible rotection %ith Yoga2 ! #ystematic Ke)ie%:. >ournal of the !merican *oard of Family Gedicine 5B (@)2 <C5E?5C. *irdee, Iur1eet #. et al. :,haracteristics of Yoga Jsers2 Kesults of a 'ational #ur)ey.: >ournal of Ieneral /nternal Gedicine. .ctober 6DDB, =olume 67 /ssue 5D. p5@?7;5@?B Whicher, p. @EA. >acobsen, p. <. #ar)epalli Kadhakrishnan, /ndian hilosophy, Tondon, Ieorge !llen ] Jn%in Ttd., 5CA5 edition, =olume //, pp. 5CE6D. *ryant 6DDC, p. ?. *ryant 6DDC, p. xxxix. !ranya, #%ami Hariharananda (6DDD). Yoga hilosophy of atan1ali %ith *has)ati. ,alcutta, /ndia2 Jni)ersity of ,alcutta. p. 5. /#*' B5;BA?C<;DD;<. +asgupta, #urendranath (5CA?). ! History of /ndian hilosophy 5. +elhi, /ndia2 Gotilal *anarsidass. p. 66A. /#*' B5;6DB;D<56;D. !merican Heritage +ictionary2 :Yogi, .ne %ho practices yoga.: Websters2 :Yogi, ! follo%er of the yoga philosophyN an ascetic.:

Tarson, p. 5<6. >acobsen, p. C. atan1ali, Yoga #utra ///, ??, ed.2 Giller, *arbara #toler (transl., intr.), Yoga ; +iscipline of Freedom. -he Yoga #utra !ttributed to atan1ali, 'e% York, 5CCB2 *antam *ooks, p. A7 +upler, +ouglasN Frey, Kebecca. Iale Fncyclopedia of Gedicine, 7rd ed (6DD@). Ketrie)ed 7D !ugust 6D56. ,rangle 5CC<, p. <;A. ossehl (6DD7), pp. 5<<E5<? Tarson, p. 7@. Flood 5CC@, p. BA;CD. ,rangle 5CC<, p. <. ,rangle 5CC<, p. ?. Feuerstein, Ieorg (6DD5). -he Yoga -radition2 /ts History, Titerature, hilosophy and ractice. !rizona, J#!2 Hohm ress. p. Oindle Tocations A6CCEA7DD. /#*' CAB; 5BCDAA65B?. !ranya, #%ami Hariharananda (6DDD). :/ntroduction:. Yoga hilosophy of atan1ali %ith *has)ati. ,alcutta, /ndia2 Jni)ersity of ,alcutta. p. xxi). /#*' B5;BA?C<;DD;<. #amuel 6DDB, p. 6;7. Limmer 5C?5, p. 65A, 75<. Limmer 5C?5, p. 65A. ,rangle 5CC<, p. A. ,rangle 5CC<, p. ?;A. #amuel 6DDB, p. B. Flood 5CC@, p. AA. Fllod 5CC@, p. A@;AA. ,handa, Kamaprasad (!ugust 5C76). :Gohen;1o;+aro2 #indh ?DDD Years !go:. Godern Ke)ie%. ::!round the /ndus in CD #lides: by >onathan Gark Oenoyer:. Harappa.com. Ketrie)ed 6B 'o)ember 6D56. Werner, p. 5D7. Limmer, p. 5@B. GcF)illey, pp. 65C;66D :Kare ob1ects disco)ery points to ruins treasure:. !rchi)es.da%n.com. B Gay 6DDA. Ketrie)ed 6B 'o)ember 6D56. Flood, pp. 6BE6C. #amuel, p. <. . 5D< -he *irth of Oum(ra *y O(lid(sa . 77 -he ,oncept of Kudra;Pi)a -hrough the !ges *y Gahade) ,hakra)arti . 5< -he Gegha;+8ta of O(lid(sa *y O(lid(sa . 5@ -he *ook of Hindu /magery2 Iods, Ganifestations and -heir Geaning *y F)a Kudy >ansen . BC -he ,oncept of Kudra;Pi)a -hrough the !ges *y Gahade) ,hakra)arti . <@5 -he ,a)e -emples of /ndia *y >ames *urgess White 6D55, p. 5A. White 6D55, p. 7.

. 576 ! #tudent4s Iuide to !6 Keligious #tudies for the .,K #pecification *y Gichael Wilcockson Flood 5CC@, p. C?. . CC -he Wisdom of the =edas *y >agadish ,handra ,hatter1i White 6D55, p. <. *urley, Gikel (6DDD). Hatha Yoga2 /ts ,ontext, -heory and ractice. +elhi2 Gotilal *anarsidass. p. 6?. /#*' CAB;B56DB5AD@A. . 6? Haha;Yoga2 /ts ,ontext, -heory, and ractice *y Gikel *urley Flood 5CC@, p. C<EC?. >acobsen, p. @. Whicher, p. 56. Flood, p. C<EC?. Whicher, p. 57. Wynne, p. ?D. Whicher, p. 55. Flood 5CC@, p. C<. . ?5 -he ,omplete /diot4s Iuide to Yoga *y >oan *udilo)sky, F)e !damson -otal Heart Health . 5AD *y Kobert H. #chneider, >eremy L. Fields . ?75 -he Yoga -radition2 /ts History, Titerature, hilosophy and ractice *y Ieorg Feuerstein (6DD6) . ?7B -he Yoga -radition *y Ieorg Feuerstein Tarson, p. 7<E7?, ?7. Wynne, pp. <<E<?,?B. Whicher, p. 5A. :=edanta and *uddhism, ! ,omparati)e #tudy:. Ketrie)ed 6C !ugust 6D56. Whicher, p. 5BE5C. >acobsen, p. B. Whicher, p. 6D. Whicher, p. 65. Feuerstein, Ieorg (>anuaryEFebruary 5CBB). :/ntroducing Yoga4s Ireat Titerary Heritage:. Yoga >ournal (AB)2 ADE?. White, +a)id Iordon. Yoga in ractice. rinceton Jni)ersity ress 6D56, page 5<. White, +a)id Iordon (6DD7). Oiss of the Yogini. ,hicago2 Jni)ersity of ,hicago ress. p. 66<. /#*' D;66@;BC<B7;?. Werner, p. 6<. >acobsen, p. 5D. Flood, p. C@. Fo%ler, p. xli). >acobsen, p. 55. Fol%er, p. xli. :,h. 6.<B: :*haga)ad;Iita !s /t /s: by !.,. *hakti)edanta #%ami rabhupada, *hakti)edanta *ook -rust /nternational. Iambhirananda, p. 5@. >acobsen, p. <@. Fo%ler, p. xl). Whicher, p. 6?E6@.

Wynne, p. 77. Werner p. 55C;6D +ouglass, Taura (6D55). :-hinking -hrough -he *ody2 -he ,onceptualization .f Yoga !s -herapy For /ndi)iduals With Fating +isorders:. !cademic #earch remier2 B7. Ketrie)ed 5C February 6D57. +atta, !maresh (5CBB). Fncyclopaedia of /ndian Titerature2 de)ra1 to 1yoti. #ahitya !kademi. p. 5BDC. /#*' CAB;B5;6@D;55C<;D. Wynne, pp. 7E<. Kichard Iombrich, :-hera)ada *uddhism2 ! #ocial History from !ncient *enares to Godern ,olombo.: Koutledge and Oegan aul, 5CBB, p. <<. *arbara #toler Giller, :Yoga2 +iscipline of Freedom2 the Yoga #utra !ttributed to atan1aliN a -ranslation of the -ext, %ith ,ommentary, /ntroduction, and Ilossary of Oey%ords.: Jni)ersity of ,alifornia ress, 5CC@, p. B. Wynne, p. C6. Wynne, p. 5D?. Wynne, p. C?. Gallinson, >ames. 6DDA. -he OhecarH)idy( of !dinath(. Tondon2 Koutledge. pg.5A;5C. >ames Gallinson, :#(ktism and Hathayoga,: @ Garch 6D56. _JKT` $accessed 5D >une 6D56& pgs. 6D;65 :-he *uddha himself is said to ha)e tried both pressing his tongue to the back of his mouth, in a manner similar to that of the hathayogic khecarHmudr(, and ukkutikappadh(na, a s0uatting posture %hich may be related to hathayogic techni0ues such as mah(mudr(, mah(bandha, mah()edha, m8labandha, and )a1r(sana in %hich pressure is put on the perineum %ith the heel, in order to force up%ards the breath or OundalinH.: Tarson, p. 7B. Kadhankrishnan, /ndian hilosophy, Tondon, Ieorge !llen ] Jn%in Ttd., 5CA5 edition, =olume //, p. 7<6. Kadhankrishnan, /ndian hilosophy, Tondon, Ieorge !llen ] Jn%in Ttd., 5CA5 edition, =olume //, p. 7<<. #tiles 6DD5, p. x. For an o)er)ie% of the six orthodox schools, %ith detail on the grouping of schools, see2 Kadhakrishnan and Goore, :,ontents,: and pp. <?7E<BA. For a brief o)er)ie% of the yoga school of philosophy see2 ,hatter1ee and +atta, p. <7. Oarel Werner, -he Yogi and the Gystic. Koutledge 5CC<, page 6A. : atan1ali4s system is unthinkable %ithout *uddhism. !s far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga #utras that reminds us of *uddhist formulations from the (li ,anon and e)en more so from the #ar)(sti)(da !bhidharma and from #autr(ntika.: Tarson, pp. <<E<?. Oarel Werner, -he Yogi and the Gystic. Koutledge 5CC<, page 6A. : atan1ali4s system is unthinkable %ithout *uddhism. !s far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga #utras that reminds us of *uddhist formulations from the (li ,anon and e)en more so from the #ar)(sti)(da !bhidharma and from #autr(ntika.: For yoga acceptance of samkhya concepts, but %ith addition of a category for Iod, see2 Kadhakrishnan and Goore, p. <?7. For yoga as accepting the 6? principles of samkhya %ith the addition of Iod, see2 ,hatter1ee and +atta, p. <7.

GUller (5BCC), ,hapter A, :Yoga hilosophy,: p. 5D<. Limmer (5C?5), p. 6BD. For atan1ali as the founder of the philosophical system called yoga see2 ,hatter1ee and +atta, p. <6. Tarson, p. 65E66. For :ra1a yoga: as a system for control of the mind and connection to atan1ali4s Yoga #utras as a key %ork, see2 Flood (5CC@), pp. C@ECB. For text and %ord;by;%ord translation as :Yoga is the inhibition of the modifications of the mind.: #ee2 -aimni, p. @. *arbara #toler Giller, :Yoga2 +iscipline of Freedom2 the Yoga #utra !ttributed to atan1aliN a -ranslation of the -ext, %ith ,ommentary, /ntroduction, and Ilossary of Oey%ords.: Jni)ersity of ,alifornia ress, 5CC@, page C. =i)ekanada, p. 55?. hillips, #tephen H. (5CC?). ,lassical /ndian Getaphysics2 Kefutations of Kealism and the Fmergence of :'e% Togic:. .pen ,ourt ublishing. pp. 56E57. Tarson, p. <AB. Yoga >ournal, !cti)e /nterest Gedia, /nc., 6DD@, p. 565, /##' D5C5DC@? +i)an1i, rahlad, ed. (5C?<). Yoga Ya1na)alkya2 ! -reatise on Yoga as -aught by Yogi Ya1na)alkya. *.*.K.!. #ociety4s Gonograph 'o. 7. *ombay, /ndia2 *ombay *ranch of the Koyal !siatic #ociety. p. 5D?. Gohan, !.I. (6D5D). Orishnamacharya2 His Tife and -eachings. #hambhala ublications. p. 56A. /#*' CAB;5;?CD7D;BDD;<. -att)arthasutra $@.6& 'iyamasara $57<;<D& Lydenbos, Kobert. :>ainism -oday and /ts Future.: GUnchen2 Ganya =erlag, 6DD@. p.@@ Lydenbos (6DD@) p.@@ Worthington, p. 7?. . 757 -he /ntegrity of the Yoga +arsana2 ! Keconsideration of the ,lassical Yoga *y /an Whicher +an Tusthaus. *uddhist henomenology2 ! hilosophical /n)estigation of Yogacara *uddhism and the ,h4eng Wei;shih Tun. ublished 6DD6 (Koutledge). /#*' D;ADDA; 55B@;<. pg ?77 #imple -ibetan *uddhism2 ! Iuide to -antric Ti)ing *y ,. !lexander #impkins, !nnellen G. #impkins. ublished 6DD5. -uttle ublishing. /#*' D;BD<B;75CC;B Tarson, pp. 57@E57C. ,utler, 'orman (5CBA). #ongs of Fxperience. /ndiana Jni)ersity ress. p. 5. /#*' CAB;D;6?7;7?77<;<. Tarson, p. 57A. >acobsen, p. 66. -itle2 Gesocosm2 Hinduism and the .rganization of a -raditional 'e%ar ,ity in 'epal. !uthor2 Kobert /. Te)y. ublished2 Jni)ersity of ,alifornia ress, 5CC5. pp 757 Your ayur)edic constitution2 rakruti by Kobert #)oboda Gotilal *anarsidass ublication,6DD?N /#*' CAB;B5;6DB;5B<D;B Ioogle *ooks -itle2 Gesocosm2 Hinduism and the .rganization of a -raditional 'e%ar ,ity in 'epal. !uthor2 Kobert /. Te)y. ublished2 Jni)ersity of ,alifornia ress, 5CC5. pp 75A

>ames Gallinson, :#(ktism and Hathayoga,: 6B >une 6D56. _JKT` $accessed 5C #eptember 6D57& pgs. 6 :-he earliest references to hathayoga are scattered mentions in *uddhist canonical %orks and their exegesis dating from the eighth century on%ards, in %hich it is the soteriological method of last resort.: >ames Gallinson, :#(ktism and Hathayoga,: 6B >une 6D56. _JKT` $accessed 5C #eptember 6D57& pgs. 6 :/n its earliest definition, in undarHkaVs ele)enth;century =imalaprabh( commentary on the O(lacakratantra, hathayoga is said to bring about the :unchanging moment: (aksaraksana) :through the practice of n(da by forcefully making the breath enter the central channel and through restraining the bindu of the bodhicitta in the )a1ra of the lotus of %isdom:. While the means employed are not specified, the ends, in particular restraining bindu, semen, and making the breath enter the central channel, are similar to those mentioned in the earliest descriptions of the practices of hathayoga, to %hich / no% turn.: Tarson, p. 5<D. Kaub, >ames !.. sychophysiologic Fffects of Hatha Yoga on Gusculoskeletal and ,ardiopulmonary Function2 ! Titerature Ke)ie%. Ti)ing Yoga2 ,reating a Tife ractice E age <6 by ,hristy -urlington (page <6) :Iuiding Yoga4s Tight2 Yoga Tessons for Yoga -eachers: E age 5D by 'ancy Ierstein :Gindfulness Yoga2 -he !%akened Jnion of *reath *ody ] Gind: E age @ by Frank >ude *occio *urley, Gikel (6DDD). Hatha Yoga2 /ts ,ontext, -heory and ractice. +elhi2 Gotilal *anarsidass. p. 5@. /#*' CAB;B56DB5AD@A. Feuerstein, Ieorg. (5CC@). :-he #hambhala Iuide to Yoga.: *oston ] Tondon2 #hambhala ublications, /nc. Hatha Yoga :Hatha Yoga ; !rt of Ti)ing: +hillon, p. 6<C. +hillon, p. 6??. Gansukhani, Iobind #ingh (6DDC). /ntroduction -o #ikhism. Hemkunt ress. p. @@. /#*' CAB;B5;AD5D;5B5;C. +hillon, Harish (6D5D). Iuru 'anak. /ndus #ource *ooks. p. 5AB. /#*' CAB;B5; BB?@C;D6;5. #ha%, Fric. 7? m.Gents, Yoga >ournal, 6D5D;DC. Ioldberg, hilip, !merican =eda. From Fmerson and the *eatles to Yoga and Geditation. Ho% /ndian #pirituality ,hanged the West, 'e% York, 6D5D2 Harmony *ooks, pp.65ff., =on Ilasenapp, Hellmuth, +ie hilosophie der /nder, #tuttgart, 5CA<2 !. Oroener =erlag, p. 5@@f. :Fear of Yoga:. Jtne.com. Ketrie)ed 6B !ugust 6D57. +e Gichelis, Flizabeth, ! History .f Godern Yoga. atan1ali and Godern Fsotericism. Tondon, 6DD<2 ,ontinuum *ooks, pp. 5Cff. Flood, Ia)in +., *ody and ,osmology in Oashmir #ai)ism, #an Francisco, 5CC72 Gellen Kesearch Jni)ersity ress, pp.66Cff. #ingleton, Gark (56 >anuary 6D5D). Yoga *ody2 -he .rigins of Godern osture ractice. .xford Jni)ersity ress. p.76, ?D. /#*' CABD5CCA<?CB6. Ketrie)ed 5< Garch 6D5<.

>oseph #. !lter (7D !ugust 6DD<). Yoga in Godern /ndia2 -he *ody bet%een #cience and hilosophy. rinceton Jni)ersity ress. p.BA. /#*' CABD@C555BA<5. Ketrie)ed 5< Garch 6D5<. -itle2 ! History of Godern Yoga. !uthor2 Flizabeth +e Gichelis. ublished2 ,ontinuum, 6DD? *ryant 6DDC, p. x)iii. ,ushman, !nn (>anEFeb 6DDD). :-he 'e% Yoga:. Yoga >ournal.com. p. @B. Ketrie)ed D?;D6;6D55. #il)a, Gira, and Gehta, #hyam. (5CC?). Yoga the /yengar Way, p. C. !lfred !. Onopf, 'e% York. /#*' D;BC7B5;A75;A +esikachar, -. O. =. (6DD?). Health, healing and beyond2 Yoga and the li)ing tradition of Orishnamacharya, (co)er 1acket text). !perture, J#!. /#*' CAB;D;BC7B5;A75;6 ,ongressional Honorary Kesolution ?65 J# Tibrary of ,ongress #ingleton, Gark. (6D5D). Yoga *ody2 -he .rigins of Godern osture ractice, p. 5@5. .xford Jni)ersity ress, J#!. /#*' D5C?7C?7<< ,hidanand Ka1ghatta. :J# resident *arack .bama thro%s %eight behind yoga:. -imes of /ndia. Ketrie)ed 5 !pril 6D57. :+i)ersify Your ,lient4s Workout With Yoga:. !merican ,ollege of #ports Gedicine. Ketrie)ed 5C #eptember 6D57. Orisanaprakornkit, -.N 'gam1arus, ,.N Witoonchart, ,.N iya)hatkul, '. (6D5D). :Geditation therapies for attention;deficit^hyperacti)ity disorder (!+H+):. ,ochrane +atabase of #ystematic Ke)ie%s (.nline) (@)2 ,+DD@?DA. doi25D.5DD6^5<@?5B?B.,+DD@?DA.pub6. G/+ 6D??@A@A. .spina, G. *.N *ond, O.N Oarkhaneh, G., et al. (6DDB). :,linical trials of meditation practices in health care2 characteristics and 0uality:. >ournal of !lternati)e and ,omplementary Gedicine 5< (5D)2 5CCE657. Jebelacker, T. !.N Fpstein;Tubo%, I.N Iaudiano, *. !.N -remont, I.N *attle, ,. T.N Giller, /. W. (6D5D). :Hatha yoga for depression2 critical re)ie% of the e)idence for efficacy, plausible mechanisms of action, and directions for future research:. >ournal of sychiatric ractice 5@ (5)2 66E77. :Yoga4s ability to impro)e mood and lessen anxiety is linked to increased le)els of a critical brain chemical, research finds:. #ciencedaily.com. 56 'o)ember 6D5D. doi25D.5DBC^acm.6D5D.DDDA. Ketrie)ed 6B 'o)ember 6D56. #treeter, ,hris ,. et al. :Fffects of Yoga =ersus Walking on Good, !nxiety, and *rain I!*! Te)els2 ! Kandomized ,ontrolled GK# #tudy.: >ournal of !lternati)e ] ,omplementary Gedicine. 'o)ember 6D5D, =olume 5@ /ssue 55, p55<?;55? Yoga could be good for heart disease. #imultaneous focus on body, breathing, and mind may be 1ust %hat the doctor ordered. (6D5D). Har)ard Heart Tetter2 From Har)ard Gedical #chool, 65(7), ?. Ketrie)ed from F*#,.host. -ilbrook Helen F et al. (6D55). :Yoga for ,hronic To% *ack ain2 ! Kandomized -rial:. !nn. /ntern. Ged. 5?? (C)2 ?@CE?AB. doi25D.5D?C^DDD7;<B5C;5??;C;6D5555D5D; DDDD7. G/+ 66D<5C<?. #herman O>, ,herkin +,, Frro >, Giglioretti +T, +eyo K! (6DD?). :,omparing yoga, exercise, and a self;care book for chronic lo% back pain2 a randomized, controlled trial:. !nn. /ntern. Ged. 5<7 (56)2 B<CE?@. G/+ 5@7@?<@@.

Williams O!, etronis >, #mith +, et al. (6DD?). :Fffect of /yengar yoga therapy for chronic lo% back pain:. ain 55? (5E6)2 5DAE5A. doi25D.5D5@^1.pain.6DD?.D6.D5@. G/+ 5?B7@CA<. ,huang, Ting;Hsiang et al. (6D56). :! ragmatic Gulticentered Kandomized ,ontrolled -rial of Yoga for ,hronic To% *ack ain2 Fconomic F)aluation:. #pine 7A (5B)2 5?C7E5@D5. doi25D.5DCA^*K#.DbD57e75B6?<?C7A. G/+ 66<77<CC. :Kesearchers Find Yoga Gay *e Fffecti)e For ,hronic To% *ack ain /n Ginority opulations:. #ciencedaily.com. < 'o)ember 6DDC. Ketrie)ed 6B 'o)ember 6D56. +e#tasio, #usan !. /ntegrating Yoga /nto ,ancer ,are. ,linical >ournal of .ncology 'ursing. February 6DDB, =olume 56 /ssue 5. p56?;57D #mith O, ukall ,. !n e)idence;based re)ie% of yoga as a complementary inter)ention for patients %ith cancer. sycho;.ncology $serial online&. Gay 6DDCN5B(?)2<@?E<A?. http2^^%%%.%ebmd.com^balance^guide^the;health;benefits;of;yoga Ohalsa, #at *ir #. et al. F)aluation of a Kesidential Oundalini Yoga Tifestyle ilot rogram for !ddiction in /ndia. >ournal of Fthnicity in #ubstance !buse. 6DDB, =olume A /ssue 5. p@A;AC Iothe, '.N ontifex, G. *.N Hillman, ,.N Gc!uley, F. (6D57). :-he acute effects of yoga on executi)e function:. >ournal of physical acti)ity ] health 5D (<)2 <BBE<C?. G/+ 66B6D5?B. edit enman, #tephenN Garc ,ohen, hilip #te)ens, and #ue >ackson (6D56). :Yoga in !ustralia2 Kesults of a national sur)ey:. />.Y, /nternational >ournal of Yoga ? (6)2 C6E 5D5. doi25D.<5D7^DCA7;@575.CB65A. G, 7<5D6D7. G/+ 66B@CCC5. Ketrie)ed 6D 'o)ember 6D56. Oathleen #ummers. :,an Yoga Wreck Your *odyR: (blog by medical and yoga expert). -heYoga+r.com. Ketrie)ed 65 'o)ember 6D56. :Here are some tips to a)oid in1ury2: >oseph ,husid (C !ugust 5CA5). :Yoga Foot +rop:. >!G!, -he >ournal of the !merican Gedical !ssociation 6A5 (@)2 B6AEB6B. doi25D.5DD5^1ama.5CA5.D75CDD@DD@?D6?. Ketrie)ed 5C 'o)ember 6D56. William >. *road (? >anuary 6D56). :Ho% Yoga ,an Wreck Your *ody:. -he 'e% York -imes Gagazine. Ketrie)ed 6C !ugust 6D56. William >. *road (A February 6D56). -he #cience of Yoga -he Kisks and the Ke%ards (hardco)er) (5st ed.). #imon ] #chuster. p. 77@. /#*' CAB;5<?5@<5<6<. >oanna Walters (5< >anuary 6D56). :4Yoga can damage your body4 article thro%s exponents off;balance2 ! a?bn industry is outraged o)er a 'e% York -imes article saying that the keep fit regime is bad for your body:. -he Iuardian, -he .bser)er. Ketrie)ed 6C !ugust 6D56. atel, #,N +! arker (6DDB). :/solated rupture of the lateral collateral ligament during yoga practice2 a case report:. >ournal of .rthopaedic #urgery 5@ (7)2 7ABEBD. *eth Hale. :When yoga can be bad for the body beautiful:. -he +aily Gail. Ketrie)ed 6C !ugust 6D56. ,hristensen, !lice. :Who ,an ractice YogaR:. Ieneral Yoga /nformation. !merican Yoga !ssociation. Ketrie)ed 6B .ctober 6D56. *iffl, Walter T.N Frnest F. Goore, >. aul Flliott, ,harles Kay, atrick >. .ffner, Keginald >. Franciose, Oerry F. *rega, and >on G. *urch (Gay 6DDD). :-he +e)astating

otential of *lunt =ertebral !rterial /n1uries:. !nnals of #urgery 675 (?)2 @A6E@B5. G, 5<65D?<. Ketrie)ed 65 'o)ember 6D56. F. G. ,ritchley (>une 5CB<). :'on;atheromatous causes of cerebral infarction: ( +F). ostgraduate Gedical >ournal @D (AD<)2 7B@E7CD. G, 6<5ACD?. Ketrie)ed 65 'o)ember 6D56. Oang, ,hanN +euk;#oo H%ang and #oo;Gin ,ha (+ecember 6DDC). :!cetabular Tabral -ears in atients %ith #ports /n1ury:. ,linics in #ports /n1ury 5 (<)2 67DE67?. doi25D.<D??^cios.6DDC.5.<.67D. G, 6AB<C@<. Ketrie)ed 65 'o)ember 6D56. http2^^%%%.1d1ournal.com^6D57^DA^D6^california;1udge;says;yoga;is;secular;appro)es; its;use;in;schools^ -he *uddhist -radition in /ndia, ,hina, and >apan. Fdited by William -heodore de *ary. pp. 6DAE6DB. /#*' D;7C<;A5@C@;? +umoulin, Heinrich ] Onitter, p. 66. +umoulin, Heinrich ] Onitter, p. x)iii. +umoulin, Heinrich ] Onitter, p. 57. -he Tion4s Koar2 !n /ntroduction to -antra by ,hogyam -rungpa. #hambhala, 6DD5 /#*' 5;?AD@6;BC?;? :#ecret of the =a1ra World2 -he -antric *uddhism of -ibet: by Kay, Keginald !. #hambhala2 6DD6. pp. 7AE7B /#*' 5;?AD@6;C5A;b :#ecret of the =a1ra World2 -he -antric *uddhism of -ibet: by Kay, Keginald !. #hambhala2 6DD6. p. ?A /#*' 5;?AD@6;C5A;b :Yantra Yoga2 -he -ibetan Yoga of Go)ement: by ,hogyal 'amkhai 'orbu. #no% Tion, 6DDB. /#*' 5;??C7C;7DB;< ,hang, I.,.,. (5CC7). :-ibetan Yoga.: 'e% >ersey2 ,arol ublishing Iroup. p. A /#*' D;BD@?;5<?7;5 #teinfels, eter (A >anuary 5CCD). :-rying to Keconcile the Ways of the =atican and the Fast:. 'e% York -imes. Ketrie)ed ? +ecember 6DDB. :=atican sounds 'e% !ge alert:. **,. < February 6DD7. Ketrie)ed 6A !ugust 6D57. -easdale, Wayne (6DD<). ,atholicism in dialogue2 con)ersations across traditions. Ko%man ] Tittlefield. p. A<. /#*' D;A<6?;75AB;7. Gohler, K. !lbert >r. :-he #ubtle *ody E #hould ,hristians ractice YogaR:. Ketrie)ed 5< >anuary 6D55. Handbook of )ocational psychology by W. *ruce Walsh, Gark #a)ickas 6DD? /#*' D; BD?B;<?5A;B page 7?B :5CBC Tetter from =atican to *ishops on #ome !spects of ,hristian Geditation:. F%tn.com. Ketrie)ed 6B 'o)ember 6D56. +r !nkerberg, >ohn ] +r Weldon, >ohn, Fncyclopedia of 'e% !ge *eliefs, Har)est House ublishers, 5CC@ GermisE,a)a, >onathan (6DDC). :!n !nchor and a #ail2 ,hristian Geditation as the Gechanism for a luralist Keligious /dentity:. #ociology of Keligion. Frnst, ,. W. (6DD?). :#ituating #ufism and Yoga:. >ournal of the Koyal !siatic #ociety 5?2 5?. doi25D.5D5A^#57?@5B@7D<DD<@A?. edit :#ituating #ufism and Yoga: ( +F). Ketrie)ed ? #eptember 6D5D. http2^^%%%.adishakti.org^pdfcfiles^islamcandcyogac(sites.netscape.net).pdf karmayogaglobal.com niroga.org

-op /slamic body2 Yoga is not for Guslims E G#'*, :Gixed reactions to yoga ban:. -hestar.com.my. 67 'o)ember 6DDB. Ketrie)ed ? #eptember 6D5D. :Galaysia leader2 Yoga for Guslims .O %ithout chant,: !ssociated ress :#idang Gedia E Fat%a Yoga:. /slam.go).my. !rchi)ed from the original on @ >anuary 6DDC. Ketrie)ed ? #eptember 6D5D. :/ndonesian clerics issue yoga ban:. **, 'e%s. 6? >anuary 6DDC. Ketrie)ed @ !pril 6D5D. :rediff.com2 Why gi)e yoga religious connotation2 +eoband:. #pecials.rediff.com. 6C >anuary 6DDC. Ketrie)ed ? #eptember 6D5D. :/tVs .O to stretch, 1ust donVt belie)e:. Hurriyet.com.tr. Ketrie)ed ? #eptember 6D5D. #ources *ryant, Fd%in (6DDC). -he Yoga #utras of ata91ali2 ! 'e% Fdition, -ranslation, and ,ommentary. 'e% York, J#!2 'orth oint ress. /#*' CAB;DB@?<AA7@D. ,rangle, Fd%ard Fitzpatrick (5CC<), -he .rigin and +e)elopment of Farly /ndian ,ontemplati)e ractices, .tto Harrasso%itz =erlag +hillon, +albir #ingh (5CBB). #ikhism, .rigin and +e)elopment. !tlantic ublishers. IIOFY2*YOLF<Z-I>H. +e Gichelis, Flizabeth (6DD<). ! History of Godern Yoga. Tondon2 ,ontinuum. /#*' D;B6@<;BAA6;@. +umoulin, HeinrichN Heisig, >ames W.N Onitter, aul F. (6DD?). Len *uddhism2 a History2 /ndia and ,hina. World Wisdom, /nc. /#*' CAB;D;C<5?76;BC;5. Fliade, Gircea (5C?B). Yoga2 /mmortality and Freedom. rinceton2 rinceton Jni)ersity ress. /#*' CAB;D;@C5;5<6D7;@. Feuerstein, Ieorg (5CC@). -he #hambhala Iuide to Yoga. 5st ed. *oston ] Tondon2 #hambhala ublications. Flood, Ia)in +. (5CC@), !n /ntroduction to Hinduism, ,ambridge Jni)ersity ress Fo%ler, >eaneane +. (6D56). -he *haga)ad Iita2 ! -ext and ,ommentary for #tudents. #ussex !cademic ress. /#*' CAB;5;B<?5C;7<@;5. Ioldberg, hilip (6D5D). !merican =eda. From Fmerson and the *eatles to Yoga and Geditation. Ho% /ndian #pirituality ,hanged the West. 'e% York2 Harmony *ooks. /#*' CAB;D;7B?;?657<;?. Flood, Ia)in (5CC@). !n /ntroduction to Hinduism. ,ambridge2 ,ambridge Jni)ersity ress. /#*' D;?65;<7BAB;D. Iambhirananda, #%ami (5CCB). Gadhusudana #aras)ati *haga)adcIita2 With the annotation I8h(rtha +Hpik(. ,alcutta2 !d)aita !shrama ublication +epartment. /#*' B5;A?D?;5C<;C. >acobsen, Onut !.N Tarson, Ierald >ames (6DD?). -heory !nd ractice of Yoga2 Fssays in Honour of Ierald >ames Tarson. *K/TT. /#*' CAB;CD;D<;5<A?A;A. Tarson, Ierald >ames (6DDB). -he Fncyclopedia of /ndian hilosophies2 Yoga2 /ndia4s philosophy of meditation. Gotilal *anarsidass. /#*' CAB;B5;6DB;77<C;<. GcF)illey, -homas (6DD6). -he shape of ancient thought. !ll%orth ,ommunications. /#*' CAB;5;?B55?;6D7;@.

GUller, Gax (5BCC). #ix #ystems of /ndian hilosophyN #amkhya and Yoga, 'aya and =aiseshika. ,alcutta2 #usil Iupta (/ndia) Ttd. /#*' D;A@@5;<6C@;?. Keprint editionN .riginally published under the title of :-he #ix #ystems of /ndian hilosophy.: ossehl, Iregory (6DD7). -he /ndus ,i)ilization2 ! ,ontemporary erspecti)e. !ltaGira ress. /#*' CAB;D;A?C5;D5A6;6. Kadhakrishnan, #.N Goore, ,! (5C@A). ! #ourcebook in /ndian hilosophy. rinceton. /#*' D;@C5;D5C?B;<. #amuel, Ieoffrey (6DDB), -he .rigins of Yoga and -antra, ,ambridge Jni)ersity ress, /#*' CAB;D;?65;@C?7<;7 -aimni, /. O. (5C@5). -he #cience of Yoga. !dyar, /ndia2 -he -heosophical ublishing House. /#*' B5;AD?C;656;A. Werner, Oarel (5CCB). Yoga !nd /ndian hilosophy. Gotilal *anarsidass ubl. /#*' B5;6DB;5@DC;C. Whicher, /an (5CCB). -he /ntegrity of the Yoga +arSana2 ! Keconsideration of ,lassical Yoga. #J'Y ress. /#*' CAB;D;AC5<;7B5?;6. White, +a)id Iordon (6D55), Yoga, *rief History of an /dea (,hapter 5 of :Yoga in practice:), rinceton Jni)ersity ress Worthington, =i)ian (5CB6). ! History of Yoga. Koutledge. /#*' D;A5DD;C6?B;b. Wynne, !lexander :-he .rigin of *uddhist Geditation.: Koutledge, 6DDA, /#*' 5; 57<;DCA<5;A. Limmer, Heinrich (5C?5), hilosophies of /ndia, 'e% York, 'e% York2 rinceton Jni)ersity ress, /#*' D;@C5;D5A?B;5 *ollingen #eries bb=/N Fdited by >oseph ,ambell. Lydenbos, Kobert. >ainism -oday and /ts Future. GUnchen2 Ganya =erlag, 6DD@. p. @@ Fxternal links Took up in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Find more about Yoga at Wikipedia4s sister pro1ects +efinitions and translations from Wiktionary Gedia from ,ommons -extbooks from Wikibooks Tearning resources from Wiki)ersity Yoga at +G.L $sho%& ) t e Yoga $sho%& ) t

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#h0ip #imple Fnglish #lo)enina #lo)enina prv} ^ srpski #rpskohr)atski ^ rprvopxmqrv} #uomi #)enska -agalog o}v -Urke vpmrvm j -ing =it =ro Winaray Fdit links -his page %as last modified on 7 !pril 6D5< at DC27?. -ext is a)ailable under the ,reati)e ,ommons !ttribution;#hare!like TicenseN additional terms may apply. *y using this site, you agree to the -erms of Jse and ri)acy olicy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, /nc., a non; profit organization. ri)acy policy !bout Wikipedia +isclaimers ,ontact Wikipedia +e)elopers Gobile )ie% Wikimedia Foundation o%ered by GediaWiki