CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The evolution and development of mankind began thousands and thousands of years before. And today our intelligence, our brain is a resultant of this long developmental phase. Technology also has been on the path of development since when man appeared. It is man that gave technology its present form. But today, technology is entering a phase where it will outwit man in intelligence as well as efficiency. Man has now to find a way in which he can keep in pace with technology, and one of the recent developments in this regard, is the brain chip implants. Brain chips are made with a view to enhance the memory of human beings, to help paralyzed patients, and are also intended to serve military purposes. It is likely that implantable computer chips acting as sensors, or actuators, may soon assist not only failing memory, but even bestow fluency in a new language, or enable "recognition" of previously unmet individuals. The progress already made in therapeutic devices, in prosthetics and in computer science indicates that it may well be feasible to develop direct interfaces between the brain and computers. This technology is only under developmental phase, although many implants have already been made on the human brain for experimental purposes. Lets take a look at this developing technology. There is no doubt of the essential role of discrete neuronal networks in brain function. Nevertheless, models of brain function based on neuronal networks alone fail to answer the various fundamental questions of how the brain works, such as, What is the neuronal substrate of consciousness?, or Why do anesthetic effects diminish at higher atmospheric pressure?, or How can purely endogenous processes be initiated? These are but a few examples of as yet unsatisfactorily addressed questions. In spite of concerted effort by preeminent neuroscientists, no single complete theory of brain function explaining these phenomenologys has been offered. This void strongly suggests that there is a missing link in the current fundamental concept of how the brain works. This apparent impasse in neuroscience has recently been surmounted by the Vortex Theory, which effectively links all-important phenomenologys into a single fundamental concept of the brains functional organization. The theory is firmly based on biological and
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anatomical reality, essential considerations for any biological hypothesis. This manuscript is an introduction to the fundamental architectural unit of the association cortex in the Vortex.

1.1 Working of human brain

In general, there are three stages in the processing of information by the nervous system- sensory input, integration, and motor output. Sensory neurons transmit information from sensors that detect external stimuli (light, sound, heat, smell, taste, touch) and internal conditions (blood pressure, blood CO2 level, muscle tension). This information travels to the CNS where interneurons analyze and interpret (integration) the sensory input, incorporating the current circumstance with relevant situations from the past. The motor output then leaves the CNS via motor neurons which communicate with muscle or endocrine cells.

Figure 1.1 Human brain Example: The knee-jerk reflex provides an example of this process. Here is what happens. First, tapping the tendon connected to the quadriceps (extensor) muscle initiates the reflex. Sensors then detect a sudden stretch in the quadriceps. Sensory neurons convey the information to the spinal cord in addition to communicating with the motor neurons that deliver information to the quadriceps. In return, the motor neurons convey signals to the quadriceps, causing the muscle to contract and jerk the lower leg forward. The sensory neurons from the quadriceps also communicate with interneurons in the spinal cord. In response, the interneurons inhibit motor neurons that supply the hamstring (flexor) muscle. This inhibition prevents the hamstring from contracting, which would resist the action of the quadriceps.

1.2 Organization of the Report

This report starts with an overview of the brain and its working. We analyze the impact of implantable brain chips on the paralyzed persons and its military applications. Neural networks were developed after the brain which has its applications like pattern recognition etc. The report is organized as follows: Chapter 1: Introduction - This chapter briefly explains the overview of the report. Chapter 2: Evaluation toward implantable brain chips - This chapter describes the consequences that resulted in the development of brain chips. Chapter 3: Neural networks - This chapter discusses the basic principle of the neural networks. This chapter also includes the working and learning process of the neural networks. Chapter 4: Brain Chip - This chapter explains about the brain chip and its working and it also explains the achievements, advantages and drawbacks of brain chips and also describes the challenges faced by the scientists for the development of brain chips. Chapter 5: Conclusions - This chapter summarizes the major accomplishments of this report.

CHAPTER 2 EVOLUTION TOWARDS IMPLANTABLE BRAIN CHIPS

Worldwide there are at least three million people living with artificial implants. In particular, research on the cochlear implant and retinal vision has furthered the development of interfaces between neural tissues and silicon substrate micro probes. There have been many researches in order to enable the technology of implanting chips in the brain to develop. Some of them are mentioned below.

2.1 The study of brain

The study of the human brain is, obviously, the most complicated area of research. When we enter a discussion on this topic, the works of JOSE DELGADO need to be mentioned. Much of the work taking place at the NIH, Stanford and elsewhere is built on research done in the 1950s, notably that of Yale physiologist Jose Delgado, who implanted electrodes in animal brains and attached them to a "stimoceiver" under the skull. This device transmitted radio signals through the electrodes in a technique called electronic stimulation of the brain, or ESB, and culminated in a now-legendary photograph, in the early 1960s, of Delgado controlling a live bull with an electronic monitor.

2.2 Jose Delgado experiments

According to Delgado, "One of the possibilities with brain transmitters is to influence people so that they conform to the political system. Autonomic and somatic functions, individual and social behavior, emotional and mental reactions may be invoked, maintained, modified, or inhibited, both in animals and in man, by stimulation of specific cerebral structures. Physical control of many brain functions is a demonstrated fact. It is even possible to follow intentions, the development of thought and visual experiences." Delgado, in a series of experiments terrifying in their human potential, implanted electrodes in the skull of a bull. Waving a red cape, Delgado provoked the animal to charge. Then, with a signal emitted from a tiny hand-held radio transmitter, he made the beast turn aside in mid-lunge and trot docilely away. He has [also] been able to play monkeys and cats like little electronic toys that yawn, hide, fight, play, mate and go to sleep on
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command. The individual is defenseless against direct manipulation of the brain [Delgado, Physical Control].

Figure 2.1 Jose Delgado controlling a bull with stimoceiver Such experiments were done even on human beings. Studies in human subjects with implanted electrodes have demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the depth of the brain can induce pleasurable manifestations, as evidenced by the spontaneous verbal reports of patients, their facial expression and general behavior, and their desire to repeat the experience. With such experiments, he unfolded many of the mysteries of the BRAIN, which contributed to the developments in brain implant technology. For e.g.: he understood how the sensation of suffering pain could be reduced by stimulating the frontal lobes of the brain. Delgado was born in Rondo, Spain, and interestingly enough he is not a medical doctor or even a vet, but merely a biologist with a Degree from Madrid University. He, however, became an expert in neurobehavioral research and by the time he had published this book (Physical Control of the Mind ) in 1969, he had more than 200 publishing credits to his name. His research was sponsored by Yale University, Foundations Fund for Research in Psychiatry, United States Public Health Service1, Office of Naval Research2, United States Air Force 657-1st Aero medical Research Laboratory3, NeuroResearch Foundation, and the Spanish Council for Scientific Education, among others.

CHAPTER 3 NEURAL NETWORKS

3.1 What Are Artificial Neural Networks?

Figure 3.1 Neural network interconnections An extremely simplified model of the brain Essentially a function approximator Transforms inputs into outputs to the best of its ability Composed of many neurons that co-operate to perform the desired function

3.2 What Are They Used For?

Classification Pattern recognition, feature extraction, image matching Noise Reduction Recognize patterns in the inputs and produce noiseless outputs Prediction Extrapolation based on historical data

3.3 Why Use Neural Networks?

Ability to learn NNs figure out how to perform their function on their own
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 Determine their function based only upon sample inputs Ability to generalize i.e. produce reasonable outputs for inputs it has not been taught how to deal with.

3.4 Real Neurons

Let's start by taking a look at a biological neuron. Figure 1 shows such a neuron

Figure 3.2 A Biological Neuron A neuron operates by receiving signals from other neurons through connections, called synapses. The combination of these signals, in excess of a

certain threshold or activation level, will result in the neuron firing that is sending a signal on to other neurons connected to it. Some signals act as excitations and others as inhibitions to a neuron firing. What we call thinking is believed to be the collective effect of the presence or absence of firings in the pattern of synaptic connections between neurons. This sounds very simplistic until we recognize that there are approximately one hundred billion (100,000,000,000) neurons each connected to as many as one thousand (1,000) others in the human brain. The massive number of neurons and the complexity of their interconnections results in a "thinking machine", your brain. Each neuron has a body, called the soma. The soma is much like the body of any other cell. It contains the cell nucleus, various bio-chemical factories and other components that support ongoing activity. Surrounding the soma are dendrites. The dendrites are receptors for signals generated by other neurons. These signals may be excitatory or inhibitory. All signals present at the dendrites of a neuron are combined and the result will determine whether or not that neuron will fire. If a neuron fires, an electrical impulse is generated. This impulse starts at the base,
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called the hillock, of a long cellular extension, called the axon, and proceeds down the axon to its ends. The end of the axon is actually split into multiple ends, called the buttons. The buttons are connected to the dendrites of other neurons and the resulting interconnections are the previously discussed synapses. (Actually, the buttons do not touch the dendrites; there is a small gap between them.) If a neuron has fired, the electrical impulse that has been generated stimulates the buttons and results in electrochemical activity which transmits the signal across the synapses to the receiving dendrites. At rest, the neuron maintains an electrical potential of about 40-60 mill volts. When a neuron fires, an electrical impulse is created which is the result of a change in potential to about 90-100 mill volts? This impulse travels between 0.5 to 100 meters per second and lasts for about 1 millisecond. Once a neuron fires, it must rest for several milliseconds before it can fire again. In some circumstances, the repetition rate may be as fast as 100 times per second, equivalent to 10 milliseconds per firing. Compare this to a very fast electronic computer whose signals travel at about 200,000,000 meters per second (speed of light in a wire is 2/3 of that in free air), whose impulses last for 10 nanoseconds and may repeat such an impulse immediately in each succeeding 10 nanoseconds continuously. Electronic computers have at least a 2,000,000 times advantage in signal transmission speed and 1,000,000 times advantage in signal repetition rate. It is clear that if signal speed or rate were the sole criteria for processing performance, electronic computers would win hands down. What the human brain lacks in these, it makes up in numbers of elements and interconnection complexity between those elements. This difference in structure manifests itself in at least one important way; the human brain is not as quick as an electronic computer at arithmetic, but it is many times faster and hugely more capable at recognition of patterns and perception of relationships. The human brain differs in another, extremely important, respect beyond speed; it is capable of "self-programming" or adaptation buttons are connected to the dendrites of other neurons and the resulting interconnections are the previously discussed synapses. (Actually, the buttons do not touch the dendrites; there is in response to changing external stimuli. In other words, it can learn. The brain has developed ways for neurons to change their response to new stimulus patterns so that similar events may affect future responses. In particular, the
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sensitivity to new patterns seems more extensive in proportion to their importance to survival or if they are reinforced by repetition. 3.4.1 Neural network structure Neural networks are models of biological neural structures. The starting point for most neural networks is a model neuron, as in Figure 2. This neuron consists of multiple inputs and a single output. Each input is modified by a weight, which multiplies with the input value. The neuron will combine these weighted inputs and, with reference to a threshold value and activation function, use these to determine its output. This behavior follows closely our understanding of how real neurons work.
X1

w1j X2 w2j
neuron

uj
sigmoid

yj

tj wnjj xi

Figure 3.3 A Model Neuron While there is a fair understanding of how an individual neuron works, there is still a great deal of research and mostly conjecture regarding the way neurons organize themselves and the mechanisms used by arrays of neurons to adapt their behavior to external stimuli. There are a large number of experimental neural network structures currently in use reflecting this state of continuing research. In our case, we will only describe the structure, mathematics and behavior of that structure known as the back propagation network. This is the most prevalent and generalized neural network currently in use. If the reader is interested in finding out more about neural networks or other networks, please refer to the material listed in the bibliography. To build a back propagation network, proceed in the following fashion. First, take a number of neurons and array them to form a layer. A layer has all its inputs connected to
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either a preceding layer or the inputs from the external world, but not both within the same layer. A layer has all its outputs connected to either a succeeding layer or the outputs to the external world, but not both within the same layer. Next, multiple layers are then arrayed one succeeding the other so that there is an into input layer, multiple intermediate layers and finally an output layer, as in Figure 3. Intermediate layers, that is those that have no inputs or outputs to the external world, are called >hidden layers. Back propagation neural networks are usually fully connected. This means that each neuron is connected to every output from the preceding layer or one input from the external world if the neuron is in the first layer and, correspondingly, each neuron has its output connected to every neuron in the succeeding layer.

in1

in2 out in3

in4
Input layer Hidden layer Output layer

Figure 3.4 Back propagation Network Generally, the input layer is considered a distributor of the signals from the external world. Hidden layers are considered to be categorizers or feature detectors of such signals. The output layer is considered a collector of the features detected and producer of the response. While this view of the neural network may be helpful in conceptualizing the functions of the layers, you should not take this model too literally as the functions described may not be so specific or localized. With this picture of how a neural network is constructed, we can now proceed are considered to be categorizers or feature detectors of such to describe the operation of the While this view of the neural network may be helpful in conceptualizing the functions of the
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layers, you should not take this model too literally as the functions described network in a meaningful fashion please refer to the material listed in the bibliography. 3.4.2 Neural Network Operation The output of each neuron is a function of its inputs. In particular, the output of the jth neuron in any layer is described by two sets of equations:
Uj ( Xi.wij )
Yj Fth Uj tj

(3.1) (3.2)

For every neuron, j, in a layer, each of the i inputs, Xi, to that layer is multiplied by a previously established weight, wij. These are all summed together, resulting in the internal value of this operation, Uj. This value is then biased by a previously established threshold value, tj, and sent through an activation function, Fth. This activation function is usually the sigmoid function, which has an input to output mapping as shown in Figure 4. The resulting output, Yj, is an input to the next layer or it is a response of the neural network if it is the last layer. Neuralyst allows other threshold functions to be used in place of the sigmoid described here.
output 1

negative

positive

Figure 3.5 Sigmoid Function In essence, Equation 1 implements the combination operation of the neuron and Equation 2 implements the firing of the neuron. From these equations, a predetermined set of weights, a predetermined set of Threshold values and a description of the network structure (that is the number of layers and the number of neurons in each layer); it is possible to compute the response of the neural
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network to any set of inputs. And this is just how Neuralyst goes about producing the response. But how does it learn? 3.4.3 Neural Network Learning Learning in a neural network is called training. Like training in athletics, training in a neural network requires a coach, someone that describes to the neural network what it should have produced as a response. From the difference between the desired response and the actual response, the error is determined and a portion of it is propagated backward through the network. At each neuron in the network the error is used to adjust the weights and threshold values of the neuron, so that the next time, the error in the network response will be less for the same inputs. This corrective procedure is called back propagation (hence the name of the neural network) and it is applied continuously and repetitively for each set of inputs and corresponding set of outputs produced in response to the inputs. This procedure continues so long as the individual or total errors in the responses exceed a specified level or until there are no measurable errors. At this point, the neural network has learned the training material and you can stop the training process and use the neural network to produce responses to new input data.
dj X1 Cj

w1j X2 w2j
neuron

uj
sigmoid

yj

tj wnjj xi

Figure 3.6 Neuron Weight Adjustment As you train the network, the total error, that is the sum of the errors over all the training sets, will become smaller and smaller. Once the network reduces the total error to the
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limit set, training may stop. You may then apply the network, using the weights and thresholds as trained. [There is some heavier going in the next few paragraphs. Skip ahead if you don't need to understand all the details of neural network learning.] Back propagation starts at the output layer with the following equations:

wij wij LR.ei. Xi

ej Yj. 1 Yj . dj Yj

(3.3) (3.4)

For the ith input of the jth neuron in the output layer, the weight wij is adjusted by adding to the previous weight value, w'ij, a term determined by the product of a learning rate, LR, an error term, ej, and the value of the ith input, Xi. The error term, ej, for the jth neuron is determined by the product of the actual output, Yj, its complement, 1 - Yj, and the difference between the desired output, dj, and the actual output. wij wij LR.ej . Xi Once the error terms are computed and weights are adjusted for the output layer, the values are recorded and the next layer back is adjusted. The same weight adjustment process, determined by Equation 3, is followed, but the error term is generated by a slightly modified version of Equation 4. This modification is:
ei Yj.(1 Yj ). (ek .wjk )
(3.5)

In this version, the difference between the desired output and the actual output is replaced by the sum of the error terms for each neuron, k, in the layer immediately succeeding the layer being processed (remember, we are going backwards through the layers so these terms have already been computed) times the respective pre-adjustment weights. The learning rate, LR, applies a greater or lesser portion of the respective adjustment to the old weight. If the factor is set to a large value, then the neural network may learn more quickly, but if there is a large variability in the input set then the network may not learn very well or at all. In real terms, setting the learning rate to a large value is analogous to giving a child a spanking, but that is inappropriate and counter-productive to learning if the offense is so simple as forgetting to tie their shoelaces. Usually, it is better to set the factor to a small. This is similar to Equation 3, with a momentum factor, M, the previous weight, w'ij, and the next two previous weight, w''ij, included in the last term. This extra term allows for momentum in weight adjustment. Momentum basically allows a change to the weights to persist for a number of adjustment cycles. The magnitude of the persistence is controlled by the momentum factor. If the momentum factor is set to 0, then the equation reduces to that of
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Equation 3. If the momentum factor is increased from 0, then increasingly greater persistence of previous adjustments is allowed in modifying the current adjustment. This can improve the learning rate in some situations, by helping to smooth out unusual conditions in the training set. As you train the network, the total error, that is the sum of the errors over all the training sets, will become smaller and smaller. Once the network reduces the total error to the limit set, training may stop. You may then apply the network, using the weights and thresholds as trained. It is a good idea to set aside some subset of all the inputs available and reserve them for testing the trained network. By comparing the output of a trained network on these test sets to the outputs you know to be correct, you can gain greater confidence in the validity of the training. If you are satisfied at this point, then the neural network is ready for running. Usually, no back propagation takes place in this running mode as was done in the training mode. This is because there is often no way to be immediately certain of the desired response. If there were, there would be no need for the processing capabilities of the neural network! Instead, as the validity of the neural network outputs or predictions are verified or contradicted over time, you will either be satisfied with the existing performance or determine a need for new training. In this case, the additional input sets collected since the last training session may be used to extend and improve the training data.

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CHAPTER 4 BRAIN CHIP

Matthew Nagles brain chip was designed to provide a balance between safety, durability, and functionality. The chip had to be small enough to not hinder normal brain function and non-disruptive to neural communication to avoid brain damage. At the same time, the chip had to be resistant to corrosion caused by brain chemicals. While fulfilling these safety requirements, the primary function of the chip was to record and transmit the delicate signals of Nagles brain.

Figure 4.1 chip inside the human brain Brain chips often fail because of pinholes in their insulation coat. These pinholes allow chemicals and fluid to come in direct contact with the sensitive circuitry of the chip, which results in immediate failure of the chip. Thus the coating material of Nagles brain chip was of utmost importance. Because of the size constraint, encapsulating the chip in a thick layer of insulation was not a viable option. Instead, the chip implanted in Nagle was coated in monolithic silicone. Its electrodes were coated withParalyne C, topped with platinum tips and insulated with thin glass. The combination of these materials allowed the chip to be small, durable, and efficient. . Nagles chip recorded brain signals using integrated CMOS Circuitry, which

is an array of recording electrodes. Just like repeating an experiment ensures statistically significant results, using multiple electrodes chemicals and fluid to come in direct contact with the sensitive circuitry of the chip, which results in immediate failure of improved the reliability of the recorded data. The chip was equipped with 96 recording electrodes spaced 0.4mm apart. It received data at the rate of10,000 signals per second per electrode. The end
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size of the chip was 4mm x 4mm x 1.5mm and was implanted a little over 1mm into Nagles brain.

4.1 Working of brain chip

In developing the BCI, researchers implanted brain chip in subjects with full neural and motor capacity. The subjects performed elementary actions, such as raising an arm, and the neuron activity was recorded using the chip. These experiments allowed for the simultaneous recording of both hand motion and neural activity. Later in the trial, Nagle developed the ability to open and close a prosthetic hand. All of his accomplishments were exciting not only because of the physical successes, but also because of the manner in which he was able to control the BCI.Like a healthy person, Nagle was able to do other things, such as whistling or talking, while voluntarily moving an Matthew Nagle: Plugged Inwww.wired.comthis exact location. After recovering from surgery, doctors thought that it would take11 months for Nagle to learn how to control computer cursor using the BrainGatesystem. However, Nagle surprised everyone when he began to have success on just his second day of training with the implanted BCI. The Brain Gate Neural Interface created a direct link between Nagles brain and a computer in the following way: when he thought move cursor down, his

Figure 4.2 Experiment on a person Cortical neurons fired in a distinctive pattern. The brain chip sensed these electrical signals Implementation The researchers were then able to create a relational model using the two data sets. In addition, researchers discovered that although there are multiple sets of neurons that determine the force and direction of motor action, the data from a small sample of neurons can be reconstructed into full three-dimensional arm trajectories using simple multiple linear regression. Researchers found that the placement of the brain chip did not
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matter as much as originally thought. The chip was able to pick up neural signals not only from the neurons that it directly touched, but also from important nearby neural clusters. This suggests that users of the chip were able to learn how to use the BCI through signals generated by the BCI itself. With prolonged use, the neurons in contact with the chip became increasingly compatible and responsive in performing desired tasks. In Nagles inaugural clinical trial, doctors first pinpointed the exact location in Nagles primary motor cortex that once controlled his dominant hand. The chip was then implanted at this exact location. After recovering from surgery, doctors thought that it would take11 months for Nagle to learn how to control computer cursor using the BrainGatesystem. However, agle surprised everyone when he began to have success on just his second day of training with the implanted BCI. The Brain Gate Neural Interface created a direct link between Nagles brain and a computer in the following way: when he thought move cursor down, his cortical brain chip sensed these electrical signals and transmitted them to a pedestal plug cursor using the BrainGatesystem. However, agle surprised everyone when he began to have success on just his second day of training with the implanted BCI that was directly attached to his skull. The signal was then sent through a wire to an amplifier, where it was converted into optical data and sent to a computer through fiber-optic cables. The Brain Gate system decoded the data associated with Nagles thoughts into the specified movement of the computer cursor. Thus Nagle was able to play computer games, check email, and draw using Brain Gate object, in his case a cursor or a prosthetic hand. In other words, the BCI did not require single-focus concentration. Furthermore, using the Brain Gate system became intuitive for Nagle. Rather than thinking about the process of moving a cursor by moving his hand, he eventually started moving the cursor by simply imagining the cursor going from place to place. Brain experimentation is a risky procedure where minor errors or mechanical malfunctions can lead to permanent damage or even death The cursor became as much a part of Nag leas his arms and legs once were. The Brain Gate system decoded the data associated with Nagles thoughts into the specified movement of the computer cursor Researchers removed Nagles brain chip after one year of observation. Because of the brevity of his trial, it is unknown whether transmitting signals from an implanted chip causes brain damage. Brain experimentation is a risky procedure where minor errors or mechanical malfunctions can lead to permanent damage or even death. Extended
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research beyond the scope of Nagles study is necessary to determine the long-term effects of the chip .

4.2 Brain cells and silicon chip linked electronically

Fig-4.3 The Max Planck Institute grew this 'snail' neuron atop an Infineon Technologies CMOS device that measures the neuron's electrical activity, linking chips and living cells. One of the toughest problems in neural prosthetics is how to connect chips and real neurons. Today, many researchers are working on tiny electrode arrays that link the two. However, once a device is implanted the body develops so-called glial cells, defenses that surround the foreign object and prevent neurons and electrodes from making contact. In Munich, the Max Planck team is taking a revolutionary approach: interfacing the nerves and silicon directly. "I think we are the only group doing this," Fromherz said. Fromherz is at work on a six-month project to grow three or four neurons on a 180 x 180-transistor array supplied by Infineon, after having successfully grown a single neuron on the device. In a past experiment, the researcher placed a brain slice from and transmitted them to a pedestal plug cursor using the BrainGatesystem. However, agle surprised everyone when he began to have success on just his second day of training with the implanted BCI that was directly attached to his skull. The signal was then sent through a wire to an amplifier, where it was converted in a Plexiglas container with electrolyte at 37 degrees C. In a few days dead tissue fell away and lives nerve endings made contact with the chip full three-dimensional arm trajectories using simple multiple linear regression. Researchers found that the placement of the brain chip did not matter as much as originally thought.
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Their plan is to build a system with 15,000 neuron-transistor sites--a first step toward an eventual computational model of brain activity.

4.3 Achievements in the field

The achievements in the field of implantable chips, bio-chips, so far are significant. Some of them are mentioned below: 4.3.1 Brain pacemakers

Figure 4.4 Pacemaker in the brain Researchers at the crossroads of medicine and electronics are developing implantable silicon neurons that one day could carry out the functions of a part of the brain that has been damaged by stroke, epilepsy or Alzheimer's disease. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration have approved implantable neurostimulators and drug pumps for the treatment of chronic pain, spasticity and diabetes, according to a spokesman for Medtronic Inc. (Minneapolis). A sponsor of the Capri conference, Medtronic says it is already delivering benefits in neural engineering through its Active therapy, which uses an implantable neurostimulator, commonly called a brain pacemaker, to treat symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Surgeons implant a thin, insulated, coiled wire with four electrodes at the tip, and then thread an extension of that wire under the skin from the head, down the neck and into the upper chest. That wire is connected to the neurostimulator, a small, sealed patientcontrolled device that produces electrical pulses to stimulate the brain. These implants have helped patients suffering from Parkinsons disease to a large extent that was directly attached to his skull. The signal was then sent through a wire to an amplifier, where it was converted

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in a Plexiglas container with electrolyte at 37 degrees C. In a few days dead tissue fell away and lives nerve endings made contact with the 4.3.2 Retinomorphic chips The famed mathematician Alan Turing predicted in 1950 that computers would match wits with humans by the end of the century. In the following decades, researchers in the new field of artificial intelligence worked hard to fulfill his prophecy, mostly following a topdown strategy: If we can just write enough code, they reasoned, we can simulate all the functions of the brain. The results have been dismal. Rapid improvements in computer power have yielded nothing resembling a thinking machine that can write music or run a company, much less unlock the secrets of consciousness. Kwabena Boahen, a lead researcher at the University of Pennsylvania's Neuro engineering Research Laboratory, is trying a different solution. Rather than imposing pseudo-smart software on a conventional silicon chip, he is studying the way human neurons are interconnected. Then he hopes to build electronic systems that re-create the results. In short, he is attempting to reverse-engineer the brain from the bottom up.

Fig 4.5 Computer chip model of neural function for implanted brain prostheses Boahen and his fellow neuromorphic engineers are now discovering that the

brain's underlying structure is much simpler than the behaviors, insights, and feelings it incites. That is because our brains, unlike desktop computers, constantly change their own connections to revamp the way they process information. "We now have microscopes that can see individual connections between neurons. They show that the brain can retract connections and make new ones in minutes. The brain deals with complexity by wiring itself up on the fly, based on the activity going on around it," Boahen says. That helps explain how three pounds of neurons, drawing hardly any more power than a night-light, can perform all the operations associated with human thought.
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The first product from Boahen's lab is a retinomorphic chip, which he is now putting through a battery of simple vision tests. Containing nearly 6,000 photoreceptors and 4,000 synthetic nerve connections, the chip is about one-eighth the size of a human retina. Just as impressive, the chip consumes only 0.06 watt of power, making it roughly three times as efficient as the real thing. A general-purpose digital computer, in contrast, uses a million times more energy per computation as does the human brain. "Building neural prostheses requires us to match the efficiency, not just the performance, of the brain," says Boahen. A retinal chip could be mounted inside an eyeball in a year or two, he says, after engineers solve the remaining challenges of building an efficient human-chip interface and a compact power supply. This artificial eye contains working electronic versions of the four types of ganglion cells in the retina. The cumbersome array of electronics and optics surrounds an artificial retina, which is just one-tenth of an inch wide. Remarkable as an artificial retina might be, it is just a baby step toward the big objectivereverse-engineering the brain's entire ornate structure down to the last dendrite. A thorough simulation would require a minutely detailed neural blueprint of the brain, from brain stem to frontal lobes. 4.3.3 The mental mouse

Figure 4.6 A receiver placed on back of the rat to control its movements by the chip which is placed inside its brain Dr. Philip R. Kennedy, an [sic] clinical assistant professor of neurology at Emory University in Georgia, reported that a paralyzed man was able to control a cursor with a cone-shaped, glass implant. Each [neurotrophic electrode] consists of a hollow glass cone about the size of a ball-point pen tip. The implantscontain an electrode that picks up impulses from the nerve endings. Before they are implanted, the cones are coated with chemicals taken from tissue inside the patients own knees to encourage nerve growth.
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The implants are then placed in the brains motor cortex which controls body movement and over the course of the next few months the chemicals encourage nerve cells to grow and attach to the electrodes. A transmitter just inside the skull picks up signals from the process information. "We now have microscopes that can see individual connections between neurons. They show that the brain can retract

4.4 Benefits of the technology

The future may well involve the reality of science fictions cyborg, persons who have developed some intimate and occasionally necessary relationship with a machine. It is likely that implantable computer chips acting as sensors, or actuators, may soon assist not only failing memory, but even bestow fluency in a new language, or enable recognition of previously unmet individuals. The progress already made in therapeutic devices, in prosthetics and in computer science indicates that it may well be feasible to develop direct interfaces between the brain and computers. Computer scientists predict that within the next twenty years neural interfaces will be designed that will not only increase the dynamic range of senses, but will also enhance memory and enable cyber think-invisible communication with others. This technology will facilitate consistent and constant access to information when and where it is needed. The linkage of smaller, lighter, and more powerful computer systems with radio technologies will enable users to access information and communicate anywhere or anytime. Through miniaturization of components, systems have been generated that are wearable and nearly invisible, so that individuals, supported by a personal information structure, can move communally based data source. As intelligence or sensory "amplifiers", the implantable chip will generate at least four benefits: 1) It will increase the dynamic range of senses, enabling, for example, seeing IR, UV, and chemical spectra; 2) It will enhance memory; 3) It will enable cyber think-invisible communication with others when making decisions. 4) It will enable consistent and constant access to information where and then it is needed

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For many these enhancements will produce major improvements in the quality of life, or their survivability, or their performance in a job. The first prototype devices for these improvements in human functioning should be available in five years, with the years of the

Figure 4.7 Some of the working modules of brain chip

Figure 4.8 Person to person communication with the help of brain chip Military prototypes starting within ten years, and information workers using prototypes within fifteen years, general adoption will take roughly twenty to thirty years.

Figure 4.9 In a clinical trial; a woman used a brain-chip system to control a robot arm with her thooughts and reach for a drink of coffee

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Function as a prosthetic cortical implant. The user's visual cortex will receive stimulation from a computer based either on what a camera sees or based on an artificial "window" interface. Giving completely paralyzed patients full mental control of robotic limbs or Communication devices obvious and basic problems involve safety. Evaluation of the costs and benefits of these implants requires a consideration of the surgical and long term risks. From a computer based either on what a camera sees or based on an artificial one question, has long been a dream of those working to free such individuals from their locked-in state. Now this dream is on the verge of reality.

4.5 Drawbacks of the technology

Ethical appraisal of implantable computer chips should asses at least the following areas of concern; issues of safety and informed consent, issues of manufacturing and scientific responsibility ,anxieties about the psychological impacts of enhancing human nature, worries about possible usage in children, and most troublesome, issues of privacy and autonomy. As is the case in evaluation of any future technology, it is unlikely that we can reliably predict all effects. Nevertheless, the potential for harm must be considered. The most obvious and basic problems involve safety. Evaluation of the costs and benefits of these implants requires a consideration of the surgical and long term risks. One question, whether the difficulties with development of non-toxic materials will allow long term usage? should be answered in studies on therapeutic options and thus, not be a concern for enhancement usages. However, it is conceivable that there should be a higher standard for safety when technologies are used for enhancement rather than therapy, and this issue needs public debate. Whether the informed consent of recipients should be sufficient reason for permitting implementation is questionable in view of the potential societal impact. Other issues such as the kinds of warranties users should receive, and the liability responsibilities if quality control of hard/soft/firmware is not up to standard, could be addressed by manufacturing regulation. Provisions should be made to facilitate grade since users presumably would not want multiple operations, or to be possessors of obsolete systems. Manufacturers must understand and device programs for teaching users how to implement recipient usefulness, and whether all users benefit equally. Additional practical problems with ethical ramifications include whether there will be a competitive market in
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such systems and if there will be any industry-wide standards for design of the technology. augmentedsensory capacities, the implications, even if positive, need consideration.Supersen sory sight will see radar, infrared and ultraviolet images, augmented hearing will detect softer and higher and lower pitched sounds, enhanced smell will intensify our ability to discern scents, of touch will enable discernment of environmental stimuli like changes in barometric pressure. These capacities would change the "normal" for humans, and would be of exceptional application in situations of danger, especially in battle. As the numbers of enhanced humans increase, today's normal range might be seen as subnormal, leading to the lexicalization of another area of life. Thus, substantial questions revolve around whether there should be any limits placed upon modifications of essential aspects of the human species. Although defining human nature is notoriously difficult, man's rational powers have traditionally been viewed as his claim to superiority and the center of personal identity. On the other hand, not all philosophers espouse the materialist contention and use of these technologies certainly will impact discussions about the nature of personal identity, and the traditional mind-body problem. Modifying the brain and its powers could change our psychic states, altering both the self-concept of the user, and our understanding of what it means to be human. The boundary between me "the physical self" and me "the precatory/intellectual self" could change as the ability to perceive and interact expands far beyond what can be done with video conferencing. The boundaries of the real and virtual worlds may blur, and a consciousness wired to the collective and to the accumulated knowledge of mankind would surely impact the individual's sense of self. Whether this would lead to bestowing greater weight to collective responsibilities andwhether this would be beneficial are unknown. Changes in human nature would become more pervasive if the altered consciousness were that of children. In an intensely competitive society, knowledge is often power. Parents are driven to provide the very best for their children. Will they be able to secure implants for their children, and if so, how will that change the

e inequalities produced might create a demand for universal coverage of these devices in health care plans, further increasing costs to society. However, in a culture such as ours, with different levels of care available on the basis of ability to pay, it is plausible to suppose investment, and that this will further widen the gap between the haves and the have-not, and genders, but also, between rich and poor nations. As enhancements become more widespread,
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enhancement becomes the norm, and there is increasing social pressure to avail oneself of the "benefit." Thus, even those who initially shrink from the surgery may find it becomes a necessity, and the consent part of "informed consent would become subject to manipulation. Beyond these more imminent prospects is the possibility that in thirty years, "it will be possible to capture data presenting all of a human being's sensory experiences on a single tiny chip implanted in the brain." This data would be collected by biological probes receiving electrical impulses, and would enable a user to recreate experiences, or even to transplant memory chips from one brain to another. In this eventuality, psychological continuity personal identity would be disrupted with indisputable ramifications. Would the resulting person have the identities of other persons? The most frightening implication of this technology is the grave possibility that it would facilitate totalitarian control of humans. In a prescient projection of experimental protocols, George Annas writes of the "project to implant removable monitoring devices at the base of the brain of neonates in three major teaching hospitals. The devices would not only permit us to locate all the implanters at any time, but could be programmed in the future to monitor the sound around them and to play subliminal messages directly to their brains." Using such technology governments could control and monitor citizens. In a free society this may military environment the advantages of augmenting capacities to createsoldiers with

faster reflexes, or greater accuracy, would exert strong pressures for requiring enhancement. When implanted computing and communication devices with interfaces to weapons, information, and communication systems become possible, the military of the democratic societies might require usage to maintain a competitive advantage. Mandated implants for criminals are foreseeable possibility even in democratic societies. Policy decisions will arise the base of the brain of neonates in three major teaching hospitals. The devices would not only permit us to locate all the implanters at any time, but could be programmed in the future about this usage, and also about permitting usage, if and when it becomes possible, to affect specific behaviors. A paramount worry involves who will control the technology and what will be programmed; this issue overlaps with uneasiness about privacy issues, and the need for control and security of communication links. Not all the countries of the

world prioritize autonomy, and the potential for sinister invasions of liberty and privacy are alarming. Nobody seems to intuitively have a problem with implantable devices for the blind, deaf, and impaired. However, biochips may become a (literal) invasion of privacy.
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4.6 Challenges faced by scientists

A researcher at Johns Hopkins University is using a collection of VLSI chips to confirm new insights into how the no cortex of the human brain unites information from the senses to create a coherent picture of the orls.Nndrea Andreou of the university's Department of Computer Science and Electrical engineering has wire the chips together with optoelectronic connections to build an image-processing module modeled on Boston University neural theorist Stephen Grossberg's latest into brain function. Grossberg recently proposed what might be described as a "net-centric view of brain operation in which the communication channels between the brain's processing modules perform a crucial blending of different perceptual units. This view is essentially different from the conventional model that likens brain operation to parallel pro censors found in digital computers or analog distributed processing networks. Andreou is convinced that the shift in emphasis from processor to network holds the key to solving some of the difficult problems facing computer scientists. "Despite the phenomenal success in engineering rudimentary ears, eyes and noses for computers, our progress has not generalized to more complex system and harder tasks". Andreou said in a presentation at the Critical Technologies for the Future of Computing conference, held last month in San Diego. It is at the neocortex level of information processing, where sensed information is assembled into a full picture that current technology seems to run into a brick wall. The greatest challenge has been in building the interface between biology and technology. Nerve cells in the brain find each other, stregthen connections and build patterns through complex chemical signaling that is driven in part by the environment. Also, in a stroke patient, whose cells are dying, we need to get surviving neurons to choose to interface with silicon chip. We also need to make the neural interface stable, so that walking around or nodding doesnt disrupt the connection. Another challenge is to give completely paralyzed patients full mental control over robotic limbs or communication devices. The brain waves of such a person are very weak to accomplish this task. Decreaing the size of the chip so that it can be implanted subcutaneously, is yet another challaenge.This will help the patient to adopt though the implant more eaily.In July 1996,information was released on research currently taking place into creation of computer chip called the soul Catcher 2025,Dr.Chris Winter and a team of
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scientists at British TelecomsMartlehamHeath Laboratories, near Ipswich, are developing a chip that, when placed into the skull behind the eye, will record all visual and physical sensations, as well as thoughts.

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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS
"Neuroscience," wrote author Tom Wolfe in Forbes magazine a couple years ago, "is on the threshold of a unified theory that will have an impact as powerful as that of Darwinism a hundred years ago. Wolfe is wowed by the combination of powerful imaging and tracking technologies that now allow scientists not only to watch the brain assist functions not only to identify centers of sensation lighting up in response to stimuli, but to track a thought as it proceeds along neural pathways and traverses the brains cape on its way to the great cerebral memory bank, where it queues up for short- or long-term storage. Now that you know what condition your condition is in, you know that such devices are only a stopgap measure at best in the evolutionary story. The implants you get may enhance our capabilities, but they will expire when you do, leaving the next generation unchanged. As we become more dependent on biotechnology, the standards of what is "alive" will be up for grabs. Take a look at The Tissue Culture and Art Project's semi living worry, cultured in a bioreactor by growing living cells on artificial scaffolds, or the Pig Wings project, which explores if pigs could fly. Deciding who or what, exactly, is human will be an incendiary issue in the years to come as our genetic engineering technologies progress and we go beyond implantable to actual germ-line genetic modification. We are already creating chimerical creatures by combining genes from different species. We will try to engineer improved human beings-not because we're so concerned about the intelligent machine life we are creating, but because were human, and it's embedded in our nature to explore, tinker, and create. It will be several years before we see a practical application of the technology weve discussed. Lets hope such technologies will be used for restoring the prosperity and peace of the world and not to give the world a devastating end.

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REFERENCES
[1] Arbib M, The Handbook of Brain Theory and Neural Networks. Massachusetts:The MIT Press, 1995. [2] H. Abdi, D. Valentin, B. Edelman, Neural Networks, Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publication Inc., 1999.
[3] Kohonen T, Self-Organizing Maps, Third Edition. Berlin, Heidelberg, Springer, 2001.

[4] Edvinsson L, Krause D. N, Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism, Second Edition. Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2002. [5] R. Sharma, V.I Pavlovic and T.S. Huang, Toward multimodel human-computer Interface, Proc.IEEE,vol.86,no.5,pp.853-869,May 1998. [6] http://www.conspiracyarchive.com/NWO/microchip_implants_mind_control.htm [7] http://www.mindfully.org/Technology/2004/Brain-Chip-Cyberkinetics19apr04.htm

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