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B BB B
The least-squares estimates for A AA A and B BB B are
found to be:
where:
Implemented in Matlab, Excel and numerous others.
( )
2 2
2
( ) 1
i
i
i i
y y x
y a bx
( (
= =
( (
WSachse; 3/2014;
Linear Least-squares Fit:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 16
The relationship between X and
Y is a straight-line (linear)
relationship.
The values of the independent
variable X are assumed fixed
(not random); the only
randomness in the values of Y
comes from the error term .
The errors are uncorrelated
(i.e. independent) in successive
observations. The errors are
normally distributed with mean 0
and variance
2
(equal
variance). That is: ~ N(0,
2
)
X
Y
LINE assumptions of the Simple
Linear Regression Model
Identical normal
distributions of errors,
all centered on the
regression line.
Y
y|x
= + X
Y
N(Y
y|x
,
y|x
2
)
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
9
WSachse; 3/2014;
Linear Least-squares Fit:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 17
Example (using
Genplot):
. .
x y
2.0 42.0
4.0 49.4
6.0 50.3
8.0 56.3
10.0 58.3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Input Data
40
45
50
55
60
O
u
t
p
u
t
D
a
t
a
Measured Data /w Error Bars
Best Fit Line
Slope (Calibration): 1.975 +/- 0.275
Offset (Zero Value): 39.41 +/- 1.82
WSachse; 3/2014;
Linear Least-squares Fit:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 18
Effect of Data Error Bounds on computed Line Parameters:
using Excel
using
Genplot
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
10
WSachse; 3/2014;
Linear Least-squares Fit:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 19
Effect of Data Error Bounds on computed Line Parameters:
Uncertainty
in the
Coefficients:
y yy y
=
=
N
0
q qP a V(P)
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 22
Measure:
Load Cell/Bridge Output Voltage, V vs. Input Load, P
Under Standard Conditions:
When P = 0 V = 0 (or V = V
0
)
Take measurements from 0 to P
max
in steps of P
max
/N
(5 < N < 11 Readings)
Quasi-statically
Unload from P
max
to 0 in steps of - P
max
/N
Reload and Unload; Repeat (3N Data Points; 4N Total).
Fit Regression:
We shall assume that: V(P) = K P + V
0
; K = Sensitivity
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
12
WSachse; 3/2014;
Interfering and Modifying Sensor Inputs:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 23
Interfering Inputs - Linear superposition assumption holds:
S(aX+bY) = a*S(X) + b*S(Y)
X
Y Z
Affects
Calibration Curve,
e.g. Temperature
WSachse; 3/2014;
Interfering and Modifying Sensor Inputs:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 24
Question: Which changes Slope?
Which changes Zero?
X
Y Z
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
13
WSachse; 3/2014;
Interfering Environmental Inputs: Affect Zero Value
I V/ KI =
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 25
O
u
t
p
u
t
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
,
V
Applied Load, P
I=0 /
=V
0
Zero Offset +K I
I
=V
0
Zero Offset
I : Interfering Input
I=0
Hold P at P
min
(= 0?)
Vary Environmental
Input: I ,
e.g. Temperature;
Noise Level: Electrical,
Mechanical
Environmental
Coefficient K
I
:
WSachse; 3/2014;
Modifying Inputs: Affect Load Cell Sensitivity
|
\
|
+
=
=
M
V
) P (P
2
M
V
P
1
K
min max
M
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 26
Hold P at (P
min
+P
max
)/2
Vary Modifying
Input: M,
e.g. Temperature;
Noise Level: Electrical,
Mechanical
Modifying
Coefficient, K
M
:
O
u
t
p
u
t
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
,
V
Applied Load, P
Slope =K
Slope =K+K
M
*M
M : Modifying Input
M=0
M=0 /
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
14
WSachse; 3/2014;
Interfering and Modifying Inputs:
|
\
|
|
\
|
+
= I
min max
M K
I
V
P P
K
2
|
\
|
+
+ =
2
P P
I K I K V
max min
M I
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 27
If an Interfering Input I results in a V with the
Environmental Coefficient K
I
we can calculate the
corresponding non-zero K
M
:
then
Repeatability Test Perform in working environment;
Apply mid-level load (P
min
+P
max
)/2 ; Monitor Output
Voltage for k=1, 2, 3, ; Find rms and standard deviation
of Output Voltage for given mid-level load.
WSachse; 3/2014;
Sensor Hysteresis:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 28
Separate
regressions are
performed on the
two sets of data:
Loading; Unloading
V
+
(P)=K
+
P + V
0
V
-
(P)=K
-
P + V
0
and
Hysteresis is significant if the separation of the two calibrations
exceeds the scatter of the data points about each curve:
H(P) = KP + V
0
Hysteresis is insignificant, the loading and unloading data can
be combined to generate one calibration curve:
V(P) = KP + V
0
. . .Youll check this!
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
15
WSachse; 3/2014;
Dynamic Range of a Load Cell:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 29
The maximum range of loads that your Load Cell can
safely carry is determined by the smallest of:
Start of inelastic deformation of the elastic
members comprising your load cell, i.e.
yield
with a Factor of Safety of 2.0 . For 6061-T6 Al,
yield
=
yield
/E = 35ksi/10.1Msi = approx 3500 ;
with Factor of Safety, use approx 1700 .
Failure of the strain gage and/or its attachment
adhesive.
gage-fail
approx 3% or 30000 .
Load cell signal exceeds dynamic range of digitizing
A/D unit.
WSachse; 3/2014;
Dynamic Range / Resolution of Load Cell:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 30
A/D Converter Resolution: 24 bits = 16,777,216 voltage levels
A/D Converter Input Signal Range: +/-25 mV/V
Bridge excitation is 2.5 V
Maximum Input Voltage: 25 mV/V2.5 V= 62.5 mV V
max
Voltage Resolution: 262.5 mV/16777216 = 7.451E-9 V
P
AD
max
= V
max
/Calib_Factor >>> System Maximum Load
This will correspond to the Maximum Allowable Load if A/D
Converter controls Dynamic Range.
Load Resolution: Smallest theoretically detectable Load
Resolution corresponding to one level or . . .
P
AD
min
= 7.451E-9/Calib_Factor >>> System Load Resolution
System uses NI-9237 4-Channel Bridge Module:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
16
WSachse; 3/2014;
Re: Load Cell System Range and Resolution:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 31
Load Cell Dynamic Range is likely NOT determined by
V
max
of ADC System rather by <
Yield
/F.S.
Load Cell Resolution may NOT be determined by the
Voltage Resolution of the ADC but rather by the noise in
the bridge circuit coupled with the noise and the chosen
digitization rate of the ADC.
We are now using internal Bridge circuits in the NI-9237
WSachse; 3/2014;
Re: Load Cell System Range and Resolution:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 32
Load Cell Resolution may also
be affected by the noise
present in the bridge excitation
voltage, V
excit
.
We are using the Agilent
E3611A to provide the 5 V
DC
Excitation to the Wheatstone
Bridge.
200V corresponds to an
error in the strain value of
0.004%. We are now using the bridge voltage supplied
by the NI-9237
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
17
WSachse; 3/2014;
Using a Calibrated Load Cell to determine Loads:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 33
From the Static Calibration Measurement youve
determined the Static Calibration Constant, K
(Sensitivity or slope) and the Zero,V
0
(y-intercept):
V(P) = K P + V
0
Then the estimated true Load for any loading can be
found from: P
est
= {V
meas
- V
0
}/K which has standard
deviation:
2
= (1/N) [{V
meas
- V
0
}/K P
in
]
2
WSachse; 3/2014;
Using a Calibrated Load Cell:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 34
V(P) = K P + V
0
P
est
= {V
meas
- V
0
}/K
2
= (1/N) [{V
out
- V
0
}/K P
in
]
2
For a particular, applied load, P
true
, if the measured
load cell voltage is V
meas
then the estimate of the
true load is: P
est
+/- 3 with a probability of 99.7%.
The Bias in the measurement is given by: P
est
P
true
The quantity 3 corresponds to the Imprecision or
Uncertainty of the load determination.
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
18
WSachse; 3/2014;
Load Cell:
Testing Schedule
(March 17
th
21
st
)
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 35
WSachse; 3/2014;
Module 2
Deliverable:
Load Cell
Calibration
Data and
Curve:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 36
0 20 40 60 80
Applied Load [lbs]
0
5
10
15
20
B
r
i
d
g
e
O
u
t
p
u
t
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
m
V
]
Measured Calibration Data
Linear Fit: 0.215 [mV/lb]
Load Cell Calibration
4
Calibration
Data Points
2
Linear Fit
Line
3a
Slope: Sensitivity =
1/Calibration Constant 3b
Zero
6
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
19
WSachse; 3/2014;
Load Cell:
Calibration
Sheets
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 37
3.
1.
4.
5.
2.
Due:
Week of
April 7
th
to 11
th
Two weeks
after you did
the Calibration
WSachse; 3/2014;
Tasks to do during the three Weeks,
March 3
rd
March 21
st
:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 38
Sections: 401-404;
409; and 413
Sections 405-408;
410; 412 and 414
Mar 3
rd
Mar 7
th
Build Load Cell
in Upson B-30
Construct
LabVIEW vi
in 163 Rhodes
Mar 10
th
- Mar 14
th
Construct
LabVIEW vi
in 163 Rhodes
Build Load Cell
in Upson B-30
Mar 17
th
Mar 21
st
Test and Calibrate
in Upson B-30
your Load Cell
(see Schedule)
Done
Done
Done
M&AE 3272 - Lecture #6
Load Cell Calibration
10 March 2014
20
WSachse; 3/2014;
Everyone should now have familiarity with LabVIEW.
Sections #401, #402, #403, #404, #409, and #413
can go to the Lab to check out their LabVIEWvi.
(Go at times when the Sections above are not
session.) Thanks. Enjoy the week!
Sections #405, #406, #407, #408, #410 , #412 and
#414 meet in B30 Upson to fabricate your Load Cell.
Come prepared to show your design to your TA so
that you can receive parts. Then: Prep. Glue. Wire.
Everyone should now have familiarity with LabVIEW.
Sections #401, #402, #403, #404, #409, and #413
can go to the Lab to check out their LabVIEWvi.
(Go at times when the Sections above are not
session.) Thanks. Enjoy the week!
Sections #405, #406, #407, #408, #410 , #412 and
#414 meet in B30 Upson to fabricate your Load Cell.
Come prepared to show your design to your TA so
that you can receive parts. Then: Prep. Glue. Wire.
Tasks to do THIS Week, March 10
th
- 14
th
:
M&AE 3272 - Lecture 6 39