DS 412 E-2001

Danish Standards Association
DS 412
Code of Practice for
the structural use of steel
Norm for
stlkonstruktioner
(3.1)
titelblad412.1.korr. 22/11/01 10:08 Side 1
Licens kbt af: Vesta Wind System A/S
Descriptors:
steel structures, corrosion protection, fatigue subjected steel structures
DS 412 E:2001
Kbenhavn
DS projekt: 47983
ICS 91.080.10
National foreword
The prefix in the reference number of this publication is DS which means that the pub-
lication has the status of Danish Standard.
Degree of correspondence of this publication:
IDT with DS 412:1998 in Danish.
In case of doubt with regard to the correctness of the translation into English, the Danish
language version should be consulted.
This publication replaces: DS 412 E:1984.
Translation of DS 412:1998

iii

0 Preface 1
0.1 Approval of the code 1
0.2 Interim provisions 2
0.3 Construction products 2
1 Introduction 3
1.1 General 3
1.2 Scope 4
1.3 Definitions 5
1.4 Symbols 9
2 Preliminary investigations 14
3 Materials 15
3.1 General 15
3.2 Materials for welded structures 16
3.3 Materials for non-welded structures 21
3.4 Filler metals 21
3.5 Bolt materials 21
3.6 Bearings 21
4 Actions 22
4.1 Thermal actions 22
5 Safety 23
5.1 Limit states 23
5.2 The partial safety factor method 24
6 Design and analysis 28
6.1 General 28
6.2 Calculation of internal forces and moments 31
6.3 Analysis of cross-sections 32
6.4 Buckling resistance of members 48
6.5 Welded connections 60
6.6 Bolted connections 66
6.7 Bearings 74
6.8 Structures subjected fatigue 76
7 Fabrication 84
7.1 General 84
7.2 Geometrical imperfections 84

iv
7.4 Bolted connections 87
7.5 Structures subjected to fatigue 89
7.6 Protective treatment 90
8 Inspection 92
8.1 General 92
8.2 Materials 92
8.4 Bolted connections of category A 96
8.5 Bolted connections of categories B and C 96
8.6 Structures subjected to fatigue 97
8.7 Testing 99
8.8 Test loading 99
9 Fire design 100
9.1 General 100
9.2 Material properties 100
9.3 Determination of the temperature curve 103
9.4 Verification of structural resistance 105
10 Associated standards 108
11 Preparation of the code 111
Annex A Design against brittle fracture 114
A.1 Controlling parameters 114
A.2 Design 116
Annex B Fatigue curves 118
B.1 Fatigue expressions 118
B.2 Tables with construction details 118
Annex C Material properties of steel at elevated temperatures 137
Subject index 139


1
0 Preface
(1) The structural design codes are:
DS 409 Code of Practice for the Safety of Structures
DS 410 Code of Practice for Actions for the Design of Structures
DS 411 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Concrete
DS 412 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel
DS 413 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Timber
DS 414 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Masonry
DS 415 Code of Practice for Foundation Engineering
DS 419 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Aluminium
DS 420 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Lightweight Concrete
DS 446 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Thin-Plate Steel Structures
DS 451 Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Composite Structures
forming a coherent, consistent set of codes based on DS 409 and DS 410. DS 409-415
have been updated as described in chapter 11 of the individual codes. DS 419, DS 420,
DS 446 and DS 451 are being revised and will be published at a later date.

(2) The Pan-European Eurocodes that have been in preparation for a number of
years are now close to completion. The Danish Standards Association, however, is of the
opinion that it has been necessary to update the set of Danish codes of practice to adapt
them to the Eurocodes, since there is still some uncertainty with regard to the time when
the Eurocodes will be ready to replace the national codes. It is likely, however, that the
present set of codes will be the last with national application only.
The code text has been divided into chapters (e.g. chapter 7), sections (e.g. section 7.2)
and paragraphs (e.g. paragraph 7.2.1 or 7.2.1.1).
Each chapter, section or paragraph is composed of a number of clauses that are either
normative or informative. The passages are consecutively numbered within each chapter,
section or paragraph with a number in parenthesis. For code text, i.e. normative text
(Principles) the parenthesis is followed by a P, while informative text (Application rules)
has no letter, but is printed in smaller types.
Tables and figures are provided with numbers identical with the number of the chapter,
section or paragraph from which reference is made to the table or figure. In case of more
tables or figures, the numbers are provided with lower-case letters (e.g. table 3.2b). Tables
and figures in informative text are preceded by a V (e.g. figure V5.4).
0.1 Approval of the code
(1)P The code is approved as a Danish Standard. It replaces DS 412, 2nd
edition, 1983. The code is related to DS 409, 2nd edition 1998 and DS 410,
4th edition 1998 and shall only be applied in connection with these editions.

2
0.2 Interim provisions
(1)P The following applies to DS 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414 and 415:
For an interim period, from the publication of the first, revised structural
design codes up to one year after publication of all the above-mentioned,
revised structural codes, both the previous and the new editions will be in
force.
During this period, design of structures in accordance with the previous as
well as the new editions is allowable, however an entire project shall be in
accordance with either the previous or the new editions. After expiration of
the interim period, only the new editions apply.
(2)P On their publication, DS 419, 420, 446 and 451 will have a corre-
sponding interim period of one year. In the period up to the publication of
these codes, they shall be used together with DS 409, 1st edition 1982 and
DS 410, 3rd edition 1982, notwithstanding that the other structures are con-
structed in accordance with the updated structural codes.
(3)P The code has been prepared on the assumption that the Construc-
tion Products Directive is fully operational, i.e. the related, harmoinzed stan-
dards with corresponding conformity certification systems are available.
0.3 Construction Products
(1) Under paragraphs 30-36 in the European Union Treaty, construction products
from other EU member states and EEA member states complying with the requirements
of technical standards or specifications at the same level as the Danish standards can be
marketed.

Jacob E. Holmblad Jrgen S. Steenfelt
Manager of DS Chairman of Codes of Practice Committee


3
1 Introduction
1.1 General
(1)P A steel structure is in conformity with the structural design codes of
the Danish Standards Association when it satisfies the requirements of DS
409 Code of Practice for the Safety of Structures and DS 410 Code of Prac-
tice for Actions for the Design of Structures.

(2)P The codes contain requirements whose purpose is to ensure the
adequate safety and performance of load-bearing structures, including build-
ings where the soil acts as a load or a load-bearing element.

(3)P A code of practice is a standard, which for a predefined area lists a
number of requirements aiming to ensure a proper technical quality level. A
code of practice is submitted to public approval ensuring widespread accep-
tance of its contents.
To the greatest possible extent the codified requirements are performance-
based and based on knowledge of technical sciences. Generally, the code
does not prescribe requirements for methods of design and construction or
physical elements. In the code text, references to Danish or international
standards, e.g. concerning material qualities and test methods may be given.

(4)P The codes apply to structures within the normal field of experience.
There may be structures where failure will have disastrous consequences,
and for such structures the requirements cannot be assumed to give adequate
safety. Within the scope of the codes, special cases not covered by the codes
may occur. An evaluation of whether or not a particular case is covered by
the codes shall always be made.

(5)P To facilitate the use of the codes they are supplemented by applica-
tion rules among other things giving examples of how the requirements of
the codes may be satisfied. The application rules shall not be considered as
codified requirements.


4
(6) Application rules can be distinguished from the code text (principles) by the
typography as shown here and as mentioned in chapter 0, Preface.

(7)P The rules and provisions of the codes shall be assessed and applied
in accordance with the purpose of the codes with due consideration to the
development within their field of application. It is therefore assumed that the
users of the code have the necessary technical knowledge.

(8)P The code text does not contain references to laws, instructions or
circulars etc. Such references may in exceptional cases appear in the applica-
tion rules. It is assumed that users of the code have the necessary knowledge
of legal and other external rules significant to the practical application of the
codes.

(9)P Deviation from the requirements of the codes is permitted when the
soundness of such deviation can be substantiated.

(10)P Questions as to the interpretation of the codes are to be settled by
the Planning Committee for Steel and Aluminium, PLU-11 of the Danish
Standards Association.
1.2 Scope
(1)P The code applies to load-bearing steel structures in buildings,
bridges etc. For structures of a special design and structures for which spe-
cial requirements are made, the provisions of the present code will not form
an adequate basis.

(2) The present code alone does not form an adequate basis for the design
and analysis of e.g. nuclear power plants, extremely tall buildings, offshore struc-
tures, storage tanks, thin-plate structures, composite structures, and pressurized
plants. The code applies to such structures only to the extent where the special
codes for these areas refer to the provisions in the present code.

(3) Codes for special areas are:
DS 417 Welded storage tanks
DS 446 Thin-plate structures

5
DS 449 Pile supported offshore steel structures
DS 451 Composite structures
DS 458 Pressurized plants

(4) To a large extent the principles and equations of the present code are identical
with those of Eurocode 3, particularly ENV 1993-1-1 (including ENV 1993-1-1/A1) and
DS/ENV 1993-1-2. However, generally DS 412 does not address the subjects as thor-
oughly as Eurocode 3. In a number of cases the principles have been changed or modified
compared to Eurocode 3. This fact should be considered if Eurocode 3 is used as a back-
ground document for elaboration of the methods of the present code. In particular it
should be noted that the safety system applied in Eurocode 3 is different from that in DS
412.
1.3 Definitions
Action parameter
The total number of actions (cycles) assumed to occur in the design life.

Bearing-type connection
Connection where the forces between the connected parts are expected to be
transferred by bending and shear action of bolts.

Bearing-type slip-resistant connection
Connection that in analysis of the resistance is considered a bearing-type
connection, but which in analysis of serviceability properties is considered a
slip-resistant connection.

Block shear failure
Failure in a plate in connection with a bolt group subjected to shear. Due to
the failure, part of a plate containing a group of bolts will be disconnected
along lines passing through the bolt holes in the shear sides and in the tensile
side of the bolt group, cf. figure 6.6.11.

Bolting through packings
Bolt arrangement in a connection subjected to shear where one or more
packings are inserted between the plates to be connected.


6
Buckling length
For a given compressed member the length of a corresponding simply sup-
ported member with the same elastic buckling resistance as the given one.

Characteristic fatigue strength
The fatigue strength determined as the 2.3-percentile of the results of tests
with the actual structural member.

Characteristic fatigue life
The fatigue parameter corresponding to the characteristic action and charac-
teristic fatigue strengths.

Crippling
Buckling failure of the web in a profile caused by compression due to a
concentrated action applied to the flange in the plane of the web.

Design fatigue life
The fatigue life corresponding to design action and design fatigue strengths.

Design fatigue strength
Characteristic fatigue strength divided by the appropriate partial safety fac-
tor.

Ductility
The property of a structural member or connection that fracture will only
occur after large plastic strains.

Fatigue action
Variable action of such a magnitude, frequency and duration that fatigue
phenomena control the resistance of the structure.

Fatigue life

7
The fatigue life of a structural member corresponding to a specific stress
range is the number of actions of constant magnitude that under the given
circumstances only just results in fatigue failure.

Fatigue strength
The fatigue strength of a structural member corresponding to a specific
number of cycles is the stress range of constant width that under the given
circumstances only just results in failure by fatigue.

Fire insulation
Method for protection of steel against unacceptable heating during fire.

Fire insulation system
The complete system comprising fire insulation, fasteners, surface coating
etc. for protection of steel against unacceptable heating during fire.

Fire isolation
Material for protection of steel against unacceptable heating during fire.

Flange induced buckling
Stability failure of a compressed flange in a section where the web is so
slender that it cannot support the flange against buckling into the section.

Fracture toughness
General designation for a number of parameters describing the fracture
toughness: elongation at failure, necking, impact strength, fracture mechani-
cal parameters etc. Often, for a given type of fracture only one of the above
parameters for ductility will be relevant.

Lifetime
The period of time for which the structure will be able to resist the actions
occurring until failure due to fatigue. The fatigue life can be used as a meas-
ure of the lifetime.


8
Post-critical capacity
The resistance of a cross-section or a member, which is not achieved until
buckling of compressed plate elements has taken place.

Preloaded bolt (high-strength friction grip bolt)
Bolt with large width across the flat in which a well-defined considerable
prestress has been produced by preloading.

Prying force
Additional force in tensioned bolts in an end plate joint or similar connec-
tion, associated with the contact pressure, which develops between the pro-
jecting elements due to the deformation of the plates.

Segregation zones
In a rolled steel specimen zones with particularly large content of impurities
and certain alloy components such as carbon.

Service life
The period of time for which a structure subjected to fatigue is assumed or
required to be in use.

Slip-resistant connection
Connection where the forces between the connected elements are assumed
to be transferred fully or partly by friction provided by compression of the
structural elements by means of preloaded bolts or the like.

Static action
Action of such low frequency that fatigue of the structural material or the
connections will not be critical for the resistance of the structure.

Stress range
The difference between the maximum and minimum stress of one cycle,
tensile stresses being considered positive and compressive stresses negative.


9
Stress-range spectrum
Diagram showing the stress variation during the service life of the structure.

Stress ratio
The ratio between minimum and maximum stress, tensile stresses being
considered positive and compressive stresses negative.

Throat section
The section parallel to the longitudinal direction of a weld which fully or
partly placed through the weld has minimum width.
1.4 Symbols
1.4.1 Main symbols
A cross-sectional area
a relative share of area, weld thickness
b width
c width, calculation factor, heat capacity
d diameter, depth, thickness
E slope of stress-strain curve for steel, modulus of elasticity
e bolt distance
F force, error size factor
f strength
G shear modulus
h height, coefficient of heat transfer
K fracture toughness
k moment correction factor, factor, auxiliary factor
L span
l length, span
M moment
m number, relative moment utilisation
N axial force
n number, number of load cycles, relative axial force utilisation
p spacing of bolts, spacing of holes
q uniformly distributed action
R structural resistance
r radius
s distance, length

10
t thickness, time
V shear force, volume
W section modulus

thermal coefficient of linear expansion, ratio, imperfection
factor, calculation factor, auxiliary factor

factor for equivalent constant moment, correlation factor,
stress ratio, auxiliary factor

partial safety factor

auxiliary factor, deflection

coefficient, strain, absorption coefficient

temperature

factor

relative slenderness ratio, coefficient of linear expansion,
thermal conductivity

coefficient of friction, auxiliary factor

Poissons ratio

unit mass, Winter-factor

axial stress, Stefan Boltzmanns constant

shear stress

auxiliary factor

slenderness reduction factor

(edge) stress ratio
1.4.2 Subscripts
a steel
b post-critical, bearing, bolt
c compression zone, compression
com compression
cr critical according to theory of elasticity
d design
ded deduction
e effective
eff effective
el elastic
eq equivalent
f dependent on action, flange

11
fat fatigue
g fire compartment
i penetration
LT lateral-torsional buckling
M moment
m material dependent
mat material
max maximum
min minimum
n nominal, lower
net net
p preloading, proportionality
pl plastic
Q transverse action
q transverse action
R resistance
red reduced
S internal force
s column, distributed, friction
ser serviceability state
t tension
u ultimate
v stress range, shear resistance
w web, welding
y related to the y-axis, yield
z related to the z-axis

temperature

end moments
1.4.3 Characteristic and design values
(1)P Subscript d for design values is solely applied to the symbols f
y
, f
u
, E,
,
fat
,
fat
, and n
fat.


12
(2)P In general, all values stated in the code text and equations shall be
considered design values, unless the context or the text itself expressively
states that they shall be considered characteristic values.
1.4.4 Conventions for coordinate axes
(1)P In the present code the following convention for coordinate axes is
applied:

x-axis: axis in the longitudinal direction of the member
y-axis: generally: cross-sectional axis parallel to the
flanges
for angle sections: cross-sectional axis parallel to the
shorter leg
z-axis: generally: cross-sectional axis perpendicular
to the flanges
for angle sections: cross-sectional axis perpendicular
to the shorter leg
u-axis: major (strong) axis where it does not coincide with the y-
axis
v-axis: minor (weak) axis where it does not coincide with the z-
axis

Reference is also made to figure 1.4.4.

13
Figure 1.4.4 Convention for cross-sectional axes

14
2 Preliminary investigations
Generally, no special preliminary investigations are necessary in connection
with steel structures.


15
3 Materials
3.1 General
(1)P Materials with well-defined resistance properties corresponding to
those assumed to verify the resistance of the structure shall be applied.
3.1.1 Material groups
(1)P Distinction is made between 5 groups of materials covered by the
code:
I Ordinary hot-rolled structural steel meeting the require-
ments in EN 10025 or similar.
Hot-rolled fine-grain steel with designations S275 and
S355 meeting the requirements in DS/EN 10113-2 or
DS/EN 10113-3 or similar.
II Hot-rolled fine-grain steel with the designations S420 and
S460 meeting the requirements in DS/EN 10113-2 or
DS/EN 10113-3 or similar.
III High strength steel in the quenched and tempered condi-
tions that meet the requirements in DS/EN 10137-2 or
similar. Distinction is made between the subgroups:
a) S460 Q
b) other quenched and tempered steel
IV Carbon steel meeting the requirements for E-steel in
DS/EN 10025 or similar.
V Cast iron.
3.1.2 Characteristic material parameters
(1)P The characteristic ultimate tensile strength of the material f
u
and the
characteristic tensile yield strength f
y
is taken as the 5-percentile of the ulti-
mate tensile strength and the upper tensile yield strength, respectively. The
compressive yield strength of the steel is assumed to be equal to the tensile
yield strength.

(2) Conformity with the requirement that the 5-percentile should be applied to
tensile strength and upper tensile yield stress may be assumed by applying the values of
the lower tensile strength and the upper tensile yield stress, respectively, as stated in the
standards specified for the different material groups in 3.1.1.

16

(3)P The characteristic fatigue strength
fat
is taken as the 2.3-percentile of
the results of fatigue tests.

(4) For all material groups the following characteristic material coefficients are
used:
modulus of elasticity: E = 0,21 10
6
MPa
shear modulus G = E/2 (1 +)
unit mass 7.85 10
3
kg/m
3

Poissons ratio 0.3
linear coefficient of thermal expansion 12 10
-6 o
C
-1

(5) For characteristic material parameters and material constants at elevated tem-
peratures, see paragraphs 9.2.1 and 9.2.2.

3.1.3 Imperfections
(1)P The material shall be free from surface imperfections and corrosion
due to rust of degree D (pitting) in accordance with ISO 8501-1 and cracks,
lamination, dents, etc. which are adverse to the fabrication, application and
structural resistance.

(2) For definition of surface imperfections, reference is made to DS/EN 10163.

(3) Assessment of imperfections in the material may also include requirements for
the appearance of the structure.
3.2 Materials for welded structures
3.2.1 Applicable material groups
(1)P For welded structures, materials of groups I and II are permitted.
Further, materials of groups III and V are permitted if the soundness hereof
is justified. The codified requirements regarding execution and control of
welded structures are adequate for materials of groups I and II only.
3.2.2 Safety against brittle fracture
(1)P The material shall have adequate fracture toughness to prevent
brittle fracture and similar fractures in the structure with the required safety.

17
Consideration shall be given to the risks of impairing the fracture
toughness during manufacture and erection due to cold-work,
welding and other manufacturing processes, as well as to the pos-
sibility of weakening the material during service due to fatigue and
corrosion.

(2)P In principle, verification for the safety against brittle frac-
ture can be made by fracture mechanics. For materials of groups I,
II and IIIa with metal thickness not exceeding 150 mm, however, it
is permissible to base the safety entirely on the use of steel with the
required fracture toughness measured by impact resistance testing
using Charpy-V test specimens according to DS/EN 10045.

(3)P Materials loaded in through-thickness direction shall have
the properties necessary to prevent lamellar tearing.

(4) In addition to fracture toughness of the material the risk of brittle fracture is
dependent on:
the lowest service temperature to which the material is exposed
stress level
strain rate
material thickness
effect on properties due to cold-work, etc.
geometrical defects of the material

(5) Lowest service temperature should be determined according to table V3.2.2a.
For structures, which are artificially cooled, the lowest service temperature is determined
as the lowest temperature to which the structure can be exposed during service.

18

Table V3.2.2a Lowest service temperature

type of structure
lowest service temperature
[
o
C]
outdoor structures (exclusive of Greenland)
indoor structure, effective heating (residences, etc.)
indoor structure, moderate heating (storerooms, etc.)
10
+10
0

(6) For materials of groups I and II which are suited for cold working not includ-
ing, however, materials according to DS/EN 10113-3 the reduction of the fracture
toughness due to cold-working can be counteracted by performing a normalisation after
the cold-working. As an alternative, a direct verification can be made to show that the
material after cold-working and the resulting ageing fulfils the requirements of the code
with regard to fracture toughness.
For materials of groups I, II and IIIa the influence of the cold-working can be taken into
consideration by assuming an equivalent material thickness in the assessment of the
fracture toughness in accordance with figure V3.2.2.a. For round steel a value 0.85 times
the diameter of the round steel is used as the "true material thickness".
Cutting gives rise to cold-work which for properly maintained shears is about 10 % for
materials of group I with a thickness not exceeding 10 mm. Materials of the other material
groups should only be cut if the suitability is verified by testing of the cut material.

(7) In annex A a general method for evaluating the safety against brittle fracture is
given.
For structures of materials in groups I, II and IIIa subjected to a static or slow action
(selfweight, floor action, snow load, action from vehicles, wind and wave action, uplift,
etc.), the safety against brittle fracture may be assumed to be documented if the equivalent
metal thickness does not exceed the values in table V3.2.2b.

(8) For structures, which are subjected to impact action (explosion, vertical action
on air raid shelters, action due to impacts etc.) and for structures with large stress concen-
trations, the safety against brittle fracture can be verified according to the procedure in
annex A.

19

20

Figure V3.2.2a Equivalent material thickness for cold-working

3.2.3 Special provisions for grading of structural steel
(1)P It is permissible to use steel of groups I, and II as structural steel of
a desired strength and quality class, if tests are carried out to prove that the
steel satisfies the testing requirements for the actual grade. However, the
form of treatment of the steel, e.g. non-normalised, normalised or thermo-
mechanical treatment cannot be changed by the upgrading. Tests shall be
carried out for each individual plate, profile, etc.


21
3.3 Materials for non-welded structures
(1)P For materials for non-welded structures it is permissible to take into
account that non-welded structures have a relatively high resistance against
brittle fracture.
3.4 Filler metals
(1)P Filler metals and welding procedures shall be adjusted to the parent
metal.
With regard to strength and toughness the welds shall at least correspond to
the structural materials. If two members with different thickness are welded
together the weld shall at least satisfy the requirements for the material of the
thinner member. The fracture toughness shall be chosen to correspond to the
stronger of the structural steels being welded together.

(2) An adequate fracture toughness can be achieved by choosing welding proce-
dures and filler metals resulting in weld metals with an impact resistance that at least
corresponds to the grade of the steel.
3.5 Bolt materials
(1)P For bolts, materials conforming with DS/EN 20898-1 and 2 or
materials of groups I, II, III or IV shall be used.

(2) In 6.6.1 and 6.6.2 it is specified which bolt strength classes are permissible for
the different categories of bolted connections.
3.6 Bearings
(1)P Materials of the groups I, II, III, IV and V can be used for bearings.
For materials of group IV the suitability of the products used shall be veri-
fied in particular to ensure adequate toughness of the internal material mem-
bers and an adequate depth of hardening.


22
4 Actions
4.1 Thermal actions
(1)P I addition to the possible changes of air temperatures stated in DS
410, outdoor structures or structural steel members shall be considered sub-
ject to a possible non-uniform thermal action by the influx of sunlight.

(2) The influx of sunlight can be assumed to imply a maximum increase of tem-
perature of 25 C relative to the air temperature. Depending on the conditions for the
influx, the heat capacity of the structure and other aspects of the structural design, the
increase in temperature due to the influx of sunlight may imply a uniform increase addi-
tional to the air temperature and a non-uniform distribution of temperature on the separate
parts of the structure.

23
5 Safety
5.1 Limit states
(1) Further to the examples given in DS 409 the following ultimate limit states may
be relevant for steel structures:
limited slip. Limited slip may occur if the forces to be transferred after a pos-
sible initial slip may be transferred by other structural members. Slip in slip-
resistant connections is an example of limited slip.
alternating yielding. Alternating yielding may result in material failure after
relatively few cycles (low cycle fatigue).

(2) Further to the examples given in DS 409 the following serviceability limit
states may be relevant for steel structures:
initial buckling. It may be required to limit the utilisation of the post-critical
capacity by considering initial buckling a serviceability limit state, cf. 6.3.3
(5).
slip in bearing-type slip-resistant connections. In bearing-type slip-resistant
connections, the friction ensures against slip in the serviceability limit state
whereas the ultimate capacity of the connection is based on bearing and
bending of the bolts.
alternating yielding. As an alternative to considering alternating yielding an
ultimate limit state it may be required that alternating yielding does not oc-
cur in the serviceability limit state.

(3) For beams the following limits for the maximum deflections due to variable
action exclusive of any dynamic factor may serve as a guide for acceptable deflections.
floors l/400
roofs and external walls l/400
where:
l is the span of simply supported and continuous beams, and twice the cantile-
ver of cantilevered structures
The values apply to primary as well as secondary members, but in analyses only the
deflection of the actual member shall be considered.

(4) For columns the following values for the maximum deflection of the column
top due to variable action may serve as a guide for acceptable deflections:
frames in buildings without cranes h/150
columns in single-storey framed buildings h/300
columns in multi-storey framed buildings for each storey h/300
for the total height h
e
/500

24
where
h is the height of the individual column
h
e
is the total height of the building

(5) In the assessment of deflections the structure can be assumed subject to only
one variable action at a time.
(6) In the assessment of deflections account shall be taken of eventual one-off
yielding at the serviceability state and of eventual slip in bolted connections.
5.2 The partial safety factor method
5.2.1 Accidental action
(1) For steel framed structures in buildings compliance with the requirements in
action combinations 3.1 and 3.2 may be assumed if the following constructional require-
ments are fulfilled:
the primary connections of the structure should be able to transfer an ade-
quate tensile force in the longitudinal direction of the connected members.
Compliance with this requirement may be assumed for conventional welded
connections, bolted fishplate connections and bolted connections with tie
panels, since the tensile capacity of these types of connections is of the same
magnitude as the shear capacity. For primary connections, where the beams
have been placed on brackets welded to the columns and where the horizontal
position of the beams has been secured by restraining bolts or otherwise, the
requirement may be assumed to be fulfilled if the restraining elements can
sustain a force in the longitudinal direction of the beam, which is at least 20
kN/m of the loaded width measured perpendicular to the longitudinal direc-
tion of the beam
the connections should be ductile
in the structure at least one extra wind bracing system should be arranged.
5.2.2 Design material parameters
(1)P For analysis of ultimate limit states the partial safety factors for
materials,
m
, have been determined as a product of 6 factors:

m
0 1 2 3 4 5

in accordance with DS 409 unless otherwise stated.


25
(2)P In analyses of ultimate limit states the partial safety factor
m
for
materials of groups I, II, III, and IV depends on the safety class and material
control class of individual structures or structural members as follows:

5 0
17 . 1
m
for yield strength
y
f
modulus of elasticity E
coefficient of friction (for category C
connections)

5 0
30 . 1
m
for coefficient of friction (unlimited slip
possible)

5 0
43 . 1
m
for ultimate strength
u
f
fatigue strength
fat

The factor
0
depends on the safety class and is stated in table 5.2.2a. The
factor
5

depends on the material control class and is stated in table 5.2.2b.

Table 5.2.2a -
0

dependent on the safety class
safety class
low normal high
0.9 1.0 1.1

Table 5.2.2b -
5

dependent on the material control class
material group material parameters material control class
according to 8.2.1 (1)P
strict normal
I, II, and III
yield strength
y
f
ultimate strength f
u
modulus of elasticity E
fatigue strength,
fat
,
however, not for welded
connections
0.95 1.0

fatigue strength
fat
of
1.0 1.0

26
welded connections
coefficient of friction
IV all material parameters
(3)P For materials of group V the same value of the partial safety factor
m
as for materials of group IV is applied, however, the material parameters
referring to the tensile resistance are taken corresponding to the larger stan-
dard deviation of the properties.

(4) For materials of group V, subjected to tensile action, the larger standard
deviation of the material parameters may be taken into account by increasing
m

for
u y
f f , and
fat
by 30 %.

(5) The partial safety factor
m

in (2)P has been produced as follows, cf. DS 409:
9 . 0
1
corresponding to ductile failure with surplus capacity for yield
strength, modulus of elasticity (stability failure) and coefficient
of friction (category C connections)
0 . 1
1
corresponding to ductile failure without surplus capacity for co-
efficient of friction (unlimited slip possible)
1 . 1
1
corresponding to brittle fracture for tensile strength and fatigue
strength
3 . 1
2
corresponding to a coefficient of variation less than 5 % for all
material properties
0 . 1
3
corresponding to normal accuracy of the calculation model
0 . 1
4
corresponding to normal safety for the determination of the mate-
rial parameters.

(6)P 0 . 1
m
is applied in analyses of serviceability limit states.
5.2.3 Structures subjected to fatigue
(1)P The structural resistance of structures subjected to fatigue is gener-
ally evaluated on the basis of actions corresponding to the service life of the
structure. For the partial safety factor
m
of material parameters the value
given in 5.2.2 (2) is applied. For partial safety factors for actions
f
in ac-
cordance with DS 409 is applied.

(2)P As an alternative the structural resistance may be assessed on the
basis of actions corresponding to shorter time intervals using the same val-

27
ues of the partial safety factors as above. This will require that the structure
is inspected between these time intervals, cf. 8.6 (1)P.
If this alternative method is used, however, an additional assessment of the
structural resistance shall be made on the basis of actions corresponding to
the service life, using partial safety factors corresponding to the serviceabil-
ity limit state (action combination 1) for actions as well as material parame-
ters.

5.2.4 Testing
(1)P The structural resistance of a structure, a structural member or a
structural connection may be determined by tests, see 8.7. In the assessment
of the structural resistance the partial safety factor
m
may in this case be
reduced by 10 %.

28
6 Design and Analysis
6.1 General
6.1.1 Scope of the methods of the code
(1)P The equations and methods of the code may be assumed to apply
directly to materials in groups I, II, and IIIa. For other material groups the
application of the equations and methods shall be evaluated for each indi-
vidual case.
6.1.2 Static action and fatigue action
(1)P Structures subject to static action shall comply with the require-
ments of 6.1 - 6.7. Structures subject to fatigue action shall furthermore
comply with the requirements of 6.8.

(2) A structure designed for static action will in most cases be sufficiently
safe against fatigue failure provided one of the following conditions is fulfilled:

mf fatn v
/
or

3
,
6
36
10 2
,
_

mf eq v
n

where

v
is the maximum stress range occurring

fatn
is the lower bound to the fatigue strength at constant stress range. On the
safe side,
fatn
may be taken as 26 MPa
n is the number of load cycles

eq v,
is the equivalent constant stress range in MPa for the load cycle value
6
10 2 , cf. 6.8.3 (4)

mf
is the partial safety factor with regard to the fatigue strength of the
material.
(3) Examples of structures, which may normally be assumed to be subject to static
action, are building structures, overhead transmission masts, and hydraulic engineering
structures.

(4) Examples of structures, which should normally be assumed to be subject to
fatigue, are masts and chimneys apt to oscillate due to wind action as well as bridges and
crane structures.

29
6.1.3 Stress-strain curve for the material
(1)P In analyses of buckling resistance the decreasing slope of the stress-
strain curve above the limit of proportionality shall be considered. In other
cases a linear elastic stress-strain curve up to the yield stress can be assumed.

(2)P If plastic design methods are applied, the material shall fulfil the
following requirements:
the ratio between the minimum tensile strength and the mini-
mum yield strength shall normally not be less than 1.2
the elongation at fracture as measured on the length
0
65 . 5 A ,
where
0
A is the sectional area of the unloaded member, shall
be at least 15 %
the strain corresponding to the tensile strength shall be larger
than or equal to 20 times the strain corresponding to the yield
strength.

(3) The design methods for analysis of buckling resistance as stated in the applica-
tion rules of section 6.4 include considerations of the curve of the stress-strain decreasing
slope above the limit of proportionality.

(4) Materials of groups I, II, and IIIa are assumed to fulfil the requirements for
application of plastic design methods.
6.1.4 Tension perpendicular to the surface
(1)P In the design of a structure it shall be taken into account that struc-
tural steel has reduced mechanical properties perpendicular to the material
surface when lamination, micro-lamination and segregation occur.

(2)P Lamination: Structural members subject to tension perpendicular to
the plate surface shall not be laminated, cf. 8.2.4.

(3)P Micro-lamination: The tensile stress at the middle of the plate per-
pendicular to the surface of the plate, determined on the assumption that the
outer force distributes uniformly at an angle of 45, shall not exceed
yd
f
2
1
,

30
unless it is verified that the mechanical properties of the material in the
through-thickness direction are adequate, cf. 8.2.4.

(4)P Segregation: In the segregation zones of rimmed steel the tensile
stress perpendicular to the surface of the profile shall not exceed
yd
f
2
1
.
6.1.5 Distribution of forces in connections
(1)P In connections the internal forces may be assumed to be sustained
in the most favourable way provided that
the action on the elements of the connection forms a system
which is in equilibrium with the internal forces due to the ex-
ternal action
the structural resistance of the individual elements of the con-
nection is at least equal to the assumed action
the deformation of the elements of the connection correspond-
ing to the assumed action does not exceed the deformation ca-
pacity of the elements
the deformations assumed in a design model based on the yield
line theory are based on physically possible rotations of rigid
components
the assumed force distribution in the connection is realistic in
consideration of the relative stiffness in the connection.

(2)P Residual stresses, and stresses due to tightening of fasteners and due
to accuracy of fit-up in the connection need not normally be allowed for.

(3) In 6.5.5 and 6.6.8, examples of welded and bolted connections are given, where
the requirements in (1)P have not been fulfilled.
6.1.6 Direct transmission of forces in splices
(1)P Direct transmission of the forces through the abutting surfaces in a
splice may be assumed when the contact faces of the members to be spliced
are accurately prepared, cf. 7.2, and it is ensured that they maintain direct
contact after splicing. If the compression force is transmitted partly directly

31
and partly through welds or bolted connections of categories B or C these
shall be able to transmit at least 25 % of the compression force. Bolted con-
nections of category A shall not be assumed capable of transmitting com-
pression forces in a connection with direct transmission of force.

(2)P A connection with direct transmission of compression forces shall
be adequately secured against transverse displacement even if the connec-
tion according to the calaulation model is not subjected to transverse forces.
The connection shall be able to transmit a force of at least 5 % of the com-
pression force as shear irrespective of friction.
6.2 Calculation of internal forces and moments
6.2.1 Consideration of structural deformation
(1)P A global analysis can be accomplished by
a 1st order analysis neglecting structural deformation due to the
action. A 1st order analysis can be used for non-sway structures
as well as for structures where deformations are indirectly
taken into account.
a 2nd order analysis taking account of structural deformations
due to the action. A 2nd order analysis can be used for all struc-
tures.
6.2.2 Analysis according to the theory of elasticity
(1)P For a global elastic analysis a linear elastic stress-strain relation with
the modulus of elasticity
d
E up to the yield strength
yd
f can be assumed.
This applies to both 1st and 2nd order analyses.

(2)P The analysis shall take due account of the reduction, if any, of the
stiffness and structural resistance of the members due to local buckling from
axial compression and moment.

(3)P Global elastic analysis combined with plastic analysis of the cross-
sections is permitted.

32
6.2.3 Analysis according to the theory of plasticity
(1)P For global plastic analysis the elements shall have sufficient rotation
capacity in areas of plastic hinges to allow development of the hinges, cf.
6.3.2. Special requirements apply to the slenderness of structural members
with plastic hinges subject to moment as well as compression.

(2)P If global plastic analysis is applied, the member deflections shall be
controlled in the transverse direction in areas with plastic hinges.
6.2.4 Consideration of imperfections
(1)P The global analysis of internal forces and the analysis of global non-
sway bracing systems shall take account of geometrical imperfections re-
lated to the joint configuration. For sway structures the analysis shall also
take account of imperfections related to the individual structural members.
6.3 Analysis of cross-sections
6.3.1 Sectional properties
(1)P The gross area of a cross-section is determined on the basis of the
cross-section without holes and local contractions but with deductions for
larger openings.

(2)P The net area of a cross-section is determined as the gross area with
deduction for holes, contractions and openings.

(3)P Deduction for holes
ded
A is determined on the basis of the section
straight or staggered through the structural member which results in the
largest deduction according to the expression:

) 4 /(
2
0
p t s t d A
ded

where

0
d is the hole diameter
t is the material thickness
s is the spacing of two successive holes in the section measured
in the direction of the force

33
p is the spacing of the same holes measured perpendicular to the
direction of the force, cf. figure 6.3.1
The summation in the equation includes all holes and all spacings between
the holes in the actual section. The value ) 4 /(
2
p t s shall not exceed st 6 . 0
for any distance.
For a cross-section with holes in more than one plane, p is measured in the
unfolded plane of the cross-section, cf. figure 6.3.1.

Figure 6.3.1 Deduction for holes
6.3.2 Resistance of cross-sections
(1)P The cross-sections shall have such proportions that their rotation
capacity, structural resistance and stiffness correspond to the assumptions
made for the global analysis. The analysis shall take due account of any
reduction of the structural resistance and stiffness of the cross section from
local buckling due to axial compression and moment.

(2) As a means to decide whether the proportions of a given cross-section are such
that it can be used elastically without any reduction due to local buckling, whether the
cross-section can be used plastically, and further whether it can form plastic hinges with
sufficient rotation capacity, the following classification may be used:

Class 1 cross-section (plastic cross-section): The cross-section provides sufficient rota-
tion capacity for the structure to form plastic hinges in the member.

Class 2 cross-section (compact cross-section): The cross-section can develop full plastic-
ity (yielding to the neutral axis), but cannot ensure sufficient rotation capacity of the
member.

34
Class 3 cross-section (semi-compact cross-section:) The cross-section can be utilised for
yielding in the extreme fibres, but cannot develop plasticity because of local buckling in
the compressed parts of the memner.
Class 4 cross-section (slender cross-section): The cross-section cannot be utilised for
yielding in the extreme fibres, without the introduction of local buckling in the com-
pressed parts of the member.

(3) In table V6.3.2a upper limits of the width-to-thickness ratio for compressed
parts of the member corresponding to classes 1,2 and 3 are specified. Cross-sectional
members, which do not meet the requirements for class 3 cross-sections, are referred to
class 4.
For equal leg angles with the leg width c and the leg thickness
f
t the limit for the width-
to-thickness ratio for class 3 cross-section is: 15 /
f
t c
For unequal leg angles with leg widths h and b and leg thickness
f
t the limit for the
width-to-thickness ratio for class 3 cross-sections is the most restrictive of
15 /
f
t h and 5 . 11 ) 2 /( ) ( +
f
t b h .
For circular hollow sections with outer diameter d and wall thickness t the limit value of
the diameter-to-thickness ratio is
2
50 / t d

for class 1,
2
70 / t d for class 2, and
2
90 / t d for class 3 cross sections.
In the above limit values, is defined as in table V6.3.2a.

(4) The classification for a given cross-section is normally taken as the class indi-
cated by the highest classified (less favourable) member of the cross-section.

(5) In table V6.3.2b recommended upper-bound values are stated for the width-to-
thickness ratio for class 4 cross-sections.

Table V6.3.2b Recommended upper-bound values of width-to-thickness ratio for
class 4 cross-sections
outstand compression
element
internal compression
element
web
60 /
f
t c
2
350 /
f
t b
2
350 /
w
t d
See table V6.3.2a for symbols.

35
Table V6.3.2.a Maximum width-to-thickness ratios for compression elements in
class 1, 2, and 3 cross-section

In the table
5 . 0
) / 235 (
y
f .
k is the buckling coefficient. Compressive stresses are

considered positive.


36

6.3.3 Post-critical structural strength of cross-section
(1)P For class 4 cross-sections in structural members subject to static ac-
tion where buckling initiates at a compression stress level lower than the
yield stress it is allowed to utilise the post-critical structural strength of the
cross-section.


37
Table V6.3.3 Effective width of plane compression elements


38
(2) The post-critical structural resistance of a cross-section can be utilised by bas-
ing the analysis on yielding in the extreme fibres of the effective cross-section. In the
effective cross-section the width of the plane compression elements is replaced by their
effective width.

(3) The effective width of a plane compression member can be determined
by table V6.3.3. In the table is a factor determined by Winters formula:
1 for 673 . 0

2
/ ) 22 . 0 ( for 673 . 0 >
is the relative slenderness ratio of the compression member determined by:

k
t b
f
cr
yd
4 . 28
/

The last term of the equation assumes the same partial safety factor for
y
f and E as is the
case in 5.2.2.

In the equation

yd
f is the yield stress of the material. Instead of
yd
f it is permissible to use
the highest compressive stress calculated,
com
, based on the effective
width of all the compression elements concerned. Normally, this results
in an iterative computational procedure. However, by analysis of com-
pressed members according to 6.4.2, lateral-torsional buckling according
to 6.4.3 and bending and axial compression according to 6.4.4,
yd
f
should be applied. If
yd com
f < is used the last term of the expression
for does not apply

cr
is the axial stress corresponding to buckling according to the theory of
elasticity (the Euler stress)
b is the width of the plane compression element
t is the thickness of the plane compression element
is a relative material parameter, cf. table V6.3.2a

k is the buckling coefficient.

In table V6.3.3 the width of the compression element is equal to the width of the corre-
sponding compression element in table V6.3.2a.
For determination of the effective width of a flange, in table V6.3.3 can be determined
on the basis of the gross area.

39

For determination of the effective width of a web, in table V6.3.3 can be determined
on the basis of the effective width of the compression flange and the gross area of the web
and tension flange.

(4) For circular hollow sections a post-critical structural resistance must not be
assumed.

(5) Utilisation of the post-critical structural resistance may in some cases result in
visible buckles in the normal serviceability state of the structure. Depending on the type
of the structure it may therefore be required to limit the utilisation of the post-critical
structural resistance. This may be achieved e.g. by considering initial buckling a service-
ability limit state. Also, refer to the recommended upper-bound values of width-to-
thickness ratios for class 4 cross-sections in table V6.3.2b. Care should be taken to ensure
that the width-to-thickness ratio of the web is sufficiently low to prevent flange induced
buckling, cf. 6.4.6.

(6) The axial stress
b
corresponding to initial buckling of a compression element
with normal initial stresses due to welding and rolling can be determined by the expres-
sion:
1 /
yd b
f for 8 . 0
) 8 . 0 ( 8 . 0 1 /
yd b
f for 0.8 1.25 <

2
/ 1 /
yd b
f for < 25 . 1
6.3.4 Local reductions
(1)P Yielding is permitted at local reductions, e.g. by net cross-section
through holes.

(2 For reduced cross-sections the ultimate structural resistance should be verified,
but neither should the plastic nor the elastic structural strength, cf. 6.3.7 6.3.10.
6.3.5 Types of structural resistance
(1)P For analysis of member cross-sections the types of resistance men-
tioned below may be relevant - depending on the type of failure:


40
the plastic resistance where the cross-section is capable of and
allowed to develop yielding over the entire cross-section after
initiation of yielding
the elastic resistance where the stress in the cross-section can
(only just) reach the yield limit, but where yielding cannot de-
velop any further or is not allowed to develop any further. For
pure tension and compression the elastic resistance is equal to
the plastic resistance
the post-critical resistance where buckling occurs in com-
pressed elements before the stress reaches the yield limit, but
the buckling is allowed to develop until yielding is reached in
the boundary zones of the cross-sectional parts.
6.3.6 Alternating yielding
(1)P If alternating yielding occurs in a cross-section, a special analysis of
structural resistance allowing for material failure shall be carried out, or it
shall be verified that alternating yielding does not occur in the serviceability
limit state.
6.3.7 Tension
(1)P For a cross-section in a structural member subjected to tension it
shall be verified that the tension does not exceed:
the elastic resistance of the gross cross-section, and
90 % of the ultimate capacity of the net cross-section through
holes.

(2)P For bolted connections of category C the tensile action must not
exceed the elastic resistance of the net cross-section through bolt holes. In
this case it is normally assumed that 30 % of the load transferred by a bolt is
transferred ahead of the section through the bolt hole.

(3) The requirements for a cross-section in a member subjected to tension can be
expressed by:

R t S
N N
,


41
where

yd R t
Af N
,
for gross cross-sections

,
0.9
t R net ud
N A f for net cross-sections

yd net R t
f A N
,
for net cross-sections through bolt holes in connections
in category C
A is the area of the gross cross-section

net
A is the area of the net cross-section.
6.3.8 Compression
(1)P For a cross-section in a structural member subjected to compression
it shall be verified that the compression does not exceed:
the elastic resistance or the post-critical resistance of the gross
cross-section depending on the relevant type of failure, cf. 6.3.5
and
90% of the ultimate resistance of the net cross-section through
oversize holes and slotted holes.

(2) The requirements for a cross-section in a structural member subjected to com-
pression can be expressed by:

R c S
N N
,

where

yd R c
Af N
,
for gross cross-sections of classes 1, 2 and 3

yd eff R c
f A N
,
for gross cross-sections of class 4

ud net R c
f A N 9 . 0
,
for net cross sections through oversize holes and slotted
holes
A is the area of the gross cross-section

eff
A is the area of the effective cross-section

net
A is the area of the net cross-section
6.3.8 Bending
(1)P For a cross-section in a member subjected to bending it shall be
verified that the moment does not exceed:
the plastic resistance, the elastic resistance, or the post-critical
resistance of the gross cross-section depending on the relevant
type of failure, cf. 6.3.5. and

42
90 % of the ultimate resistance of the net cross-section through
holes. The net cross-section is determined on the basis of the
gross cross-section with deduction for holes in tensile parts of
the cross-section and oversize holes and slotted holes in com-
pressed parts of the cross-section.

(2)P For bolted connections of category C the moment must not exceed
the elastic moment resistance of the net cross-section through bolt holes. In
this case it is normally assumed that 30 % of the action transferred by a bolt
is transferred ahead of the section through the bolt hole.

(3) The requirements for a cross-section in a member subject to bending can be
expressed by:

R c S
M M
,

where

yd pl R c
f W M
,
for gross cross-sections in classes 1 and 2

yd el R c
f W M
,
for gross cross-sections in class 3

yd eff R c
f W M
,
for gross cross-sections in class 4

ud net R c
f W M 9 . 0
,
for net cross-sections through bolt holes in tensile parts
of the cross-sections and oversize holes and slotted holes
in compressed parts

yd net R c
f W M
,
for net cross-sections through bolt holes in category C
connections

pl
W is the plastic section modulus

el
W is the elastic section modulus

eff
W is the section modulus of the effective cross-section

net
W is the section modulus of the net cross-section
6.3.10 Shear
(1)P For a cross-section in a member subject to shear it shall be verified
that the shear force does not exceed:

the plastic shear resistance or the post-critical shear resistance
of the gross shear cross-section depending on the relevant type
of failure, and

43
the ultimate shear resistance of the net shear cross-section. In
analysis of the block shear resistance of bolt groups with cate-
gory C bolts, however, the plastic shear resistance, cf.
6.6.11(1)P.

(2)P The post-critical shear resistance shall only be utilised in members
subject to static action.
If the post-critical resistance is utilised, the web shall be provided with bat-
tens over the supports.

(3) The requirements for a cross-section in a member subject to shear can be ex-
pressed by:

R S
V V
where
) 3 / (
yd v R
f A V for gross shear cross-sections in a web with a relative
slenderness ratio of 8 . 0
w

) 3 / (
, ud net v R
f A V for net shear cross-section
) 3 / (
, yd net v R
f A V for net shear cross-section by analysis of block shear
resistance of bolt groups with category C bolts

b w R
t d V for cross section in web with a relative slenderness
ratio of 8 . 0 >
w

v
A is the gross shear cross-sectional area

net v
A
,
is the net shear cross-sectional area
d is the depth of the web

w
t is the thickness of the web

b
is the post-critical shear strength, cf. (5)

w
is the relative slenderness ratio.

With the partial safety factors used in 5.2.2, 8 . 0
w
for an unstiffened shear member
corresponds to 69 /
w
t d . For , reference is made to table V6.3.2a.

(4) The gross shear area
v
A

may be taken as:

w
t h 04 . 1 for rolled I-, H-, and channel sections

w
t d for welded I-, H-, and channel sections
t d
m
2 for circular hollow sections

44
t h 2 for rectangular hollow sections
A for solid rectangular and circular cross-sections
where
h is the total depth of the section
t is the wall thickness of the hollow section

m
d is the mean diameter of the hollow section
A is the cross-sectional area.

The net shear area is determined on the basis of the gross shear area with deduction for
holes as stated in 6.3.1 (3)P.

(5) The post-critical shear strength can be determined by
( ) [ ] 3 / 8 . 0 625 . 0 1
yd w b
f for 2 . 1 8 . 0 <
w

[ ]( ) 3 / / 9 . 0
yd w b
f for
w
< 2 . 1
w
is the relative slenderness ratio for the cross-sectional part determined by

t
w
cr
yd
w
k
t d
f

4 . 37
/
3

The last term of the equation requires that the same partial safety factors be applied for f
y

and E as is the case in 5.2.2.
In the above equation,

yd
f is the yield stress of the material

cr
is the shear stress corresponding to buckling according to the theory
of elasticity (the Euler stress)
d is the width of the plane cross-sectional part

w
t is the thickness of the plane cross-sectional part
is a relative material parameter, cf. table V6.3.2a

c
k is the buckling coefficient.
6.3.11 Influence from moment and axial force
(1)P Where the plastic resistance is the relevant type of resistance it is
permissible to assume the most favourable statically admissible stress distri-
bution over the cross-section in the verification of the structural strength. For
I-, H-, and channel sections the axial force may be disregarded in the analy-
sis of bending around the y-axis, provided that the axial force does not ex-

45
ceed half the axial plastic capacity of the web or one quarter of the axial
plastic capacity of the entire cross-section, if the latter is smaller.

(2)P Where the elastic resistance is the relevant type of resistance a lin-
ear stress distribution over the cross-section shall be assumed in the analysis.

(3)P Where the post-critical resistance is the relevant type of resistance it
is permissible to assume development of the buckling to the point of yielding
in the extreme fibres of the cross-sectional part. Any contribution due to
displacement of the neutral axis shall be added to the moment.

(4) The requirements for a cross-section subjected to combined bending and axial
force can be expressed by
1
2
+
pl pl
m n for class 1 and 2 cross-sections, massive rectan-
gular cross-sections
1 ) 5 . 0 1 ( + a m n
pl pl
for class 1 and 2 cross-sections, rolled or welded
1
pl
m I-, H-, and channel sections, bending around the
y-axis
1
, ,
+ +
el z el y el
m m n for class 3 cross-sections
1
, ,
+ +
eff z eff y eff
m m n for class 4 cross-sections
where

R c S
M M m
,
/ is the relative moment utilisation regarding the
actual type of failure

R t S
N N n
,
/ (or
R c S
N N
,
/ ) is the relative axial force utilisation regarding the
actual type of failure
A bt A a
f
/ ) 2 ( but 5 . 0 is the relative web proportion of the area.

The interaction expressions above are shown in figure V6.3.11.

46

Figure V6.3.11 Member capacity by combined moment and axial force

6.3.12 Influence from moment, shear and axial force
(1)P If the shear force does not exceed half the shear resistance of the
cross-section, the entire cross-section can be considered efficient by verifica-
tion of the bending and axial force resistance. If the actual shear force ex-
ceeds half the shear resistance of the cross-section, reduced bending and
axial force resistance shall be assumed.

(2)P By combined moment, shear, and axial force the resistance of the
cross-section can be considered adequate if the part of the cross-section,
which is not included in the shear area can solely transfer the bending mo-
ment and axial force, and the shear area can solely transfer the shear force.

(3) If the actual shear force exceeds half the shear resistance, the resistance of the
cross-section can be considered adequate with regard to combined bending, shear, and
axial force by the expression:

47
1 m

2
) 1 2 ( v
where

R S
M M m / is the relative moment utilisation

R
M the moment resistance of the entire cross-section reduced
for possible axial force according to the expressions in
6.3.11(4)
is the fraction of the moment resistance which relates to
the shear area
5 . 0 / >
R S
V V v is the relative shear force utilisation.
The expression is shown in figure V6.3.12.

Figure V6.3.12 Member capacity by combined bending, shear and axial force


48
6.4 Buckling resistance of members
6.4.1 General
(1)P By analysis of members subjected to compression as a result of
applied axial force or moment due account shall be taken of the influence of
the deflections, of residual stresses from the manufacturing process and of
geometrical imperfections.
6.4.2 Central axial compression
(1)P Compressed members shall be controlled for flexural buckling as
well as for torsional and/or flexural-torsional buckling.

(2)P The slenderness ratio i l
s
/ of a compressed member subjected to
forces due to the action on the structure must not exceed 200.
s
l is the buck-
ling length and i is the radius of gyration appropriate for the actual bending
direction. For a class 4 cross-section the radius of gyration for the effective
cross-section shall be applied.
The slenderness ratio i l
s
/ of a purely bracing member subjected to secon-
dary compression forces must not exceed 250.

(3) The buckling resistance of a member subjected to central axial compression can
be verified by the expression:

yd R b S
Af N N
,

2 2
1

+
but 1
( )
2
) 2 . 0 ( 1 5 . 0 + +
where
is the reduction factor
A is the cross-sectional area. For class 4 cross-section the area of the effec-
tive cross-section should be applied, the slenderness ratios being deter-
mined on the basis of the yield stress
is an imperfection factor
is the relative slenderness ratio.
The relative slenderness ratio is determined by

49

cr
yd
N
Af
05 . 1
where

cr
N is the critical buckling action according to the theory of elasticity (the
Euler force) regarding flexural or flexural-torsional buckling. For class
4 cross-section
cr
N should be determined on the basis of the gors cross-
section.
The factor 1.05 aims at an increased safety for slender columns.
By flexural buckling the following expression can be used for the relative slenderness
ratio:

4 . 89
/ i l
s

where

s
l is the buckling length of the compression member
i is the appropriate radius of gyration of the cross-section regarding the buck-
ling direction
is a relative material parameter, cf. table V6.3.2a.
The expression assumes the same partial safety factor for f
y
and E as is the case in 5.2.2.
A distinction between five buckling cases (buckling curves)
0
a , a, b, c, and d is made as
stated in table V6.4.2.
For the five cases the imperfection factor is
= 0.13 for column curve
0
a
= 0.21 for column curve a
= 0.34 for column curve b
= 0.49 for column curve c
= 0.76 for column curve d
The reduction factor is illustrated in figure V6.4.2.

(4) The equations in (3) include considerations of a geometrical imperfection
corresponding to an initial deflection of the member of 1/1000 of the buckling length. If
the initial deflection exceeds this limit, the expression in 6.4.4 for bending and axial
compression should be applied, taking only the moment resulting from the part of the
initial deflection, which exceeds 1/1000 of the buckling length into consideration.


50

Figure V6.4.2 Reduction factor


51
Table V6.4.2 The buckling cases a
0
, a, b, c, and d


52
6.4.3 Lateral-torsional buckling
(1)P The structural resistance of beams subjected to lateral-torsional
buckling shall be verified.

(2) The structural resistance regarding lateral-torsional buckling can be verified by
the expression:

yd LT R b S
f W M M
,

For the lateral-torsional buckling factor
LT
the expression for in 6.4.2(3) should be
applied where

5 . 0
) / ( 05 . 1
cr yd
M Wf is the relative slenderness ratio. The factor 1.05
covers the requirement for greater safety for slender
beams
21 . 0 for rolled members
49 . 0 for welded members
Here

cr
M is the critical lateral-torsional bending moment ac-
cording to theory of elasticity.
W is taken as

pl
W for class 1 and 2 cross-sections

el
W for class 3 cross-sections

eff
W for class 4 cross-sections,
eff
W being determined on
the basis of the slenderness ratio corresponding to
the yield stress.
For 4 . 0 , verification of the lateral-torsional buckling resistance is not required.
6.4.4 Bending and axial compression
1(P) Members subjected to combined bending and axial compression
and eccentrically loaded compression members shall be analysed for the
same conditions as members subjected to central axial compression, see
6.4.2.
Further, the analysis shall take account of the actual bending moments, in-
cluding additional moments from the axial force due to the deflection of the
member.


53
(2) For compressed members subjected to biaxial bending the structural strength
can be verified by the interaction expression:
1
max
+ +
z z y y
m k m k n
where
) /(
max yd S
Af N n is the relative axial force utilisation regarding
the most critical direction of deflection
) /( and
yd S z y
Wf M m m are the relative moment utilisations regarding
bending about the y and z axis, respectively

y y y
n k 1 but 5 . 1
y
k are moment correction factors with regard to

z z z
n k 1 but 5 . 1
z
k the y and z axis respectively, where
90 . 0 but ) 4 2 ( +
is an auxiliary coefficient regarding the ap-

propriate axis, and

M
is a factor for equivalent constant moment,
cf. table V 6.4.4.
W is taken as

pl
W for class 1 and 2 cross-sections

el
W for class 3 cross-sections

eff
W for class 4 cross-sections,
eff
W being determined
on the basis of the slenderness ratio correspond-
ing to the yield stress.
is taken as

el el pl
W W W / ) ( for class 1 and 2 cross-sections
0 for class 3 and 4 cross-sections.
For
S
M the maximum actual moment in the member is applied. In cases of biaxial bend-
ing the moment with regard to the two axes is applied separately for each axis.
For class 4 cross-sections any additional moment originating from the displacement of the
neutral axis in the effective cross-section should be added to
S
M .
It should be noted that a stress analysis of the cross-section of the member according to
6.3.11 may sometimes govern the dimensions.

(3) For compressed members subjected to lateral action and for which lateral-
torsional buckling may occur, it should further be verified that
1 ) / ( + +
z z LT y LT z
m k m k n
where
0 . 1 but 1
LT z LT LT
k n k

54
90 . 0 but 15 . 0 15 . 0
,

LT LT M z LT

LT
is the lateral-torsional buckling reduction factor according to 6.4.3 (2).
The other symbols are analogous to the symbols in 6.4.4.(2).

55
Table V 6.4.4 Equivalent uniform moment factor
M


56
6.4.5 Crushing and crippling
(1)P For an unstiffened web loaded in the web plane by a transverse
action transmitted through a flange, the structural resistance regarding yield-
ing in the throat zone (crushing) and/or local buckling of the web (crippling)
shall be verified.

(2) Conservatively, verifying the structural resistance in consideration of crushing
the transverse action can be assumed distributed at an angle of 45 through solid flange
material to the throat zone. Distribution through packings should not be considered.

(3) The structural resistance
R s
R
,
of an I- or channel section regarding crippling
can be verified by the expression:

2
,
0.5 3
f
w s
S s R w d yd
w f
t
t s
F R t E f
t t d
1
+ 1
1
]

where

S
F is the transverse action

f w
t t , is the thickness of web and flange respectively
d is the depth of the web

s
s is the distribution length for the lateral action determined as stated
above with regard to yielding in the throat zone. d s
s
/ should not
exceed 0.2
For materials of grade S460 the factor 0.5 on the right-hand side of the equation may be
replaced by 0.6.

(4) For a combination of transverse action and moment the following interaction
expression should further be verified
5 . 1 / /
, ,
+
R c S R s S
M M R F
6.4.6 Flange induced buckling
(1)P For a compressed flange it shall be verified that buckling of the
flange in the plane of the web will not occur.

(2) Flange induced buckling may occur if the web is too slender to prevent the
compressed flange from intruding on the web.

57
For a straight member having the web depth d and thickness t
w
the structural resistance
regarding flange induced buckling can be considered verified by the expression:

fc
w
yd
d
w
A
A
f
E
k
t
d

where

w
A is the area of the web

ck
A is the area of the compressed flange

yd
f is the yield stress of the compressed flange
k is a factor equal to 0.30 for class 1 flanges
0.40 for class 2 flanges
0.55 for class 3 and 4 flanges.
6.4.7 Special conditions for bracing members in triangulated struc-
tures
(1)P Analysis of bracing members in triangulated structures or in built-
up compression members shall include the effect of the moments at the
member ends.
For determination of the buckling length the stiffness of the restraint at the
ends of the bracing members shall be considered.

(2) By evaluation of the effect of moments at members the capability of the chord
members to absorb structural eccentricities at the member ends as well as moments due to
deformations of the initial joint configuration and transverse action, if any, on the chord
members should be considered. Further, the capacity of the member connection to trans-
fer moments shall be considered.

(3) By evaluation of the stiffness of the connections at the member ends the bend-
ing and torsional stiffness of the chord member as well as simultaneous utilisation of the
chord and brancing member regarding yielding should be considered. Further, account
may be taken of the effect of any tensile bracing members connected to the same joint as
the compressed member as well as any other bracing planes restraining the chord member
against torsion. Finally, the stiffness of the connection of the bracing members should be
considered.

(4) For chord members the buckling length may normally be assumed to be equal
to the node distance.


58
For web members of V or N-geometry the buckling length can normally be taken as a
value in the interval 0.7 to 1.0 times the node distance.

(5) For compressed bracing members of angular sections with at least two bolts in
each end connection and with sufficient end restraint of the chord members, the eccen-
tricities and end restraints may be taken into account by introducing a fictitious slender-
ness
eff
determined by:
7 . 0
0
+
eff

where
is the relative slenderness corresponding to the buckling length equal to
the system length

0
is 0.35 for buckling about the v axis
is 0.50 for buckling about the y axis and the z axis.

(6) For compressed bracing members of angular sections with one bolt in each end
connection and for angular sections with two or more bolts in each end connection, but
with insufficient end restraint, the structural resistance should be taken as equal to 80 %
of the resistance of an angular section with two bolts in each end connection and with
sufficient end restraint in the chord members.
6.4.8 Restraint of compressed members
(1)P In order that a compressed member or a flange may be assumed to
be restrained against buckling at certain points, the support system must
provide sufficient strength and stiffness to comply with the structural
strength requirement.

(2) Analysis of a lattice or frame system restraining one or more compressed mem-
bers may be performed in accordance with the simple method stated below.
The restraining system is designed for an equivalent evenly distributed action over the
entire length acting in the direction of deflection of the restrained member or flange as
well as any external actions.
For restraining a single compressed member or flange the equivalent and equally distrib-
uted load q is taken as
L N q 50 / for 2500 / L
q

L N q 60 / ) 1 ( + for 2500 / L
q
>


59
For restraining several compressed members or flanges the equivalent and equally dis-
tributed load q is taken as

+ L k N q
r
60 / ) 2 . 0 ( for 2500 / L
q

+ L k N q
r
60 / ) ( for 2500 / L
q
>
where
N is the axial force in the member or the flange. For a flange N is equal to
the moment of the member divided by the total depth of the member
L is the span of the restraining system

q
is the deflection of the restraining system due to q and external actions, if
any
is taken as 500 L
q
/ but not less than 0.2

r
k is taken as
5 . 0
) / 1 2 . 0 (
r
n + , but not exceeding 1.0

r
n is the number of members or flange plates to be restrained.
6.4.9 Built-up compression members
(1)P For a built-up compression member consisting of two or more main
components mutually connected at intervals, e.g. by lacings or tie panels, to
form a single compound member, adequate structural safety regarding buck-
ling of the member as a whole as well as buckling of the chord elements -
or, where this is important, a combination of the two phenomena - shall be
documented. The analysis shall include consideration of the stiffness of the
internal connections.

(2)P The analysis of the chord elements of the built-up member shall
consider the increase of the chord force due to the deflection of the built-up
member due to transverse action or eccentric axial action, if any.
It shall be verified that the internal connections of the built-up member have
sufficient strength to comply with the requirements for safety against failure
with regard to the structural resistance of the member as a whole.
If the internal connections are designed as lacings in which considerable
forces are introduced due to bending stiffness and changes in lengths these
forces shall also be considered.
Any purely stiffening members are also designed according to these rules.


60
(3) The analysis of the internal connections of the built-up member can be based on
the assumption that in addition to the shear force from any external actions the elements
are subjected to a force equal to 2.5 % of the axial force in the built-up member. This
force is assumed to be effective in the plane concerned and perpendicular to the built-up
member. It is assumed that the initial deflection of the built-up member does not exceed
1/500 of the length.
6.5 Welded connections
6.5.1 General
(1)P The provisions of this section apply to materials of groups I, II and
IIIa. For materials of group IIIa the rules will ensure adequate structural
resistance but not necessarily adequate ductility. As for the other material
groups, acceptable alternative provisions shall be used or the strength of the
connections shall be determined by tests.

(2) Apart from material groups I and II it is not always possible to obtain strength
and toughness in weld metal and heat affected zones which are at least equal to the prop-
erties of the parent metal. Therefore, special calculation models should be used.
6.5.2 Calculation of welds
(1)P Welds are incorporated as part of the structure and shall be calcu-
lated accordingly. For safety evaluation the same rules as for the total struc-
ture apply, cf. chapter 5.

(2) The resistance of a weld subjected to static action may be verified by an analy-
sis where the forces transmitted by the weld are resolved into components parallel with
and perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the weld and perpendicular to and in the
throat section. On the assumption that the stresses due to the forces on the weld are evenly
distributed over the throat section, the resistance may be assumed to be verified subject to
fulfilment of both of the following expressions:

2 2 2
90 0 90 0
3( )
ud
w
f
c
+ +

ud
f c
0 90

where

90
is the axial stress in the throat section

61

0
is the shear stress in the throat section parallel with the longitudinal
direction of the weld

90
is the shear stress in the throat section perpendicular to the longitudinal
direction of the weld

0
c is a strength reduction factor taking account of the quality of the weld and
the extent of the inspection

ud
f is the tensile strength of the weakest material of the connection

w
is a correlation factor.
0
, which is acting on sections perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the weld,
has been disregarded in the above expressions. This can be justified by considering the
theory of plasticity. The stress components are illustrated in figure V6.5.2.
The strength reduction factor
0
c is shown in table V6.5.2a corresponding to the weld
classes defined in 7.3.4 (2).
For full penetration butt welds the correlation factor
w
is taken as 1.0. For fillet welds
w
is stated in table V6.5.2b.

Figure V6.5.2 Stress components in welds

(3) As a conservative simplification the expressions in (2) may be replaced by the
resistance expression

62
a
f
c F
w
ud
S
3
0

where

S
F is the resulting external force per unit length of the weld irrespective of
the force direction
a is the weld thickness.

Table V6.5.2a Strength reduction factor
0
c
weld class
I II III
1.0 0.9 0.7

Table V6.5.2b Correlation factor
w
for fillet welds
strength class correlation factor
w

DS/EN 10025:
S235
S275
S355

0.8
0.85
0.9
DS/EN 10113:
S275
S355

0.8
0.9
DS/EN 10113 and DS/EN 10137:
S420
S460

1.0
1.0
6.5.3 Thickness and length of welds
(1)P Normally the weld thickness a may be assumed to be equal to the
nominal weld thickness
n
a . However, for butt welds with partial penetra-
tion a shall never be taken greater than corresponding to the actual penetra-
tion.
For machine made fillet welds, the weld thickness may be taken as
3 / 2
i n
a a a +
where

i
a is the penetration, cf. figure 6.5.3a.

63
However, a shall never be taken greater than corresponding to full penetra-
tion welds. It is a condition for incorporating
i
a in the design that its value
can be verified by tests.

Figure 6.5.3a Nominal weld thickness and penetration

(2)P For submerged arc welding
n
a may be increased by 20 % of
n
a ,
however, not exceeding 2 mm, without testing,.

(3)P The weld length is the nominal weld length with deduction for end
craters, if any. The length of an end crater is assumed to be equal to
n
a .

(4) For butt welds and fillet welds
n
a is defined as shown in figure V6.5.3b.
A full penetration butt weld is defined as a butt weld that has complete penetration and
fusion of weld and parent material throughout the thickness of the joint, cf. figure
V6.5.3b 1 5.
A partial penetration butt weld is defined as a butt weld that has a penetration, which is
less than the full thickness of the parent metal, cf. figure V6.5.3b - 6.


64

Figure V6.5.3b Nominal weld thickness for welds

6.5.4 Minimum and maximum dimensions of fillet welds
(1)P Fillet welds assumed capable of transmitting force shall not be
shorter than 6a and in any case not shorter than 40 mm.
The thickness of fillet welds shall not be less than a = 3mm.

(2) The significance and magnitude of weld stresses in fillet welds are increased
with the thickness of the welds. Therefore, the thickness of fillet welds shall not be greater
than necessary, and the thickness shall not exceed 20 mm unless the propriety hereof can
be documented.
6.5.5 Distribution of forces in welded connections
(1)P The conditions in 6.1.5 for assuming the internal forces in a connec-
tion to be transmitted most favourably does not apply to long welds sub-
jected to shear at a lap joint or at a similar concentrated action. At such a

65
connection a weld shall at most be assumed to be fully loaded over a weld
length l = 150 a, where a is the weld thickness.

(2) For central transmission of a force in a connection consisting of longitudinal
and transverse welds the resistance of the connection when subjected to static action is
calculated as the sum of the resistance of the individual welds.
6.5.6 Unsymmetrical welds
(1)P In the analysis of unsymmetrical welds as shown in figures 6.5.5a
and b the eccentricities due to the lack of symmetry shall be taken into con-
sideration. Normally such eccentricities in welded connections in circular
hollow sections may be disregarded, cf. figure 6.5.6c.

Figure 6.5.6 Unsymmetrical welds
6.5.7 Structural design
(1)P The structure shall be designed in such a way that welding can be
performed satisfactorily.

(2) In the design of the structure sufficient space for the welding equipment should
be ensured so that the welding procedure can be supervised visually. Therefore, require-
ments are made for the angle between the plates to be welded and for the joint angle. It
should be taken into account whether manual welding or machine welding processes are
used.

(3) Accumulation of welds should be avoided.

(4) Force transmitting welds, which are subjected to severe action, should not be
executed as intermittent welds.

66
6.6 Bolted connections
6.6.1 Classification of bolted connections subjected to shear
(1)P In the analysis of bolted connections subjected to shear the catego-
ries A, B and C shall be used as defined in (2)P, (3)P and (4)P.

(2)P Category A: Bearing-type connections
Bolts made of steel of the material groups I, II, III and IV as specified in
3.1.1 or bolts of the strength classes 3.6, 4.6, 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 or 10.9 as
specified in 3.5 shall be used.
The bolt holes shall be normal holes in accordance with 7.4.2 (1)P. In case
of unacceptable movement due to the clearance in the connection, e.g. in
case of alternating, reversed action, fitted holes in accordance with 7.4.2
(1)P or category B or C connections shall be used.
It shall be verified that the shear force
S v
F
,
per bolt does not exceed
the bearing resistance
R b
F
,

the shear resistance
R v
F
,
of the bolt.

(3)P Category B: Bearing-type slip-resistant connections
Preloaded bolts of the strength classes 8.8 or 10.9 as stated in 3.5 with con-
trolled tightening in accordance with 7.4.5 shall be used.
The bolt holes shall be normal holes or slotted holes with the axis perpen-
dicular to the direction of force according to 7.4.2 (1)P.
S v
F
,
the bearing resistance
R b
F
,

the shear resistance
R v
F
,
of the bolt.
Further, it shall be verified that the shear force in the serviceability limit state
ser S v
F
, ,
does not exceed
the friction resistance in the serviceability limit state
ser R s
F
, ,

(4)P Category C: Slip-resistant connections
Preloaded bolts of the strength classes 8.8 or 10.9 as stated in 3.5 with con-
trolled tightening in accordance with 7.4.5 shall be used.

67
The bolt holes shall be normal holes, oversize holes or slotted holes with the
axis perpendicular to or parallel with the direction of force according to
7.4.2 (1)P.
S v
F
,
the slip resistance
R s
F
,
.

6.6.2 Classification of bolted connections subjected to tension
(1)P In the analysis of bolted connections subjected to tension distinction
of the categories D and E shall be made as defined in (2)P and (3)P.

(2)P Category D: Non- preloaded connections
Bolts made of steel of the material groups I, II, III and IV as specified in
3.1.1 or bolts of the strength classes 3.6, 4.6, 4.8, 5.6, 5.8, 6.8, 8.8 or 10.9 as
specified in 3.5 shall be used.
It shall be verified that the tensile force
S t
F
,
the tensile resistance
R t
F
,
of the bolt

(3)P Category E: Preloaded connections
Preloaded bolts of the strength classes 8.8 or 10.9 as specified in 3.5 with
controlled tightening according to 7.4.5 shall be used.
It shall be verified that the tensile force
S t
F
,
the tensile resistance
R t
F
,
of the bolt

(4) The fatigue strength of preloaded tensile joints is normally higher than that of
non-preloaded tensile joints, cf. 6.8.4.3 (11).
6.6.3 Bearing resistance
(1)P The bearing resistance
R b
F
,
per bearing is determined by

ud R b
f t d c c F
2 1 ,
5 . 2
where

68

2 1
and c c are factors depending on the bolt distances parallel with
and perpendicular to the direction of force, respectively.
If the bolt distances exceed or are equal to the optimal
minimum distances according to 6.6.9,
1
c and/or
2
c
are equal to 1. If not,
1
c and/or
2
c are determined from
table 6.6.3. In the table
0
d is the diameter of the bolt
hole.
1
c shall not be assumed to be greater than the ra-
tio
u ub
f f / between the characteristic tensile strength
of the bolt material and the characteristic tensile
strength of the plate material
d is the bolt diameter
t is the material thickness

ud
f is the tensile strength of the plate material.

Table 6.6.3 Reduction factors
1
c and
2
c
0 1 0
0 . 3 2 . 1 d e d <
0 1 0
75 . 3 2 . 2 d p d <
) 3 /(
0 1 1
d e c
4 / 1 ) 3 /(
0 1 1
d p c
the lesser value of
1
c
shall be used
0 2 0
5 . 1 2 . 1 d e d <
0 2 0
0 . 3 4 . 2 d p d <
3 / 2 ) 9 . 0 /(
0 2 2
d e c
3 / 2 ) 8 . 1 /(
0 2 2
d p c
the lesser value of
2
c
shall be used

(2)P In single lap joints with only one bolt the bearing resistance shall
not be assumed to exceed

ud R b
f t d F 5 . 1
,

(3)P If the bearing pressure is transmitted fully or partly to the threaded
parts of the bolt, the resulting deformations shall be taken into account.
6.6.4 Shear resistance
(1)P The shear resistance
R v
F
,
per section for bolts with rolled threads
is determined by

d ub R v
Af c F
, 3 ,

where

69

3
c is 0.6 for bolts of the strength classes 3.6, 4.6, 5.6 and 8.8 for
sections through the thread
0.5 for bolts of the strength classes 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 for
sections through the thread
0.6 for bolts of all strength classes for sections through the
shank
A is the stress area for sections through the thread, and the shank
area for sections through the shank.

(2)P The shear resistance for bolts with cut threads is determined as for
rolled threads, however, the resistance in conformity with the expression in
(1)P is multiplied by 0.85 for sections through the thread.

(3)P For M12 and M14 bolts used for normal holes with 2 mm clear-
ance, cf. 7.4.2 (1)P:
the shear resistance due to the above expression for bolts of
strength classes 4.8, 5.8, 6.8 and 10.9 shall be multiplied by
0.85
the shear resistance shall exceed the bearing resistance.
6.6.5 Friction resistance and slip resistance
(1)P The friction resistance in the serviceability limit state
ser R s
F
, ,
and the
slip resistance
R s
F
,
per bolt are determined from the expressions:

C p d ser R s
F n c F
, 4 , ,
for category B connections

C p d R s
F n c F
, 4 ,
for category C connections
where

4
c = 1.0 for bolts in normal holes as stated in 7.4.2 (1)P
= 0.85 for bolts in oversize holes or in short slotted holes as
stated in 7.4.2 (1)P
= 0.7 for bolts in long slotted holes as stated in 7.4.2 (1)P
n is the number of friction surfaces

d
is the coefficient of friction, see 6.6.15

70

C p
F
,
is the prestressing force
max ,C p
F as stated in 7.4.5.
6.6.6 Tensile resistance
(1)P The tensile resistance
R t
F
,
per bolt for bolts with rolled threads is
determined by

s d ub R t
A f F
, ,
9 . 0
where

d ub
f
,
is the tensile strength of the bolt material

s
A is the stress area.

(2)P For bolts with cut threads the resistance according to the expression
in (1)P shall be multiplied by 0.85.
6.6.7 Bolts subjected to combined tension and shear
(1)P For bolts subjected to a shear force and an external tensile force the
following shall be verified for the section considered
1 ) / ( ) / (
2
, ,
2
, ,
+
R t S t R v S v
F F F F
For sections through the shank, the tensile resistance of the shank may be
applied to
R t
F
,
.
6.6.8 Distribution of forces in bolted connections
(1)P The conditions in 6.1.5 for assuming the internal forces in a connec-
tion to be transferred most favourably do not apply to bolted connections of
categories A and B, if the shear resistance is less than the bearing resistance,
and for bolted connections of category C. For the distribution of internal
forces in such cases, proportionality with the distance from the centre of
rotation shall be assumed.

(2)P The conditions in 6.1.5 do neither apply to long centrally loaded
bolted connections subjected to shear at a joint or at a similar concentrated
action. In such cases, a reduced resistance of the connection shall be as-
sumed.

(3) In a centrally loaded bolted connection subjected to shear, the force can be
distributed evenly on the bolts if the distance between the extreme bolts measured in the
direction of force does not exceed 15d, where d is the bolt diameter. If the distance be-

71
tween the extreme bolts is 65d or above, a reduction of the resistance of 25 % may be
assumed. For connections with lengths in the range between 15d and 65d the reduction of
strength can be determined by rectilinear interpolation.
6.6.9 Minimum bolt distances
(1)P The distance from centre of the bolt to plate edges and the distance
between bolts, cf. figure 6.6.9, shall not be less than the absolute minimum
distances stated in table 6.6.9. If the bolt distances are less than the optimal
minimum distances specified in the table, a reduced bearing resistance shall
be assumed, cf. 6.6.3. In the table
0
d is the diameter of the hole.

Figure 6.6.9 Bolt distances

(2)P The absolute as well as the optimal minimum distance from the
centre of a bolt to the edge of a plate with an inclining angle to the direction
of force shall be determined based on the edge of the plate being tangent to
the ellipse with the corresponding minimum distances mentioned in the table
as semi-axes, cf. figure 6.6.9.

(3)P For slotted holes the distance from the longitudinal axis of the hole
and the distance from the extreme centre of the rounding of the hole to the
nearest plate edge shall not be less than 1.5
0
d .

Table 6.6.9 Minimum bolt distances

72
absolute
minimum distances
optimal
minimum distances
1
e 1.2
0
d 3.0
0
d
1
p 2.2
0
d 3.75
0
d
2
e 1.2
0
d 1.5
0
d
2
p 2.4
0
d 3.0
0
d
6.6.10 Maximum bolt distances
(1)P The distance from centre of bolt to plate edge and the distance be-
tween the bolts in connections subjected to compression shall not be of such
magnitude that buckling of the plate members between or beyond the bolts
may occur.

(2) Taking due account of the risk of buckling of the plate members of the connec-
tion, the maximum bolt distance in connections subjected to compression may be deter-
mined from the values of the width-to-thickness ratio of the relevant grade of cross-
section in table V6.3.2a.

(3) Conditions of corrosion may call for a reduction of the maximum bolt dis-
tances.
6.6.11 Block shear resistance
(1)P For a bolt group at the end of a beam, a bracket or similar it shall be
verified that the block shear resistance exceeds the total external force on the
bolt group. The block shear resistance can be determined as the sum of the
tensile resistance in a net cross-section through the row of holes in the ten-
sile side of the bolt group and the shear resistance in the net cross-sections
through the row of holes along the shear surfaces of the bolt group, see fig-
ure 6.6.11.
For bolt groups of category C the plastic tensile resistance in the tensile side
and the plastic shear resistance along the shear surfaces shall be used.


73

Figure 6.6.11 Block shear
6.6.12 Bolting through packings
(1)P If the forces in a bearing-type connection are assumed to be trans-
mitted between members that are not in direct contact, the number of bolts
shall be increased taking due account of the resulting bending action. How-
ever, packings with a total thickness up to 1/3 of the bolt diameter - but not
exceeding 8 mm - are allowed without any increase of the number of bolts.

(2) Where the number of bolts in a connection with packings should be increased
as specified above, the necessary number may be taken as
) 2 / 1 ( m n +
where
n is the number of bolts necessary for direct transmission of forces
m is the number of packings.
6.6.13 Prying forces in connections subjected to tension
(1)P In connections with tensile bolts, e.g. in end-plate connections, the
bolts shall be designed for the external tensile force as well as any prying
forces.

(2) The prying forces depend on the relative stiffness of bolts and plates as well as
geometrical proportions of the connection.

74
6.6.14 Connections with one bolt
(1)P In connections with only one bolt any eccentricities due to the posi-
tioning of the bolts shall be absorbed by the structural members of the con-
nection.

(2)P In single lap joints with one bolt a reduced bearing resistance as
stated in 6.6.3 (2)P shall be assumed.
6.6.15 Coefficients of friction
(1) The coefficient of friction depends on the class of surface treatment as
specified in 7.4.4.

(2) The characteristic value of may be chosen as:
= 0.50 for class A surfaces
= 0.40 for class B surfaces
= 0.30 for class C surfaces
= 0.20 for class D surfaces

(3) For untreated, hot-dip galvanised surfaces a characteristic value of = 0.10
may be used.
6.6.16 Slip-resistant connections with tensile forces perpendicular to
the contact surface
(1)P The friction resistance
ser R s
F
, ,
and the slip resistance
R s
F
,
of a
slip-resistant connection which in addition to the shear force
S v
F
,
is sub-
jected to a tensile force
ser S t
F
, ,
or
S t
F
,
, respectively, perpendicular to the
contact surface shall be determined by the expressions:
) 8 . 0 (
, , , 4 , , ser S t C p d ser R s
F F n c F for category B connections
) 8 . 0 (
, , 4 , S t C p d R s
F F n c F for category C connections
6.7 Bearings
(1)P For bearing surfaces of steel where plastic deformations are unac-
ceptable, e.g. for roller bearings, it shall be verified that the maximum com-
pression stress based on linear elastic assumptions fulfils the condition

75

yd
f c
5
for analysis of the safety against yielding

ud
f c
5
for analysis of the safety against failure
where

ud yd
f f , are the tensile yield stress or ultimate tensile strength,
respectively, of the bearing material

5
c is an empirical factor taking account of the increased
resistance to yielding and failure due to multiaxial stress
conditions of the bearing material.
5
c may be taken as
5.0 for point contact and 4.0 for line contact.
If several line or point contacts interact it is necessary that the correct distri-
bution of the bearing pressure on the individual contact surfaces forms the
basis of the analysis.
Further, it is a condition for the use of these values that the bearing surface
makes such contact that the necessary triaxial stress conditions can be
achieved even with the most unfavourable position of the bearing reaction.

(2) Determination of the yield stress
y
f and the tensile strength
u
f of the bearing
material can be based on measurement of the hardness of the material.

(3) For bearing surfaces of steel which have line or point contact when unloaded,
the maximum compressive stress may be determined by the Hertz formulas.

(4) For cylindrical bearing surfaces the maximum compressive stress may be
determined from

,
_

2 1
1 1
42 . 0
r r l
FE

where
F is the bearing force
E is the characteristic modulus of elasticity of the bearing material
l is the length of the contact surface

1
r is the minimum radius

2
r is the maximum radius.
If the centres of the cylinder surfaces are on either side of the contact surface,
2
r should
be assumed negative.
The width b of the compressive area may be expressed as

76

l
F
b
27 . 1

(5) For spherical bearing surfaces the maximum compressive stress may be
determined from

3
2
2 1
2
1 1
39 . 0
,
_

r r
FE
where

1
r is the minimum radius

2
r is the maximum radius.
If the centres of the spherical surfaces are on either side of the contact surface,
2
r should
be assumed negative.
The diameter of the compressive area may be expressed as

F
d 38 . 1
6.8 Structures subjected to fatigue
6.8.1 General
(1)P Analysis with regard to fatigue action shall be carried out with due
consideration to the actions assumed to occur in the service life of the struc-
ture, the design of the structure and the resulting stresses and stress concen-
trations.

(2)P Structures subjected to fatigue shall be designed according to the
theory of elasticity.

(3)P The post-critical resistance for cross-sections and elements shall not
be utilised in structures subjected to fatigue.

(4)P Certain action effects, e.g. due to resonant vibrations, depend on
structural details. If such action effects are reduced by vibration dampers,
resilient suspension or similar, the design and details shall allow for the
possibilities of failure of the auxiliary systems and the resulting increased
action effect.

77

(5)P If the method of analysis assumes that the structure is inspected at
intervals during service, cf. 5.2.3 (2)P, the structure shall be designed in such
a way that it is possible to detect initiation of crack formation.

(6)P To apply the provisions in 6.8 it is a condition that the structure is
not exposed to corrosion to such extent that the corrosion effect may reduce
the fatigue strength.

(7)P The methods of analysis in 6.8 only apply to structures exposed to
temperatures below 150 C.

(8) Since the frequency of the load cycles is normally well-defined the time and the
number of load cycles will be equivalent quantities in practice. As a measure of the ser-
vice life of the structure, the number of load cycles
f
n may therefore be used.

(9) Initial crack formation will normally be detected by inspection, and therefore
the structure should be designed so that it allows a simple method of inspection, e.g.
visual inspection, and that such places where fatigue cracks might initiate are accessible
to inspection.

(10) Normally, adequate corrosion protection is undertaken and should be main-
tained properly so that it remains intact during the entire service life of the structure, cf.
7.6.2.
6.8.2 Analysis for constant stress range
(1)P For structures subjected to actions causing constant stress range it
shall be verified that the value of
f
n does not exceed the fatigue life
fatd
n
corresponding to the stress range
v
.

(2)P Alternatively, the analysis may be performed by showing that the
stress range
v
does not exceed the fatigue strength
fatd
corresponding to
the number of load cycles
f
n .

(3) The fatigue strength
fatd
may be calculated from the characteristic fatigue
strength
fat
, which may be determined from the curves in figures B.1, B.2 and B.3 in
annex B together with the provisions of 6.8.4.

78

(4) For constant stress range with the number of load cycles exceeding a certain
value, a lower limit of the fatigue strength
fatn
(constant-amplitude-fatigue limit) may
be assumed corresponding to the full lines in the figures B.1, B.2 and B.3 in annex B.
This number is:
for axial stress ranges
6
10 5 (figure B.1)
for shear stress ranges
8
10 (figure B.2)
for modified fatigue curves
7
10 (figure B.3)

(5) It should be noted that the stress range is the criterion for analysis of structures
subjected to fatigue, while the maximum tensile and compressive stresses are critical in
structures subjected to static action.
6.8.3 Analysis for varying stress range
(1)P Structures exposed to actions causing a varying stress range shall be
analysed with due consideration to the stress spectrum.
Assuming that the actions may be considered randomly distributed through-
out the service life, the calculations can be made using the Palmgren-Miner
formula:

i
i fatd i f
n n 1 ) / (
, ,

where

i f
n
,
is the actual number of load cycles at a certain stress range
i v,

i fatd
n
,
is the fatigue life corresponding to
i v,
for the correspond-
ing action alone, determined according to 6.8.2.

(2) When using the Palmgren-Miner formula the dotted lines of the fatigue curves
in figures B.1 and B.3 in annex B should be used.

(3) For analysis of the fatigue strength based on the Palmgren-Miner formula,
complex stress spectra should normally be divided into at least 5 levels.

(4) As an alternative to the use of the Palmgren-Miner formula a fatigue analysis
based on an equivalent constant stress range
eq v,
or
eq v,
, respectively, may be per-
formed, which for the same number of load cycles
f
n as the actual stress spectrum will

79
result in the same cumulated fatigue damage. On the safe side the following expression
may be used in the analysis:

fatd f
i v
i
i f eq v
n n
,
_
3 / 1
3
,
, ,
/ ) ( for axial stress ranges

fatd f
i v
i
i f eq v
n n
,
_
5 / 1
5
,
, ,
/ ) ( for shear stress ranges
where

i f
n
,
is the actual number of load cycles at a certain stress range
i v,
or
i v,
, respectively

f
n is the total number of load cycles

fatd fatd
and are fatigue strengths corresponding to
f
n
6.8.4 Notch effect
(1)P Account shall be taken of the local stress concentrations occurring
at discontinuities such as holes, corners, etc. in the structure and of the re-
sulting reduction of the fatigue strength, cf. 6.8.4.1, 6.8.4.2 and 6.8.4.3.

(2)P If several different discontinuities occur at the same place in the
structure the total action of all these shall be taken into account.

(3) The characteristic fatigue strengths addressed in 6.8.4.1, 6.8.4.2 and 6.8.4.3
take account of the local stress concentration arising due to normal surface roughness,
welded connections and bolted connections. If additional stress concentrations significant
to the construction occur they should be taken into account.

(4) For two interacting discontinuities the characteristic fatigue strength
fat
is
determined from
( / ) ( / ) ( / )
, ,
1 1 1
2
1
2
2
2

fat fat fat
+
where

1 2 , , fat fat
and are the characteristic fatigue strength determined on the basis
of each individual discontinuity.

(5) Discontinuities due to welds and holes can be assumed not to interact if the
distance between the edge of the hole and the weld exceeds the diameter of the hole.


80
(6) In a combination of a welded connection and structural material with normal
mill scale the characteristic fatigue strength may be assumed to be equal to the strength
appropriate to the welded connection, without reduction due to surface roughness.
6.8.4.1 Structural material
(1)P In the determination of the fatigue strength of the structural material
the surface condition and shaping due to gas cutting, shearing and finishing
treatment shall be taken into account.

(2) The fatigue strength of the structural material unaffected by welds may be
determined from table B.4 in annex B specifying the category in figure B.1 that deter-
mines the characteristic fatigue strength
fat
due to axial stress. The fatigue strength
fat
due to shear stress in structural material should be determined according detail
category 100 in figure B.2.
For concurrent axial stress and shear stress with the stress ranges
v
and
v
, respec-
tively, the assessment of the fatigue strength can be made by verification of the expres-
sion:
0 . 1 ) / ( ) / (
5 3
+
fatd v fatd v

6.8.4.2 Welded connections
(1)P At lap joints or similar connections where a concentrated force is
transmitted through a longitudinal fillet weld with weld thickness a and the
stress component
0
, the fillet weld shall be assumed to be utilised over a
weld length not exceeding l a 60 in analysis of the fatigue strength.

(2) The fatigue strength of welded connections may be determined from tables B.5
B.9 in annex B indicating the category in figures B.1, B.2 and B.3 which determines the
characteristic fatigue strength
fat
and
fat
for axial stress and shear stress, respectively.
The category depends on the weld class defined in 7.3.4 (2).

(3) For special preparation of the transition between weld and parent material
increased fatigue strength may be achieved. In such cases the fatigue strength should be
determined by tests.

(4) For longitudinal welds at lap joints or similar connections the increased notch
effect at the ends of the welds has been taken into consideration in determining the corre-
sponding categories in annex B. The shear stress may then be assumed to be uniformly
distributed over the design weld length, cf. (1)P.

81

(5) For a multiaxial stress field the fatigue strength of a weld may be evaluated by
showing that the stresses fulfil the condition
( / ) ( / ) ( / ) ( / ) .
, , , , , , , ,

0 0
3
90 90
3
0 0
5
90 90
5
10
v fatd v fatd v fatd v fatd
+ + +
where

0 90 0 90 , , , ,
, , ,
v v v v
are the stress range for stress components as
defined in 6.5.2 (2)

0 90 0 90 , , , ,
, , ,
fatd fatd fatd fatd
are the fatigue strengths for the correspond-
ing stress components.
The fatigue strengths are determined individually from the category in figures B.1, B.2
and B.3 in annex B corresponding to the relevant stress component.

(6) For fillet welds, table B.8 in annex B assumes that the assessment of fatigue
strength corresponding to cracking at the root is made from the expression:

[ ] 0 . 1 ) / ( / ) ( ) / (
5
, 0 , 0
3
,
5 . 0 2
, 90
2
, 90
3
, 0 , 0
+ + +
fatd v fatd w v v fatd v

where

w fatd ,
is the fatigue strength corresponding to the combined stress compo-
nents
90
and
90
as specified in table B.8 in annex B.

(7) In structures subjected to fatigue, connections with lower fatigue strength than
corresponding to category 36 in figure B.1 in annex B should not be applied.
6.8.4.3 Bolted connections
(1)P Bolted connections of category A shall be analysed for failure of the
structural material in the section being considered and for failure due to
bearing pressure and shearing in the bolt shank.

(2)P The stress in the structural material of the section under considera-
tion shall be calculated based on the gross or net area as specified in table
B.4.

b fatd ,
and
fatd
with regard to bearing pressure and
shear, respectively, is determined for fitted bolts and pin bolts from table B.4 and figures
B.1, B.2 and B.3 in annex B. For bolts in normal holes,
b fatd ,
and
fatd
may be taken
as 70 % of the value for fitted bolts in a similar connection.

82

(4)P Bearing-type bolts in normal holes shall not be applied if the stress
ratio for the shear stress in the bolt
min max
/ is negative.

(5)P Bearing-type bolts subjected to shear in a section through threaded
parts are not allowed.

(6)P For bolted connections of categories D and E it shall be verified that
the stress range
v
of the bolt does not exceed its fatigue strength
fatd
.

(7)P The prestressing force for bolts in category B, C and E connections
is determined as specified in 7.4.5.

fat
of the structural material in bolted connections may
be determined according to table B.4 and figure B.1 in annex B.

(9) For connections subjected to shear a maximum of four bolts in the same row in
the direction of force may be assumed to be efficient.

(10) The fatigue strength of bolts subjected to tension in category D and E connec-
tions may be determined according to table B.4 and figure B.3 in annex B. Stresses are
assumed to be calculated based on the stress area.

(11) It is known from tests that the fatigue strength of bolts subjected to tension for
bolt types that are normally applied to steel structures may be assumed independent of the
mean stress in the bolt and therefore be assumed to depend on the stress range only.
The fatigue strength of a bolted joint subjected to tension is among other things depend-
ent on the design of the screw and nut, including the threading and the applied preloading
of the bolt. An increase of the preloading often results in a reduction of the stress varia-
tion due to the external action. In steel structures subjected to fatigue, tensile bolted con-
nections of category E should therefore be preferred to category D connections.
The stress variations due to the external action in a preloaded bolt loaded in tension may
further be reduced by reducing the stiffness of the bolt in relation to the stiffness of the
assembled structural members. This may e.g. be achieved by using long bolts and high-
strength material and correspondingly smaller bolt dimension.

83
6.8.5 Stress range in non-welded or stress relieved structural mem-
bers
(1)P In non-welded or stress relieved structural members a modified
stress range may be used, which is determined by adding the tensile part and
60 % of the compressive part of the stress range.
6.8.6 Influence of material thickness on fatigue strength
(1)P In the analysis it shall be taken into consideration that the fatigue
strength is less for large material thicknesses.

(2) For certain structural details in the tables B.4 B.9 the detail category is given
directly dependent on the material thickness.
In other cases for structural details with welds perpendicular to the direction of force and
material thickness t above 25 mm, a reduced fatigue strength
red fatd ,
determined by the
following expression should be used

red fatd fatd
t
,
.
( / ) 25
0 25

For material thickness less than 25 mm the fatigue strength is assumed to be equal to the
fatigue strength for 25 mm thickness.
6.8.7 Modified fatigue curves
(1) For certain structural details in the tables B.4-B.9 in annex B the test results do
not comply with the fatigue curves in figure B.1. The relevant category specification is
indicated by an asterisk. These structural details have a constant-amplitude fatigue limit
for a number of load cycles of 10
7
and are calculated based on the modified fatigue
curves in figure B.3.

84
7 Fabrication
7.1 General
(1)P The codified rules of design and analysis assume that the structures
are performed in accordance with well-established practice for fabrication of
steel structures.

(2) DS/ENV 1090-1 and DS/ENV 1090-3 (including the Danish foreword) specify
requirements for workmanship corresponding to well-established practice. The design and
analysis rules in DS 412 may therefore be assumed to apply if the structure is performed
in accordance with DS/ENV 1090-1 and DS/ENV 1090-3.

(3)P Some of the design and analysis rules of the code assume compli-
ance with specific requirements for the workmanship, e.g. for the persons
performing the work and for the detailed performance. These requirements
are stated in 7.2 7.3 and 7.6.2.
In 7.6.1 the general structural requirement for corrosion protection is stated.

(4) The requirements of 7.2 7.4 are included in DS/ENV 1090-1 and DS/ENV
1090-3 (including the Danish foreword). The requirements in 7.5 and 7.6.2 are not in-
cluded in DS/ENV 1090-1 and DS/ENV, since structures subjected to fatigue are not
addressed in these standards.
7.2 Geometrical imperfections
(1)P If direct transmission of the forces through the abutting surfaces in a
splice is assumed, cf. 6.1.6, the contact faces of the members to be spliced
shall be accurately prepared.

(2) Accurate preparation of the individual contact face may be assumed if the
deviation between an arbitrarily placed straightedge and surface does not exceed 0.5 mm.

(3)P Compression members and plates shall not have greater geometrical
imperfection than taken into account in the design.

(4) Compression members designed for central action in accordance with the ex-
pressions of the application rules in 6.4.2 will comply with the design requirements if the

85
initial deflection in the completed structure does not exceed 1/1000 of the buckling length
or 3 mm, where the greater value applies.

(5) For plates the initial deflection should not exceed 1/150 of the smallest side of
the plate or 3 mm, where the greater value applies.

(6) For stiffeners in plates the initial deflection should not exceed 1/500 of the
distance between the supports of the stiffeners or 3 mm, where the greater value applies.
7.3.1 General
(1)P Such materials, methods and equipment shall be applied to welded
connections that the quality of the completed welds complies with the design
requirements.

(2) Compliance with the requirements for materials, methods and equipment may
be assumed if the structure is performed in accordance with EN 1011-1 and EN 1011-2.
7.3.2 Requirements for welders
(1)P The welding shall be performed by welders with qualifications
ensuring that the completed welds comply with the expected quality and
structural resistance.

(2) Welders certified according to DS/EN 287-1 and according to EN 1418 for
automated and robotic welding may be assumed to possess the necessary qualifications.

7.3.3 Requirements for performing welds
(1)P To ensure that the completed welds comply with the expected qual-
ity and resistance, appropriate control systems and methods shall be applied.

(2) For materials of groups I and II the level of quality control and welding coordi-
nation may be chosen in accordance with table V7.3.3. For materials of groups III and V
the necessary level should be chosen according to the actual conditions.


86
Table V7.3.3 Level of quality control and welding coordination
static action fatigue
action

S235
t 30 mm
S235
t > 30 mm
S235
1)

S275
t 30 mm
S275
t > 30 mm
S275
1)

parent material:
strength class and
thickness

S355
t 20 mm
S355
t > 20 mm
S355
1)

S420
t 20 mm
S420
t > 20 mm
S420
1)

S460
t 20 mm
S460
t > 20 mm
S460
1)

welding coordina-
tion level accord-
ing to DS/EN 729
elementary
(DS/EN
729-4)
elementary
(DS/EN
729-4)
standard
(DS/EN
729-3)
standard
(DS/EN
729-3)
extensive
(DS/EN
729-2)
welding coordina-
tion level accord-
ing to DS/EN 719
no special
require-
ments

basic

specific

extensive

extensive
1)
limitations according to certain application standards

(5) For structures in normal and high safety classes the welding should be per-
formed based on written welding procedure specifications according to DS/EN 288. DS
894, item 6 may be used until the DS/EN 288 series has been fully developed.
7.3.4 Requirements for welds
(1)P Welding faults of such type and to such extent that the quality re-
quirement for the completed weld is not satisfied shall not occur.

(3) Welds are divided into 3 categories according to the accepted welding defects
expressed by the character of the welds and the extent of control of the finished weld.
The weld classes are denoted I, II and III, respectively:
Welding class I: By control the weld should obtain at least grade B
Welding class II: By control the weld should obtain at least grade C
Welding class III: By normal control the weld should obtain at least grade
C. By extended control the weld should obtain at least
grade D.
The grades are defined in DS/EN 25817.
For control of welds reference is made to 8.3.2.

87
7.4 Bolted connections
7.4.1 Design of bolts, nuts and washers
(1)P Bolts, nuts and washers shall be designed in accordance with the
standards specified in DS/ENV 1090-1, paragraph 5.4.1.3, tables 2 and 3.

(2)P Fitted bolts shall be designed in tolerance class h13 according to
DS/EN 20286-2.
7.4.2 Holes for bolts
(1)P The maximum permissible clearance for bolts in normal holes,
oversize holes and slotted holes is specified in table 7.4.2.
In the table

0
d is the hole diameter for normal and oversize holes
l is the length of the hole for slotted holes.
The width of slotted holes is equal to
0
d for normal holes.

Table 7.4.2 Maximum clearance for bolts
bolt diameter

d
[mm]
normal holes

d
d
0

[mm]
oversize
holes
d
d
0

[mm]
short slotted
holes
d l
[mm]
long slotted
holes
d l

12
14
16
20
22
24
27
1 (2)
1 (2)
2
2
2
2
3
3
4
4
4
4
6
8
4
4
6
6
6
8
10

1.5d

The values in parenthesis assume for certain bolt strength classes that a re-
duced structural resistance has been assumed, cf. paragraph 6.6.4 (3)P-
Holes for fitted bolts shall be performed in tolerance class H11 according to
DS/EN 20286-2.

88
7.4.3 Use of washers
(1)P For category A connections it is normally not necessary to apply
washers. Where the contact surface for nut or head is not perpendicular to
the bolt axis, a tapered washer shall be inserted.

(2)P For category B and C connections washers shall be used as follows:
for bolts of strength class 8.8 a hardened washer shall be placed
under the part of the bolt the nut or the head whichever is to
be rotated by the tightening
for bolts of strength class 10.9 a hardened washer shall be
placed under both nut and head
if necessary to ensure that the contact surface of the nut or head
is perpendicular to the bolt axis, a hardened tapered washer
shall be inserted.
7.4.4 Classification of slip resistant contact surfaces in connections
(1)P Contact surfaces in category B and C connections shall be treated in
accordance with the design assumptions.

(2) Distinction of 4 classes of contact surface treatment as specified in table V7.4.4
is made.

Table V7.4.4 Classification of contact surface treatment
class treatment
A surfaces blasted with shot or grit, with any loose rust removed. No pitting in
the surface is allowed
surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and spray-metalized with aluminium
surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and spray-metalized with a zinc-based
coating certified to provide a slip factor 0.5
B surfaces blasted with shot or grit, and painted with an alkali-zinc silicate paint
to produce a coating thickness of 50-80 m
C surfaces cleaned by wire brushing or flame cleaning, with any loose rust
removed
surfaces blasted with sand and hot-dip galvanized
D surfaces not treated

89
7.4.5 Preloading of bolts
(1)P Bolts in category B, C and E connections shall not be tightened
more than corresponding to the prestressing force

s ub C p
S f F 7 . 0
max ,

where

ub
f is the characteristic tensile strength of the bolt material

s
A is the stress area.

(2)P For category E bolts the prestressing force shall be chosen depend-
ent on the ratio between the stiffness of the bolts and the plates in the con-
nection.
(1)P In structures subjected to fatigue account shall be taken of defects
and other deviations which may affect the fatigue strength.

(2)P Marking of structures subjected to fatigue shall be performed in
such a way that the fatigue strength is not impaired.

(3) Significant damage of the material such as pressure marks, surface faults, cracks
from rolling, etc. will normally not be acceptable in structural members designed on the
basis of the fatigue strength of structural materials.

(4) In structures subjected to fatigue, repair of defects by welding should only be
carried out if the effect of the welding on the fatigue strength is taken into account. Stray
arcing or weld spatter should also be taken into account.

(5) Supports and fittings for insulation, pipelines, electric cables, etc. are often
attached by welded connections with relatively low fatigue strength. Such connections are
only permissible if they have been taken into consideration in the design of the structure.

(6) If air driven pins are used their effect on the fatigue strength should be taken
into account.

(7) Marking of materials and structural members by hard stamping of numbers may
impair the fatigue strength.

90
7.6 Protective treatment
7.6.1 General
(1)P Steel structures exposed to corrosive environment shall be designed,
protected against corrosion and maintained in such a way that no damage
arises which may reduce the structural resistance or serviceability in relation
to what is required within the desired service life.

(2) For protective treatment, reference is made to DS/ENV 1090-1.
7.6.2 Structures subjected to fatigue
(1)P For structures subjected to fatigue consideration shall be given to
the fact that corrosion and certain corrosion protection systems may affect
the fatigue strength.
7.6.2.1 General
Corrosion affects the fatigue strength in several ways. The corrosion may reduce the
material cross-section and thus the resistance of the structure, which, however, normally
has less significance for fatigue action. On the other hand, corrosion may give surface
irregularities resulting in a notch effect and thus reducing the fatigue strength. Also, a
corrosive environment involves a considerable increase in the crack propagation rate so
that the fatigue life is severely reduced. The design rules given in chapter 6 may be di-
rectly applied to structures or structural members of corrosion classes 0-1. Unprotected
steel should not be used in structures or structural members of corrosion classes 2-4
subjected to fatigue. Protective treatment may be performed by surface coating and/or by
cathodic protection.
7.6.2.2 Protective treatment by surface coating
Choice of surface coating, supervision and control of the workmanship and maintenance
of the surface coating are particularly significant in steel structures subjected to fatigue.
Since fatigue actions may contribute to local damage of protection systems which do not
have particularly elastic properties the maintenance criteria normally used are insufficient
for structures subjected to fatigue.
Structures subjected to fatigue may be corrosion protected by coatings that are known by
experience to be durable under the given circumstances and which may be maintained at
any time at the critical places, or coatings with a known ability to give local cathodic
protection at cracks, e.g. zinc coating. Certain surface coatings, e.g. hot-dip galvanizing
and blast cleaning may impair the fatigue strength of the structure.

91
The surface treatment should be of such nature that it does not prevent detection of
cracks.
7.6.2.3 Protective treatment by increasing the member thickness
Increasing the thickness of the member to prevent corrosion has no or negligible effect on
the fatigue strength and therefore, it should normally not be used in structures subjected
to fatigue.
7.6.2.4 Cathodic protection against corrosion
The protection against corrosion may be in the form of cathodic protection. Generally the
method will remove or reduce the influence of corrosion in a fatigue situation.
Cathodic protection of steel with ultimate strength over 500 MPa involves the possibility
of certain hydrogen embrittlement phenomena for which reason the protection level for
such steel materials should be carefully selected.

92
8 Inspection
8.1 General
(1)P) It shall be ensured that the structure satisfies the requirements for
workmanship in the present code as well as the other codes and standards to
which reference has been made. Further, it shall be ensured that the structure
conforms to the requirements and specifications made in connection with the
design.

(2)P Assessment shall be made on the basis of inspection of materials,
inspection during manufacture and inspection of the completed structure.

(3)P The extent of inspection shall be adapted to the safety class of the
structure, to the nature of the failures for which the risk of failure can be
reduced by inspection and to variations of quality in the manufacturing proc-
esses.

(4)P Due account shall be taken of inspection uncertainties, including
uncertainty of measurement, and statistical uncertainties by random sam-
pling.

(5)P For welded connections and preloaded bolted connections in struc-
tures of high safety class it shall be possible to identify who has performed
the connection.

(6)P The requirements of this chapter apply to structures of normal and
high safety classes. For structures of low safety class a reasonable extent of
inspection shall be determined according to the circumstances.
8.2 Materials
8.2.1 Structural steel
(1)P Materials of groups I, II and III shall be delivered with a certificate
according to DS/EN 10204. The requirements for the certificate for normal
and extended material control classes are specified in table 8.2.1.

93

(2)P For materials of groups IV and V the requirements for a certificate
in conformity with the general requirements of the present code shall be
determined in each individual case.
8.2.2 Materials in welds
(1)P Inspection of weld metals, heat affected zones and filler metals
depends on the quality of the structural material and the welding method.

(2)P Prior to welding the applicability of the welding procedures shall be
documented, cf. 7.3.3.

(3)P For series and mass production the applicability of the welds may
be documented by tests in connection with statistic quality control.

Table 8.2.1 Material control classes
steel material material
control
class
strength class quality class
type of certificate according
to DS/EN 10204
S235
S275
S355

JR

test report 2.2
S235
S275
J0, J2
S355 J0, J2, K2
normal
S420
S460

all

inspection certificate 3.1B
extended all all inspection certificate 3.1C
8.2.3 Bolt materials
(1)P Bolts are assigned to normal material control unless special docu-
mentation is available.
8.2.4 Inspection of the properties in through-thickness direction
(1)P Materials for which verification of the properties in the through-
thickness direction or where inspection for laminations is required, shall be

94
tested in accordance with the relevant standards. The results shall be docu-
mented in accordance with the principles specified in 8.2.1.

(2) The properties in the through-thickness direction may be verified according to
EN 10164. Inspection for laminations may be performed according to SEL 072-1977 or
similar standard.
8.2.5 Documentation subsequent to heat treatment
If heat treatment, apart from stress relieving, is carried out after the delivery,
the properties subsequent to heat treatment shall be documented. The mate-
rial shall be tested to the extent required by the original delivery control. e.g.
as determined in DS/EN 10025. However, at least one set of tests shall be
made for each heat treatment batch.
For materials of groups I and II but not for materials according to DS/EN
10113-3 it is adequate to verify the impact resistance.
8.2.6 Documentation subsequent to cold forming
(1)P If cold forming is applied it shall be documented that the material
properties have not been impaired the material to such extent that the mate-
rial is inapplicable for its intended purpose.
8.3.1 Inspection during fabrication
(1)P It shall be ensured that shaping of materials and joint faces, back
gouging, welding and finishing procedures are carried out in accordance
with the given requirements and specifications.

(2) The inspection should be performed at random intervals during fabrication
comprising all relevant activities as specified in DS/EN 729.

(3) It should be ensured that the welders have the qualifications required and that
the specified welding procedures are complied with.

(4) Inspection at random intervals during fabrication (supervision) should be made.
This includes joint preparation, weld data, etc.

95
8.3.2 Inspection of finished welds
(1)P Welds shall be examined by appropriate inspection methods to such
extent that a realistic assessment of the quality, form and dimensions is
achieved.

(2) Appropriate inspection methods are specified in EN 12062.

(3)P By inspection of the structure it shall be ensured that all welds have
been made and that they have been carried out in accordance with the weld
procedures, and that no welds have severe visible defects.
The detailed inspection shall verify that the quality of the welds complies
with the design assumptions.

(4) Welds are divided into batches so that variations in welds within the same batch
will not give rise to differences in quality.
As examples of welds which should be assigned to different batches mention can be made
of welds with different steel materials, filler metal, weld preparation, weld method, weld-
ing position, welders, or weather during execution.

(5) On the assumption that the weld classes specified in 7.3.4 (2) are used in the
design, the welds in the individual batches are inspected to the extent as given in table
V8.3.2 for inspection no. (1).

Table V8.3.2 Extent of inspection and quality requirements
inspection
no.
weld class I II III
(1) normal extent of inspection [%]
grade according to DS/EN 25817
100
B
20
C
5
C
(2) for non-fulfilment according to (1) the
extent is increased to [%]
grade
50

C
20

D
(3) for non-fulfilment according to (2)
the extent is increased to [%]
grade
100

C
50

D
(4) for non-fulfilment according to (3) the
extent is increased to [%]
grade
100

D


96
(6) If such faults are found that the quality requirement corresponding to inspection
no. (1) in table V8.3.2 is not fulfilled, an extended inspection should be performed, as
stated in the table, to determine the nature, magnitude and cause of the defects. The in-
spection method should be such that it clearly defines which welds do not fulfil the qual-
ity requirements.
The increased inspection only applies to inspection of the types of fault causing non-
fulfilment of the quality requirements. Often, increased inspection may be carried out in a
more suitable way than used for the initial inspection.

(7)P All unacceptable defects shall be repaired and the repaired welds
shall then be subject to renewed 100 % inspection until they fulfil the quality
requirements.

(8) It should be noted that cases might occur in which it may be acceptable to
change the specified quality requirements so that more and larger faults may be accepted.
8.3.4 Inspection of welds in series and mass-produced structures
(1)P In series and mass-produced structures the extent of the inspection
of the completed welds may be limited provided the production control is
extended according to the circumstances. However, inspection by random
sampling shall be made for completed welds at all changes of production
and when new production equipment is put into use. This examination may
be non-destructive.
8.4 Bolted connections of category A
(1)P It shall be ensured that the bolts used and the assembly of the bolted
connections are in conformity with the present code and other specifications.

(2)P It shall be checked on a 5 % random sample basis that the holes
have not been drilled to a larger size than prescribed in 7.4.2.

(3)P After the assembly the connection shall be inspected to ensure that
contact surfaces, bolts, nuts and washers bear fully.
8.5 Bolted connections of categories B and C
(1)P The same requirements as specified for inspection of bolted connec-
tions of category A apply to bolted connections of categories B and C.

97

(2)P Further, it shall be controlled that the contact surfaces are treated as
prescribed and that the bolts, nuts and washers have been lightly oiled and
are free of rust, impurities and other faults.

(3)P The preload of the bolts shall be examined on a 5 % random sample
basis. In structures of high safety class the preload of at least one bolt in each
connection shall be examined. If a bolt has not been adequately preloaded it
shall be tightened up or replaced, whereupon all bolts in the connection shall
be included in the examination.

(4) By the inspection the bolts are further tightened a small angle (max. 10) by a
torque wrench. After overcoming the initial friction the measured moment should be a
little larger than the required moment.
(1)P Structures which have been designed for fatigue failure based on
actions over time intervals shorter than the service life shall be inspected
between these time intervals, cf. 5.2.3 (2)P. The inspection shall ensure
against use of a structure or structural member, which has been impaired to
such extent due to fatigue action that the required safety against failure is no
longer present. At any time after the structure has been put into service it
shall, for the period of time until the next inspection, possess the required
safety when designed according to the ultimate limit state with partial safety
factors corresponding to action combination 2.4. If, at any time during ser-
vice, fatigue cracks or damage of such nature that the structure no longer has
the required safety are ascertained, proper measures shall be taken to elimi-
nate the risk of failure.

(2) In the assessment of the structural resistance according to this alternative
method a certain, small probability of fatigue cracks is accepted before the structure is
taken out of service. It is vital for the safety of the structure that all significant cracks are
found during the inspection and that the structure is repaired in a proper way.

(3) As a guide for determination of the first inspection interval after the structure
has been put into service the lifetime designed using partial safety factors corresponding

98
to action combination 2.4 may be used. The length of the subsequent inspection intervals
should be determined from the efficiency of the inspection and the magnitude of fatigue
cracks, if any. For welded structures of such structural design that fatigue cracks may be
expected to initiate from surfaces accessible to inspection, the lifetime designed using
partial safety factors corresponding to action combination 2.4 may also be used as the
interval between the subsequent inspections as long as no cracks are found during the
inspection.

(4) As a basis of inspection a quality plan should be available specifying the fol-
lowing to the extent necessary:
Extent of inspection
Description of the parts of the structure which should be inspected. Further, the
extent of the inspection (100 % or random sampling) should be specified.
Inspection intervals
Specifying how often the individual members should be checked.
Preparation for inspection
Operations such as dismantling, cleaning of surfaces, etc., which are assumed to
be necessary for performing a reliable inspection. Additionally, the working
conditions proposed for the inspection personnel should ensure that the inspec-
tion may be performed satisfactorily. The lighting conditions, among other
things, are of great significance.
Inspection method
It should be specified if particular inspection methods (apart from visual inspec-
tion) are required. If such methods are necessary they should be specified. It
should be noted that the primary aim of the inspection is to discover growth of
faults (fatigue cracks). Consequently, the results of the inspection must be com-
parable with the results of previous inspections and also with the results of in-
spection made before the structure was put into service.
Inspection procedure
Specifications for performing the inspection should be available. To the extent
possible, reference should be made to Danish or international standards on non-
destructive control.
Quality requirements
Specifications of acceptable fault levels.
Documentation
For comparison with previous inspection results a report should be prepared
documenting the results of the inspection.

99

(5) Measures, which should be taken if damage during service has been ascer-
tained, may e.g. be:
rejection of the structure
replacement of the damaged members
reinforcement of the structure
change of the service conditions of the structure.

(6) If damage is ascertained it should be assessed whether the damage was predict-
able in the design of the structure. Structural members designed for fatigue actions corre-
sponding to the service life should not show detectable damage within the design lifetime.
8.7 Testing
(1)P If the characteristic value of a material parameter or the characteris-
tic structural resistance of a structure is determined by tests, cf. 5.2.4, the
assessment shall be carried out by measuring the values of a series of identi-
cal test specimens and calculating the characteristic value on a statistical
basis.

(2) The characteristic value
k
m of the material parameter or the structural resis-
tance is determined from DS 409, annex A.
8.8 Test loading
(1)P Determination of the specific conditions for performing a test load-
ing and the evaluation of the results shall be made in such a way that the
same actual safety level as by verification of the safety in the design is
achieved. Thus, account may be taken of any reduction of the uncertainty
which is achieved by test loading.

100
9 Fire design
9.1 General
(1)P Steel structures for which requirements for fire resistance are made
shall be designed in such a way that the structural resistance is sufficient
during fire in accordance with DS 409 and DS 410.

(2)P Verification of the structure having adequate structural resistance
during fire shall be made by analysis or by testing or a combination hereof.

(3)P Where the correct performance of insulation systems and partition-
ing members during fire depends on the deformations of the structure and
the structural members it shall be documented that the deformations are
permissible.

(4) The material properties specified in 9.2 only apply to materials of groups I and
II.

(5) In principle the computational methods specified in 9.4.2 apply to all material
groups.
9.2 Material properties
9.2.1 Mechanical properties of steel
(1) In the analysis of the structural resistance during fire, a characteristic stress-
strain relation may be assumed for the material, as shown in figure V9.2.1.
The stress-strain curve is composed of four parts
part 1: an increasing curve representing the linear-elastic part until the
proportionality limit ) , (
, ,
p p
f
part 2: an ellipse with vertical and horizontal principal axis touching part 1
at point ) , (
, ,
p p
f and with a horizontal tangent at point ) , (
, ,
y y
f
corresponding to the yield limit
part 3: a horizontal line from point ) (
, ,
y y
f to point ) , (
, ,
y t
f corre-
sponding to discontinued yielding
part 4: a decreasing curve from point ) , (
, ,
y t
f to point ) 0 , (
,
u
corre-
sponding to the ultimate strain.

(2) The strain parameters are taken as:

101
yield strain 02 . 0
,
y

strain corresponding to discontinued yielding 15 . 0
,
t

ultimate strain 20 . 0
,
u

(3) In table C.1 in annex C the mathematical expressions for the stress-strain rela-
tion are given.

(4) In table V9.2.1 relative values of relevant characteristic material parameters in
relation to the characteristic parameters
y
f and
a
E at 20 C are stated.

(5) The strain hardening of the steel can be taken into account by assuming a char-
acteristic tensile strength
, u
f according to the expression:

, ,
25 . 1
y u
f f however
u
f for 300
a
C

, , y u
f f for 400 C
a

where

, y
f is the characteristic yield stress of the steel at the temperature
a

u
f is the characteristic tensile strength of the steel at 20 C.
For 300 C <
a
< 400 C, rectilinear interpolation of the above values may be per-
formed.

Figure V9.2.1 Characteristic stress-strain relation for steel at elevated temperature

102
Table V9.2.1 Relative material values at elevated temperature in relation to the
values at 20 C
relative values of

steel tempera-
ture
a
(C)
yield stress

y y
f f /
,

yield stress by
simplified
calculations
where the
deformation
criteria are
decisive
y x
f f /
,

proportionality
stress

y p
f f /
,

modulus of
elasticity corre-
sponding to the
slope of part 1
of the stress-
strain relation

a a
E E /
,

20
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000
0.780
0.470
0.230
0.110
0.060
0.040
0.020
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.922
0.845
0.770
0.615
0.354
0.167
0.087
0.051
0.034
0.017
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.807
0.613
0.420
0.360
0.180
0.075
0.050
0.0375
0.0250
0.0125
0.000
1.000
1.000
0.900
0.800
0.700
0.600
0.310
0.130
0.090
0.0675
0.0450
0.0225
0.000

For intermediate values, rectilinear interpolation in the table can be made.

(6) The unit mass of steel may be assumed to be independent of the temperature
and taken as
3
kg/m 7850 .
9.2.2 Thermal properties of steel
(1) In annex C expressions for the coefficient of linear expansion of steel l l /
and specific heat capacity
a
c at elevated temperature are given. By simplified calcula-
tions the coefficient of linear expansion and the specific heat capacity may be assumed to
be independent of the temperature level and taken as

6
10 14 /
l l K
1
and
540
a
c J/kg K

103
9.2.3 Thermal properties of the fire insulation system
(1)P The thermal properties of the fire insulation system shall be deter-
mined by testing.

(2) For a fire analysis the thermal properties of the overall fire insulation system
instead of the fire insulation should be used, cf. the definition of the designation in 1.3.

(3) The properties of the insulation system may be determined by testing in accor-
dance with the Nordtest Method NT FIRE 021 or similar. For determination of the value
of the characteristic thermal conductivity of the insulation system
p
, the standard devia-
tion factor specified in the NT description section 6.5.4 is taken as 1.0.
9.3 Determination of the temperature curve
(1)P The temperature curve in a steel structure subjected to fire is deter-
mined on the basis of tests in accordance with DS 1051.1 or by analysis.

(2)P The analysis shall take account of:
the thermal actions according to DS 410
the variation of the thermal properties of the material as a func-
tion of the temperature, cf. 9.2.2
uneven thermal action and heat transfer to adjacent structural
members.

(3)P It is on the safe side to disregard the effect due to emission of mois-
ture from the insulation during fire.

(4) For non-insulated steel sections the mean temperature rise
t a,
[C] of the
steel in the time interval t [sec] is determined from
( ) [ ] t
c
V A
c t a t g res t a t g
a a
m
t a
+ + +
) ( ) 273 ( ) 273 (
/
, ,
4
,
4
, ,

where

m
A is the exposed surface area per unit length [m] of the member
V is the volume per unit length [m
2
] of the member

a
c is the specific heat capacity [J/kg C] of steel


104

a
is the unit mass of the steel [kg/m
3
]

t g,
is the temperature of the fire compartment at the time t [C]

t a,
is the temperature of the steel at the time t [C]

res
is the resulting emission factor taken as 0.5
is the Stefan Boltzman constant

c
is the coefficient of heat transfer at convection [W/m
2
K]
In the analysis the time interval t should not be taken greater than 5 seconds.

(5) For insulated steel sections the mean temperature of the steel
t a,
at the time t
may be determined based on available data for MK-approved insulation systems.

(6) Alternatively, for insulated

steel sections the mean temperature rise
t a,
[C]
in the time interval t [sec] may be determined from the expressions:
0 ) 1 (
) 3 / 1 (
) ( /
,
10 /
, ,
,

+

t g
t a t g
a a p
p p
t a
e t
c d
V A

V A d
c
c
p p
a a
p p
/

where

p
is the thermal conductivity [W/m K] of the insulation system

p
d is the thickness of the insulation system [m]

p
A is the internal surface area per unit length [m] of the insulation sys-
tem
V is the volume per unit length [m
2
] of the member

a
c is the specific heat capacity [J/kg C] of steel

p
c is the specific heat capacity [J/kg C] of the insulation

a
is the unit mass of steel [kg/m
3
]

p
is the unit mass of the insulation [kg/m
3
]

t g,
is the temperature of the fire compartment [C] at the time t

t a,
is the temperature of the steel [C] at the time t

t g,
is the temperature rise [C] of the fire compartment in the time inter-
val t [sec].
In the analysis the time interval t should not be taken greater than 30 seconds.

105
9.4 Verification of structural resistance
9.4.1 Verification of structural resistance by testing
(1)P Verification that a structure or an element has sufficient structural
resistance during fire may be performed by testing in accordance with DS
1051.1.
9.4.2 Verification of structural resistance by analysis
(1)P For analysis of the structural resistance of a structure exposed to fire
a statically admissible model reflecting the assumed performance of the
structure shall be used. In the analysis account shall be taken of the change
of the material properties at elevated temperatures and of the temperature
induced deformations and internal forces.

(2)P Thermal creep may be disregarded.

(3) In a simplified analysis the structural resistance may be documented according
to the rules and expressions in chapter 6 supplemented with the provisions in (4)-(11),
applying the values at elevated temperature according to 9.2.1 to the strength and stiffness
parameters of the material. The temperature curve is determined according to 9.3 (4)-(6).

(4) For the analysis of the structural resistance, the value of
, y
f is applied to the
yield stress according to table V9.2.1. In cases where limitation of the deformations of the
structures and structural members is significant to maintain the functionality of insulation
systems and partitioning members during fire, this may be taken into consideration as an
approximation by applying the value
, y
f to the yield stress according to table V9.2.1.

(5) For classification of cross-sections according to table V6.3.2a the specified
classes may be used unaltered in the following cases:
for compression members
for simply supported beams with a concrete slab in full thermal contact
with the compression flange
in analyses where the deformation criteria are decisive.
In other cases, [ ]
5 , 0
, ,
) / )( / 235 (
a a y
E E f

is assumed in the classification.

(6) Cross-section class 4 is not included in the simplified analysis, and the structure
or the structural model should in this case be chosen accordingly.

106

(7) For analysis of cross-sections with regard to bending in accordance with 6.3.9
and shear in accordance with 6.3.10, a 15 % increase of the structural resistance may be
assumed for insulated sections of class 1 and 2 cross-sections, where a flange is in full
thermal contact with a concrete slab.

(8) For analysis of axial compression and bending and axial compression in accor-
dance with 6.4.1 and 6.4.3 the column reduction factor should be divided by and
determined by:
5 . 1 for 75 . 0
4 . 0 8 . 1 for 5 . 1 75 . 0 <

2 . 1 for
< 5 . 1
6 / 5 for 200
a
C
1200 / 3 / 2
a
+ for 200 C < 400
a
C
1 for 400 C <
a

where

is the relative slenderness ratio of the compression member at the tem-

perature
a

a
is the temperature of the steel [C].
Column case c should be used irrespective of type of section.

(9) For compression members in rigid connections with compression members in
adjacent fire compartments a reduced buckling length may be assumed. If the fire resis-
tance of the structural members delimiting the fire compartment is not less than the fire
resistance of the compression member, a buckling length of 0.5 l and 0.7 l, respectively,
may be assumed for a compression member of system length l with rigid connections at
both ends or at one end only.

(10) For verification of the structural resistance of a beam with regard to lateral-
torsional buckling the buckling factor
LT
should be divided by and as stated for
compression members in (8).

(11) Bolted connections assigned to category C at the design for normal room tem-
perature should in a fire situation be assumed to belong to category A, since the friction is
assumed to be eliminated at elevated temperatures.

107
9.4.3 Determination of critical steel temperature
(1) As an alternative to simple analysis of the structural resistance during fire it
may be documented that the temperature in the structure does not exceed a specified
critical steel temperature.

(2) The critical steel temperature for the class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections can be
determined from
the material values at elevated temperature according to table V9.2.1
the utilisation of the structural members defined by the ratio of internal
force to resistance at room temperature
the values of the partial safety factors during normal action conditions and
during fire.
The rules in 9.4.2 (3)-(11) also apply to analysis based on determination of a critical steel
temperature.

(3) For structural members in class 1, 2 and 3 cross-sections critical steel tempera-
tures as specified in table V9.4.3 may be safely assumed. Rectilinear interpolation may be
performed in the table. The critical steel temperatures in the table do not apply to connec-
tions since the reduction of structural resistance at elevated temperature may be greater
for the connections than for the structural members.

Table V9.4.3 Critical steel temperature
utilisation of the structural member
100 % 75 %
tension 500 C 560 C
bending action where deformation criteria are
insignificant
500 C 560 C
bending action where deformation criteria are
decisive
390 C 510
compression 200 C 350 C


108
10 Associated standards
In the code reference has been made to the following Danish and foreign
standards:

DS 409 Sikkerhedsbestemmelser for konstruktioner
DS 410 Last p konstruktioner
DS 417 Svejste lagertanke til brandfarlige vsker
DS 446 Tyndpladekonstruktioner
DS 449 Plefunderede offshore stlkonstruktioner
DS 451 Kompositkonstruktioner
DS 458 Trykbrende anlg
DS 894 Verifikation af svejseprocedurespecifikationer. Al-
mene regler
DS 1051.1 Brandprvning. Bygningsdeles modstandsevne
mod brand
DS/EN 287-1
Approval testing of welders - Fusion welding - Part
1: Steels
DS/EN 288
Specifikation og godkendelse af svejseprocesser
for metalliske materialer
DS/EN 719
Svejsekoordination. Opgaver og ansvarsforhold
DS/EN 729
Kvalitetskrav for svejsning. Smeltesvejsning af
metalliske materialer
DS/EN 10025 + A1
Varmvalsede produkter af ulegerede konstruktions-
og maskinstl. Tekniske leveringsbetingelser
DS/EN 10045
Metalliske materialer. Charpy- slagsejhedsprv-
ning. Del 1: Prvningsmetode
DS/EN 10113-2
Varmvalsede produkter af svejselige finkornskon-
struktionsstl. Del 2: Normaliserede/normaliserede
valsede stl. Leveringsbetingelser
DS/EN 10113-3 Varmvalsede produkter af svejselige finkornskon-
struktionsstl. Del 3: Termomekanisk valsede stl.
Leveringsbetingelser
DS/EN 10137-2 Plader og bredfladstl af hjstyrkekonstruktionsstl
i sejhrdet eller udskillelseshrdet tilstand. Del 2:
Leveringsbetingelser for sejhrdede stl

109

DS/EN 10163 Leveringsbetingelser for overfladekvalitet af varm-
valsede stlplader, bredfladjern og profiler
DS/EN 10164 Stlprodukter med forbedrede deformations-
egenskaber vinkelret p produktoverfladen (Z-stl).
Tekniske leveringsbetingelser
DS/EN 10204 Metalliske materialer. Inspektionsdokumenter.
Inspektionscertifikater
DS/EN 20286-2 ISO tolerance- og pasningssystemet. Del 2: Tabel-
ler for tolerancegrader og grundafvigelser for huller
og aksler
DS/EN 20898-1 Mekaniske egenskaber for befstelseselementer.
Kvalitetsklasser. Del 1: Bolte, skruer og skruetappe
DS/EN 20898-2 Mekaniske egenskaber for befstelseselementer.
Kvalitetsklasser. Del 2: Mtrikker med specifi-
cerede prvebelastningsvrdier. Groft gevind
DS/EN 25817 Lysbuesvejste samlinger i stl. Vejledning om
kvalitetsniveauer for svejsefejl
DS/ENV 1090-1 Udfrelse af stlkonstruktioner. Del 1: Almindelige
regler og regler for bygninger
DS/ENV 1090-3 Udfrelse af stlkonstruktioner. Del 3: Supplerende
regler for hjstyrkestl
DS/ENV 1090-5 Udfrelse af stlkonstruktioner. Del 5: Broer
DS/ENV 1993-1-1 Eurocode 3. Stlkonstruktioner. Del 1-1: Generelle
regler og regler for bygningskonstruktioner
DS/ENV 1993-1-1/A1 Eurocode 3. Stlkonstruktioner. Del 1-1: Generelle
regler og regler for bygningskonstruktioner. An-
neks D og K
DS/ENV 1993-1-2 Eurocode 3. Stlkonstruktioner. Del 1-2: Supple-
rende regler for brandteknisk dimensionering
EN 1011-1 Welding Recommendations for welding of metal-
lic materials Part 1: General guidance for arc
welding
EN 1011-2 Welding Recommendations for welding of metal-
lic materials Part 2: Arc welding of ferritic steels

110

EN 1418 Svejsepersonale. Godkendelsesprvning af svejse-
personale til smeltesvejsning og opstillere til mod-
standssvejsning. Fuldt mekaniseret og automatisk
svejsning af metalliske materialer
EN 12062 Non-destructive examination of welds. General
rules
ISO 8501-1 Preparation of steel substrates before application of
paint and related products: Visual assessment of
surface cleanliness: Part 1: Rust grades and prepa-
ration grades of uncoated steel substrates and of
steel substrates after overall removal of previous
coatings
ISO/DIS 9013 Welding and allied processes Quality classifica-
tion and dimensional tolerances of thermally cut
(oxygen/fuel gas flame) surfaces
Nordtest Method
NT FIRE 021
Insulation of Steel Structures: Fire Protection
SEL 072-1977 Ultraschallgeprftes Grobblech. Technische Liefer-
bedingungen

111
11 Preparation of the code
Subject to recommendation of the Codes of Practice Committee the Danish
Standards Association appointed a coordination committee for the structural
codes, KFK, in February 1995, from whose mandate the following is quoted:
The committee is to coordinate revisions of the Danish structural codes in
the period up to introduction of the European structural codes, ENs.
In connection with the revision of the Danish codes of practice the Codes of
Practice Committee emphasizes that
1) major revisions of Danish codes of practice may be rather costly
for such parts of industry that are influenced by them. This situa-
tion should have high priority but should be weighed against the
advantages of being forward of the development
2) revisions due to the ENVs should only be introduced if there is a
high probability that they will also apply when the ENVs are
changed to ENs
3) revisions should be based on preservation of the Danish safety
system
4) the revised set of Danish structural codes should like the pre-
sent one be composed of a set of related and consistent codes
of practice
5) revisions should be made by issuing self-contained, new editions
of the Danish codes of practice.

Members of the committee were:
Ulrik Stttrup-Andersen, M.Sc.,S-400 Codes of Practice Committee (chair-
man)
John Adelhj, M.Sc., PLU-12 Timber
Robert Arpe, M.Sc., Ph.D., PLU-11 Steel & aluminium
Gert Heshe, M.Sc., PLU-08 Concrete
Bent Feddersen, M.Sc., Ph.D., PLU-08 Concrete
Erik Skettrup, M.Sc., S-411 Concrete
John Dalsgaard Srensen, M.Sc., Ph.D., PLU-03 Safety and Load
Bjarne Chr. Jensen, Chief consultant, S-400 Codes of Practice Committee
and CEN/TC 250

112
Henry Hffding Knutsson, M.Sc., PLU-09 Lightweight concrete and ma-
sonry
Per Kristiansen, Building Technician, PLU-09 Lightweight Concrete and
Masonry
Hans Jrgen Larsen, Managing director, M.Sc., CEN/TC 250/SC 5 Timber
Niels Krebs Ovesen, Managing director, M.Sc., Ph.D., CEN/TC 250/SC 7
Soil Mechanics
Jrgen S. Steenfelt, Professor, M.Sc., Ph.D., S-400 Codes of Practice Com-
mittee
Carsten Steen Srensen, Associate professor, B.Sc., PLU-01 Soil Mechanics
and Foundation Engineering
Peter M. Thorup, M.Sc., PLU-07 Fire
John Wgter, Chief consultant, B.Sc., S-406 Offshore
Svend Ole Hansen, M.Sc., Ph.D., PLU-03 Safety and Load (secretary)
Jrgen Jacob Jensen, M.Sc., DS-secretariat
Erling Truds, Chief consultant, DS-secretariat

The revision of DS 412 Code of Practice for the Structural Use of Steel was
performed by PLU-11 Steel and Aluminium which in the period had the
following members:
Robert Arpe, M.Sc., Ph.D., (chairman)
Henning Agerskov, M.Sc., Reader
Flemming Andersen, M.Sc.
Erland Leon Frederiksen, M.Sc.
Jesper Gath, M.Sc.
Jan Laurberg List, B.Sc., Metallurgy manager
Bent Nielsen, B.Sc., Head of secretariat
Ejnar Sndergaard, M.Sc.
Gunnar Asbjrn Srensen, M.Sc.
Erling Truds, Chief consultant, (secretary)

On the recommendation of PLU-11 an evaluation of relevant parts of Euro-
code 3 and a preparation of individual sections of the code was implemented
in 1995. This task was performed by the following ad hoc groups and stan-
dardisation committees:

Ad hoc group on materials, actions and safety:
Villy Andreasen, M.Sc.

113
Robert Arpe, M.Sc., Ph.D.
Jan Laurberg List, B.Sc., Metallurgy manager

Ad hoc group on structural analysis, general:
Erland Leon Frederiksen, M.Sc.
John Flemming Jensen, M.Sc.
Mogens Gunhard Nielsen, M.Sc.

Ad hoc group on bolted connections, welded connections and fatigue:
Henning Agerskov, M.Sc., Reader
Flemming Andersen, M.Sc.
Jesper Gath, M.Sc.
Ulrik Stttrup-Andersen, M.Sc.

Ad hoc group on formulation and edition of the code text:

Standardisation committee S-333 on workmanship and control:
Bent Nielsen, B.Sc., Head of secretariat (chairman)
Michael Ambye, M.Sc.
Frank Bromerholm, B.Sc.
Mogens H Foder, B.Sc., Chief consultant
Jens Holck, B.Sc.
Ebbe H. Hovgaard, M.Sc.
Erling Truds, Chief consultant, (secretary)

Standardisation committee S-417/U-03 on fire design:
Niels Andersen, M.Sc., Ph.D. (chairman)
Per J. Knudsen, M.Sc.
Peter M. Thorup, M.Sc.

The draft code was submitted to public approval in the period August 1 to
November 30, 1997.


114
Annex A (application rules)
Design against brittle fracture
(1) The annex specifies a general method for evaluation of the safety against brittle
fracture of a structural member.
Table V3.2.2b is based on the method applying stress level S2, strain rate level R1 and
failure consequence level C2.
A.1 Controlling parameters
(1) By the method the necessary fracture toughness is determined and thus the
lowest acceptable service temperature to which the structure is exposed as a function of
the following parameters:
stress level
strain rate
material thickness
consequence of failure
yield stress
Charpy-V test temperature
A.1.1 Stress field
(1) Three stress levels S1, S2 and S3 are used with corresponding values of the
design values and ) ( T as specified in table A.1.1. In the table
y
f is the character-
istic yield stress and is determined from the characteristic actions. Non-welded struc-
tural members are assigned to level S1.

Table A.1.1 Levels of local tensile stresses
) 1

S1 S2 S3
as-welded with local
tensile stresses
) 1

y
f 2 . 0
y y
f f 67 . 0 2 . 0 <

y y
f f 2 67 . 0 <
heat treated with full
stress relieving and local
tensile stresses
) 1

y
f 67 . 0 2 . 0

y y
f f 2 67 . 0 <

y y
f f 3 2 <
design factor 1.12 2.56 3.32
addition to the lowest
admissible service tem-
perature ) ( T [C]

0

5

5
) 1
Local tensile stresses are defined as stresses due to external actions irrespective of residual stresses
from welding.


115
A.1.2 Strain rate
(1) Two levels R1 and R2 are differentiated for strain rate dt d / as specified in
table A.1.2.

Table A.1.2 Strain rate levels
R1 R2
static or slow action impact action
strain rate dt d / [sec
1
] 10
3
1
A.1.3 Material thickness
(1) Cold deformation, if any, should be taken into account by using an equivalent
material thickness according to figure V3.2.2a.
A.1.4 Consequence of failure
(1) Two levels of failure consequence C1 and C2 are differentiated. The level is
decisive for choice of the partial safety factor
c
as specified in table A.1.4.

Table A.1.4 Levels of failure consequence
C1 C2
failure with limited local
effect only
failure involving total col-
lapse of the entire structure
partial safety factor
c

1
m
for
u
f
A.1.5 Yield stress
(1) For the yield stress the characteristic lower yield stress
yn
f [MPa] determined
in consideration of the material thickness is applied.
yn
f is determined from the expres-
sion:
) 235 / ( 25 . 0
yo yo yn
f t f f
where

yn
f is the characteristic yield stress [MPa] of material with a thickness less
than 16 mm as specified in the relevant standard
t is the material thickness [mm].
A.1.6 Charpy-V testing temperature
Charpy-V testing temperature
J
T
27
is used, which is the lowest temperature at which a
standard Charpy-V test shows fracture energy of at least 27J. In table A.1.6
J
T
27
is given
for the grades in EN 10025 and EN 10113. The tabular values apply to material thick-
nesses in the range 10-150 mm.

116
Table A.1.6 Charpy-V testing temperature
J
T
27

grade
J
T
27
[C]
DS/EN 10025:
JR
J0
J2
K2

+20
0
20
30
DE/EN 10113:
N, M
NL, ML

30
50
DS/EN 10137:
Q
QL
QL1

20
40
60
A.2 Design
(1) The necessary fracture toughness
IC
K [MPa mm
5 . 0
] is determined as:

mat yn mat IC
K f t K K
2 . 0 2 6 . 0
) 5 . 2 / ( where

yn s c mat
f F K
where
t is the material thickness [mm]

yn
f is the lower yield stress [MPa]

c
is a partial safety factor, cf. section A.1.4
is the design factor, cf. section A.1.1

s
F is the fault factor [mm
5 . 0
] determined from table A.2.

Table A.2
s
F as a function of the material thickness
t [mm]
s
F [mm] t [mm]
s
F [mm]
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
2.50
2.86
3.05
3.17
3.28
3.36
3.42
3.48
3.54
3.59
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
3.67
3.74
3.80
3.84
3.89
3.93
3.97
4.00
4.04
4.07

117
(2) The lowest permissible service temperature
min
T [C] to which the structure
may be exposed is then determined from the expression:
) ( ) ( 6
27 min
T T T T
J
+ + + +
where
( ) [ ] 75 / 25 ) 6 . 31 / ( ln 60
IC
K
and
550 / )] / ln(10 [ ) 1440 ( ) (
5 . 1 4
dt d f T
yn


118
Annex B (application rules)
Fatigue strength curves
B.1 Fatigue expressions
(1) The relationship between the characteristic fatigue strength
fat
and
fat
,
respectively, and the characteristic fatigue life
fat
n for a notch type is seen from the
expressions:

fat fat
m a n log log log for normal stress ranges

fat fat
m a n log log log for shear stress ranges
where
a and m are parameters depending on the notch type.

(2) The expressions are based on experimental investigations. As a guide to deter-
mine the fatigue strength of given notch types, a number of representative expressions
corresponding to connected values of a and m have been chosen. The individual expres-
sions for the fatigue strength define a notch category and are given in table B.1 and table
B.2 for normal stress ranges and shear stress ranges, respectively. Table B.3 gives modi-
fied expressions of the fatigue strength, cf. paragraph 6.8.7.
The notch category is designated by a number, which for normal stress ranges and for
shear stress ranges specifies the fatigue strength in MPa at
6
10 2 cycles. For the modi-
fied expressions the fatigue strength at
6
10 2 cycles is one category higher than the
value for the notch category.
In figures B.1, B.2 and B.3 the expressions of the corresponding tables are illustrated
graphically.
B.2 Tables with construction details
(1) Tables B.4-B.9 specify the notch categories to which typical constructional
details should be assigned. The specified category applies to stresses with the position and
direction given in the figures and for the indicated crack formation.


119
Table B.1 Fatigue expressions for normal stress ranges
log a
for n <
8
10
detail
category
n
6
10 5
m = 3
n
6
10 5 >
m = 5
fat
at the con-
stant-amplitude
limit n
6
10 5
[MPa]
fat
at the
cut-off limit
n =
8
10
[MPa]
160
140
125
112
100
90
80
71
63
56
50
45
40
36
12.901
12.751
12.601
12.451
12.301
12.151
12.001
11.851
11.701
11.551
11.401
11.251
11.101
10.951
17.036
16.786
16.536
16.286
16.036
15.786
15.536
15.286
15.036
14.786
14.536
14.286
14.036
13.786
117
104
93
83
74
66
59
52
46
41
37
33
29
26
64
57
51
45
40
36
32
29
26
23
20
18
16
14

Table B.2 Fatigue expressions for shear stress ranges
detail category log a for n <
8
10
m = 5
fat
at the cut-off limit
n =
8
10 [MPa]
100
80
16.301
15.801
46
36

Table B.3 Modified fatigue expressions for normal stress ranges
log a
for n <
8
10
detail
category
n
7
10
m = 3
n
7
10 >
m = 5
fat
at the con-
stant-amplitude
limit
n
7
10
[MPa]
fat
at the
cut-off limit

n =
8
10
[MPa]
50*
45*
36*
11.551
11.401
11.101
14.585
14.335
13.835
33
29
23
21
18
15
* (see section 6.8.7 for explanation). jeg foreslr denne eller en lignende tekst, da fork-
laringen jo str 40 sider lngere fremme!

120

Figure B.1 Fatigue strength curves for normal stress ranges

121

Figure B.2 Fatigue strength curves for shear stress ranges

122

Figure B.3 Modified fatigue strength curves for normal stress ranges


123


124


125


126


127


128


129


130


131


132


133


134


135


136


137
Annex C (application rules)
Material properties of steel at elevated temperatures
(1) Table C.1 shows the expressions for the characteristic stress-strain relation for
steel at elevated temperatures as defined in 9.2.1.

Table C.1 Expressions for the characteristic stress-strain relation for steel at ele-
vated temperatures
strain stress modulus of elasticity E
part 1

, p

, a
E
, a
E
part 2

, , y p
< < / ) / (
,
a b c f
p
+
5 . 0 2
,
2
] ) ( [

y
a
/ ) )( / (
,

y
a b
5 . 0 2
,
2
] ) ( [

y
a
part 3

, , t y

, y
f 0
part 4

, , u t
< <

, u

/ ) ( 1 [
0 , , t y
f

)] (
, ,

t u

0

parameters

, , ,
/
a p p
E f 02 . 0
,
y
15 . 0
,
p
20 . 0
,
u

functions

) / )( (
, , , , ,
2

a p y p y
E c a +
2
, , ,
2
) ( c E c b
a p y
+

)] ( 2 ) /[( ) (
, , , , ,
2
, ,

p y a p y p y
f f E f f c

In the expression for part 2, a and b are the horizontal and vertical semi-axis, respectively,
of the ellipse, and c is the vertical distance from the centre of the ellipse to the proportion-
ality stress.

(2) The coefficient of linear expansion for steel at elevated temperatures can be
determined from the expression:
3 2 9 6
10 2416 . 0 10 4 10 12 /

+
a a
l l for 20 C
a
< 750 C
3
10 11 /
l l for 750 C
a
< 860 C
3 6
10 2 . 6 10 20 /

a
l l for 860 C
a
< 1200 C
where
l l / is the coefficient of linear expansion [K
1
]
l is the length at 20 C

138

l is the linear expansion

a
is the steel temperature [C].

(3) The specific heat capacity for steel at elevated temperatures can be determined
from the expression:
3 6 2 3
10 22 . 2 10 69 . 1 773 . 0 425
a a a a
c

+ + for 20 C
a
< 600 C
) 738 /( 13002 666
a a
c + for 600 C
a
< 735 C
) 731 /( 17820 545 +
u a
c for 735 C
a
< 900 C
650
a
c for 900 C
a
< 1200 C
where

a
c is the specific heat capacity [J/kg K]

a
is the steel temperature [C].

139
Subject index
Accidental action 24
Action parameter 5, 79, 83
Actions 22
Alternating yielding 23, 40

Bearings 21, 74
Bearing-type connection 66, 67
Bending and axial compression
52, 106
Block shear failure 5
Block shear resistance 43, 72
Bolt distances 71, 72
Bolted connections 42, 66, 81,
87, 96, 106
Bolt materials 21, 93
Bolting through packings 73
Brittle fracture 16, 21, 114
Buckling length 48, 57, 106
Buckling resistance of members
48, 106
Built-up compression members
57, 59

Classification of cross-sections
33, 105
Cold-forming 17, 20, 94, 115
Compression 41
Compression members 48, 57,
59, 24, 106
Connections 30, 60, 66, 80, 81
106
Contact surface treatment 88
Convention for cross-sectional
axes 13
Corrosion protection 90
Crippling 56
Critical steel temperature 107
Cross-sections 32, 105

Deduction for holes 33
Deflection 23
Direct transmission of forces 30,
84
Ductility 6

Effective width 38
Extent of control 95, 98

Fatigue 28, 76
Fatigue curves 78, 118
Fatigue life 6, 77, 118
Fatigue strength 7, 28, 76, 118
Filler metals 21, 93
Fire design 100
Fire insulation 7, 103
Fire insulation system 7, 103
Fire isolation 7, 103
Flange induced buckling 39, 56
Fracture toughness 16, 114

Geometrical imperfections 49,
84

Heat treatment 94

Imperfections 16, 84
Initial buckling 23, 39
Inspection 86, 92
Internal forces 31

Lamination 29, 93
Lateral-torsional buckling 52,
106
Lifetime 7, 76, 99

140
Limit states 23
Limited slip 23

Material control class 25, 93
Material groups 15
Material parameters 15, 101
Material properties 15, 100, 137
Materials 15, 24, 92, 100
Micro-lamination 29
Modified fatigue curves 83, 122

Normal holes 66, 69, 87
Notch indication tables 118
Nuts 87

Oversize holes 41, 42, 69, 87

Partial safety factor method 24
Penetration of welds 62
Post-critical capacity 36
Preliminary investigations 14
Preloaded bolts 8, 66, 67, 89
Preloading of bolts 89
Prying force 8, 73

Quality control 85, 95, 98

Restraint of compressed members
58

Safety class 25, 86, 92, 97
Segregation 30
Service life 8, 26, 76
Service temperature 18, 114, 117
Serviceability limit states
Shear 42, 106
Shear connection slip-resistant in
the serviceability limit state 66
Shear resistance 68
Shear stress ranges 79, 118, 119,
121
Simplified analysis 105
Slip-resistant connection 66, 69,
74
Slotted holes 41, 42, 66, 69, 87
Static action 28, 65, 86
Stress range 8, 77, 78, 118
Stress ratio 9, 82
Stress-range spectrum 9, 28, 77,
118
Structural material 15, 80
Structures subjected to fatigue
26, 28, 76, 89, 90, 97
Symbols 9

Tensile connections 67
Tensile resistance 70
Tension 40, 107
Test loading 99
Testing 27, 99, 103, 105
Theory of elasticity 31
Theory of plasticity 32
Thermal action 22
Throat section 62
Triangulated structures 57

Ultimate limit states 23, 24

Washers 87, 88
Weld classes 62, 86, 95
Weld length 62, 80
Weld thickness 62
Welded connections 60, 80, 85,
93, 94
Welding coordination 85
Welding personnel 85
Welds 21, 60, 80, 85, 93, 94
Workmanship 84

DS 412 E-2001

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DS 412 E-2001

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Danish Standards Association

k is the buckling coefficient. Compressive stresses are

k is the buckling coefficient.

is an auxiliary coefficient regarding the ap-

is the relative slenderness ratio of the compression member at the tem-

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