2

MATERIALS
Sources Physical Qualities Special Requirements Stockpiling Sampling Size of Original Sample Reducing a Sample to Test Size Size of Test Sample (After Splitting) Gradation Source and Nature of Asphalt Performance Graded Binder Handling Storage Sampling

Aggregates

Asphalt

Asphalt Handling, Storage, and Sampling

Binder Volume

Specific Gravity Temperature Volume Relationships Asphalt Supplier Certification Program

CHAPTER TWO: MATERIALS

An asphalt mixture pavement is composed of binder and aggregate blended together. The individual material properties of each component may affect the overall performance of the pavement. If pavements are to perform long term and withstand specific traffic and loading, the materials making up the pavements are required to be of high quality. This section covers in detail the material properties of aggregates and PG binders that are necessary for high quality pavements. Many of the tests are not required to be conducted by the Technician; however, a thorough understanding of the materials and test procedures to determine quality is a necessary background for the Technician. Converting that understanding into a working knowledge assists the Technician in making accurate, reliable, day-to-day decisions.

AGGREGATES
SOURCES

Aggregates for asphalt mixture are generally classified according to their occurrence. The three major sources of aggregates for INDOT use are sand and gravel operations, stone quarries, and industrial processing (synthetic aggregates). Crushed stone, sand, and gravel are classified as natural aggregates. Blast furnace slag, steel slag, granulated blast furnace slag, and wet bottom boiler slag are by-products of industrial processing and are classified as synthetic aggregates. Sand and gravel generally occur together, where they were deposited by a stream or glacier. These aggregates may be produced either from a waterfilled pit using a suction dredge or a crane and dragline bucket, or from a cut-back deposit, using end-loaders or shovels. The raw materials produced in this manner are, therefore, called either pit-run or bank-run materials. These materials require further processing, such as screening, washing and crushing, to produce aggregates of the proper size. Crushed stone is produced from quarries where bedrock is blasted from a quarry face and then further processed by crushing and screening. Crushing is done by processing the shot rock through a series of crushers until the desired top size is produced. Materials are then graded in a screening operation similar to the sand and gravel operations.

2-1

Synthetic aggregates are produced either from blast furnace slag, steel slag, or from wet bottom boiler slag. Blast furnace or steel slag is produced as a by-product of iron or steel production. These materials are non-metallic substances that rise to the surface of molten iron or steel during the smelting process. After being drawn off the surface of the melt, the slag is placed into a pit and is allowed to solidify by the prevailing atmospheric conditions. Granulated slag is blast furnace slag that has been solidified by quickly quenching the material in water. Wet bottom boiler slag is a by-product of coal-fired electric power plants and is commonly known as cinders.
PHYSICAL QUALITIES

Physical quality requirements for aggregates used in asphalt mixture are all specification provisions other than those dealing with gradation or usage requirements. These quality requirements may be divided into five distinct groups as follows: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Absorption/Specific Gravity Abrasion Resistance Soundness Deleterious Materials Special Requirements

Absorption and Specific Gravity

The internal pore characteristics are very important properties of aggregates. The size, the number, and the continuity of the pores through an aggregate particle may affect the strength of the aggregate, abrasion resistance, surface texture, specific gravity, bonding capabilities, and resistance to freezing and thawing action. Absorption relates to the particle's ability to take in a liquid. Density is the weight per unit of volume of a substance. Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water. The following chart illustrates these relationships for some common substances.

2-2

Substance Water Binder Limestone Lead

Specific Gravity 1.0 1.02 2.7 11.0

Density (lb/ft3) 62.4 63.7 165 to 170 680 to 690

The density and the specific gravity of an aggregate particle is dependent upon the density and specific gravity of the minerals making up the particle and upon the porosity of the particle. These may be defined as follows: 1) 2) All of the pore space (bulk density or specific gravity) Some of the pore space (effective density or specific gravity) None of the pore space (apparent density or specific gravity)

3)

Determining the porosity of aggregate is often necessary, but measuring the volume of pore space is difficult. Correlations may be made between porosity and the bulk, apparent, and effective specific gravities of the aggregate. As an example, specific gravity information about a particular aggregate helps in determining the amount of binder required in the asphalt mixture. If an aggregate is highly absorptive, the aggregate continues to absorb binder after initial mixing at the plant, until the mix cools down completely. This process leaves less binder for bonding purposes; therefore, a more porous aggregate requires more binder than a less porous aggregate. The porosity of the aggregate may be taken into consideration in determining the amount of binder required by applying the three types of specific gravity measurements. In the example in Figure 2-1, the bulk specific gravity includes all the pores, the apparent specific gravity does not include any of the pores that would fill with water during a soaking, and the effective specific gravity excludes only those pores that would absorb binder.

2-3

Figure 2-1. Aggregate Specific Gravities

Abrasion Resistance

For a coarse aggregate to be satisfactory for a pavement, the aggregate is required to be tough enough to withstand the action of rolling during construction and the action of traffic without breaking down under the loads. The test used for evaluating this property is the Los Angeles Abrasion test (AASHTO T 96). Briefly, this test requires the aggregate to be placed in a metal drum along with a charge of steel balls, and the drum rotated 500 times. The steel balls are required to be approximately 1 27/32 in. in diameter and have a weight of 390 to 445g. The inside of the drum is equipped with an angle iron which runs longitudinally. The angle iron causes the charge of aggregate and balls to fall with a heavy impact once during each revolution, breaking the aggregate particles into smaller particles. At the completion of the test, the aggregate is shaken over a No. 12 sieve and the amount which passes through the sieve, expressed as a percentage of the total charge, is the Los Angeles Abrasion value designated "percent wear". Very hard aggregates have values of 20 percent or less; softer aggregates, such as a limestone which may be scratched easily with a pocketknife, may have values over 40 percent. Aggregates, with the exception of Blast Furnace Slag, with a wear of over 40 percent are unsatisfactory for use in surface asphalt mixture. Class AS aggregate for use in SMA is required to have a maximum wear of 30 percent. Aggregate used in a base asphalt mixture may be softer than used in a surface asphalt mixture. The test equipment is illustrated in Figure 22. 2-4

Figure 2-2. Los Angeles Abrasion Apparatus Another test that is conducted to evaluate AS aggregates for use with SMA mixtures is the Micro-Deval Test (AASHTO T 327). The MicroDeval Test is a measure of abrasion resistance and durability of mineral aggregates resulting from a combination of actions including abrasion and grinding with stainless steel balls in the presence of water (Figure 2-3). The stainless steel balls are required to have a diameter of 9.5 0.5 mm. A sample with standard grading is initially soaked in water for not less than one hour. The sample is then placed in a jar mill with 2.0 liters of water and 5000 grams of the stainless steel balls. The jar, aggregate, water, and steel balls are revolved at 100 rpm for two hours depending on the particle size. The sample is then washed and oven-dried. The loss is the amount of material passing the 1.18 mm sieve, expressed as a percent by weight of the original sample.
Soundness

Aggregates which disintegrate badly under the force of weathering are termed unsound. Shale is a typical unsound material because water enters into the aggregate and freezes, causing the aggregate to expand and disintegrate. Also, exposure to air (oxidation) causes shale to flake. Unsound aggregates are obviously unsatisfactory for use in asphalt mixtures, particularly for surface asphalt mixtures, which are exposed to the weather. INDOT subjects aggregates to three different test methods to evaluate soundness: 1) 2) 3) The sodium sulfate test in AASHTO T 104 The brine freezing and thawing test in ITM 209 The freezing and thawing test in AASHTO T 103 2-5

The sodium sulfate test requires the aggregates to be immersed in a sodium sulfate solution and then be subjected to 5 cycles of alternate immersion and drying. The brine freeze and thaw test requires the aggregate to be enclosed in a bag containing a 3 percent sodium chloride solution and be subjected to 25 cycles of freeze and thaw. The water freeze and thaw test requires the aggregate to be sealed and totally immersed in water and be subjected to 50 cycles of freeze and thaw. The freezing and thawing in water test is the method that most accurately simulates actual field conditions; however, the test requires a long period of time to conduct. The "quick" checks for soundness of the aggregate are the brine freeze and thaw and sodium sulfate tests. If the aggregate fails either the brine freeze and thaw or the sodium sulfate test, the material is tested using the freeze and thaw method with water. An aggregate that reasonably fails the brine freeze and thaw and/or sodium sulfate test but then passes the freeze and thaw in water method is an acceptable material for use on INDOT contracts.
Deleterious Materials

Certain substances such as deleterious materials in aggregates are undesirable for use in asphalt mixture. Therefore, the Specifications limit the amount of deleterious materials to a level consistent with the quality required in the final product. Figure 2-3 illustrates the materials which are classified as deleterious and the Specification limits for each. Of particular interest for avoidance in asphalt mixture is chert. Chert is mineral matter composed of microcrystalline silica. When lightweight chert (less than 2.45 specific gravity) is present in aggregate used to produce asphalt mixture, the chert may undergo volumetric expansion sufficient to cause disruption of the mix, causing popouts when the chert particles are located close to the surface. In addition, the binder is unable to coat chert particles which may lead to raveling of the pavement under traffic. Once either problem is initiated, the rate of deterioration of the surface is accelerated.

2-6

Figure 2-3. Deleterious Materials

2-7

SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS Particle Shape

The shape of the aggregate particles affects such things as: 1) 2) The binder demands of asphalt mixture The workability and the strength of asphalt mixture

The best aggregates to use for strength are crushed stone or crushed gravel. Crushed aggregates have irregular, angular particles that tend to interlock when compacted or consolidated. The crushed stone or crushed gravel aggregate make the asphalt mixture somewhat difficult to place. To improve the workability, many mixes contain both angular and round particles. The coarse aggregate particles are usually crushed stone or crushed gravel, and the fine aggregate particles are usually natural sand.
Surface Texture

Like particle shape, the surface texture also influences the workability and strength of asphalt mixture. Surface texture has often been considered more important than the shape of the aggregate particles. A rough, sandpaper-like surface texture as opposed to a smooth surface tends to increase the strength of the asphalt mixture. Some aggregates may initially have good surface texture but under traffic may polish smooth.
Coatings

Coatings are a layer of substance covering a part or all of the surface of an aggregate particle. The coating may be of natural origin, such as mineral deposits formed in sand and gravel by ground water, or may be artificial, such as dust formed by crushing and handling. Generally, aggregates used in asphalt mixture are required to be washed to remove the coating (contaminant) left on the particles. The coating may prevent a good bond from forming between the aggregate surfaces and the binder. The coating could even increase the quantity of binder needed in the asphalt mixture. Also, if the quantity of the coating varies from batch to batch, undesirable fluctuations in the consistency of the asphalt mixture may result.

2-8

Coarse Aggregate Angularity

Crushed particles (coarse aggregate angularity) are necessary in asphalt mixture to assist in resisting shoving and rutting under traffic. The internal friction among the crushed aggregate particles prevents the aggregates from being moved past each other and provides for a stable mix. The test procedure used to determine coarse aggregate angularity is ASTM D 5821. The crushed particle requirement applies for asphalt mixture when gravel is used. Crushed particles are defined as those particles having one or more sharp, or slightly blunt edges. Fractured faces that have an area less than 25 percent of the maximum cross sectional area of the particle are not considered crushed.
Flat and Elongated Particles

Flat and elongated particles are undesirable because they have a tendency to break during construction and under traffic. This characteristic is defined as the percentage by weight of coarse aggregates that have a length in excess of five times its width in accordance with ASTM D 4791. Figure 2-4 is an illustration of the device used to measure flat and elongated particles.

Figure 2-4. Flat and Elongated Particle Test

2-9

Clay Content

Limitation of the amount of clay in aggregate strengthens the adhesive bond between the binder and the aggregate. Clay content is the percent of clay material contained in the aggregate fraction that is finer than a No. 4 sieve. The test used for determining the clay content is the Sand Equivalent Test (AASHTO T 176). In this test, a sample of fine aggregate is placed in a graduated cylinder with a flocculating solution and agitated to loosen clayey fines present in and coating the aggregate. The flocculating solution forces the clayey material into suspension above the granular aggregate. After a period that allows sedimentation, the cylinder height of suspended clay and sedimented sand is measured (Figure 2-5). The sand equivalent value is computed as a ratio of the sand to clay height readings expressed as a percentage.
graduated cylinder Flocculating solution clay reading

suspended clay

sand reading

sedimented agregate

Figure 2-5. Sand Equivalent Test

Fine Aggregate Angularity

Fine aggregate angularity (FAA), like the crushed content of coarse aggregate, is necessary to achieve a high degree of internal friction and therefore high shear strength for rutting resistance. FAA is defined as the percent air voids present in loosely compacted aggregates finer than the No. 8 sieve.

2-10

The test used for determining the Fine Aggregate Angularity is the Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate Test (AASHTO T 304). In the test, a sample of fine aggregate is poured into a small calibrated cylinder by flowing through a standard funnel (Figure 2-6). By determining the weight of fine aggregate (W) in the filled cylinder of known volume (V), void content may be calculated as the difference between the cylinder volume and fine aggregate volume collected in the cylinder. The fine aggregate bulk specific gravity (Gsb) is used to compute fine aggregate volume.

funnel fine aggregate sample

cylinder of known volume (V)

uncompacted voids

V W/G- sb x100% V
Figure 2-6. Fine Aggregate Angularity
Dolomitic Aggregates

There is a special requirement to be met when dolomitic coarse aggregates are used in asphalt mixture. These aggregates are specified under some conditions to obtain high-friction, skid-resistant asphalt mixture surface courses. ITM 205 is used to ensure that the aggregate is a carbonate rock containing at least 10.3 percent elemental magnesium.
Polish Resistant Aggregates

Aggregates that meet the requirements of ITM 214 may be used in place of dolomitic aggregates in asphalt mixture surface mixtures. The procedure for approval requires initial British Pendulum testing, placement of a test section on an INDOT contract, and subsequent skid testing for two years.

2-11

Sandstone Aggregates

Coarse Sandstone is required to meet the Class B quality requirements, and may only be used in asphalt mixture surface mixtures. The definition of sandstone is described in Section 904.01.
Slag Aggregates

When slag is furnished as an alternate to natural aggregate, payment is made on a weight basis. Adjustments are required to be made to compensate for the difference in specific gravity of the slag compared to the specific gravity of the natural aggregate. For any pay item less than 500 t on a contract, no adjustment is made. The following typical values are required to be used. TYPICAL VALUES FOR SPECIFIC GRAVITY Natural aggregates (both fine and coarse) 2.6 Air cooled blast furnace slag coarse aggregate Air cooled blast furnace slag fine aggregate Granulated blast furnace slag fine aggregate Steel furnace slag, both fine and coarse 2.3 2.6 2.1 3.2

Steel furnace slag for use in SMA is required to meet additional requirements for control of the specific gravity in accordance with Section 904.01.
STOCKPILING

Segregation is probably the greatest problem of stockpiling and handling aggregates, but certainly other problems such as degradation and contamination may adversely affect the aggregate quality. Every possible precaution is required to be taken to protect aggregate quality from initial stockpiling to the point where the material is loaded into the asphalt mixture plant. The majority of aggregate stockpiles at the asphalt mixture plant are built by dumping individual truckloads of material. The best truck-built stockpiles are those that are constructed one dump high with each dump placed against previously dumped material. This procedure, because of the low profile, reduces the roll-down segregation; however, these stockpiles require a large area. A technique that helps reduce the required area is to restock some dumps on top of other dumps with a large endloader operating from ground level. In this procedure, care is required to be taken to place the upper lift back from the edge far enough that a long sloped face is not made that would cause segregation. 2-12

Occasionally aggregate is dumped over a quarry or pit face to form a stockpile. This procedure causes considerable segregation, particularly with larger and long graded aggregates. In general, the larger particles roll to the outside and base of the stockpile. The extent of segregation varies with the height of fall, gradation of the material, moisture, and other conditions. Segregation typically occurs as shown in Figure 2-7.

Figure 2-7 Aggregate Segregation

SAMPLING

Because of the various sampling locations and the availability of equipment, there are several methods of taking aggregate samples. Uniformity of obtaining the sample cannot be emphasized enough. The uniformity eliminates one variable in the test results.
Bin Sampling

Bin samples taken at asphalt mixture plants are required to be taken at the discharge chute of the bin. In this procedure, a number of small samples are taken at short intervals and combined to make the total sample. Each of these samples are required to include the entire cross section of the flow of material from the chute at the moment taken. If the rate of flow from the discharge chute cannot be controlled, obtaining a sample from the bin may be impractical or impossible. Therefore, a mechanical sampling device that supports the weight of sample or a diversion chute may be required. 2-13

Belt Sampling

Belt sampling material consists of taking samples of materials directly from conveyor belts. The proper procedure is to: 1) Make sure that the belt is carrying a normal load of material which is not segregated Have the plant operator stop the belt Take a complete cross section of the material, being careful to include all the material on the belt and only the material in the section. A template is recommended. Remove most of the sample with a scoop or shovel and the remainder with a brush Take as many complete cross sections as necessary to obtain a sample that meets the minimum sample size

2) 3)

4)

Stockpile Sampling

The primary control of aggregates at the asphalt mixture plant is done by sampling stockpiles of the finished materials. Therefore, a uniform and representative method of sampling (ITM 207) is required. Coarse aggregate samples are taken with a square bit shovel. The size of the shovel is required to be large enough so that the sample meets the minimum weight requirements of the test conducted on the sample. Fine aggregate samples are taken with a sampling tube or fire shovel. Coarse aggregate is required to be sampled in the following manner: 1) Locate the area of the stockpile from which plant loading begins Using a front-end loader, dig into the stockpile and set aside a small pile of 10 to 15 t of material. This is required to be done in the same manner as the plant is being loaded (Figs. 2-8 and 2-9). When forming the small pile, the loader bucket is required to be as low as possible and the operator is required to roll the material from the bucket rather than dumping the material. Reducing the distance the material is allowed to free-fall reduces the amount of segregation that may occur in the small pile (Fig. 2-10). Each additional bucket load of material is required to be taken and dumped in the same manner as set out above and is required to be placed uniformly over the preceding one (Fig. 2-11). 2-14

2)

3)

Thoroughly mix the small pile. Using the loader bucket, go to the end of the oblong pile and roll the material over. Keeping the loader bucket as low as possible, push the bucket into the material until the front of the bucket passes the midpoint of the original pile. The loader bucket is required to then be slowly raised and rolled forward thus producing a smooth mixing of the material (Figs. 2-12, 213, and 2-14). Go to the opposite end of the pile and repeat this mixing procedure. If the pile does not appear to be reasonably uniform, additional mixing is required to be done. The pile is now ready for sampling. Do not strike off the top (Fig. 2-15). The sample is taken at the center of the volume which is approximately one-third of the height of the pile. The sample consists of not less than 6 full shovels of material taken at equal increments around the pile (Figs. 2-16, 2-17 and 2-18). The shovel is inserted full-depth horizontally into the material and raised vertically. Care is required to be taken to retain as much of the material as possible on the blade of the shovel (Fig. 2-19).

4)

2-15

2-16

2-17

Fine aggregates are sampled using the same technique used to sample coarse aggregates, except a sampling tube or fire shovel is used instead of the large shovel.
Truck, Car, or Barge Sampling

Direct sampling from trucks, railroads cars, or barges is not recommended. There are a number of factors which may influence the quality of the material before the aggregate is used. Therefore, material being shipped by trucks, railroad cars, or barges are required to be sampled at the point of delivery after the aggregate has been stockpiled.
SIZE OF ORIGINAL SAMPLE

The following is a list of recommended minimum sample sizes to be used as a guide when collecting materials. MATERIAL No. 2 coarse aggregate No. 5 coarse aggregate No. 8 coarse aggregate No. 9 coarse aggregate No. 11 & No. 12 coarse aggregate All sands SAMPLE SIZE 220 lb 110 lb 55 lb 35 lb 25 lb 25 lb

The weight of the sample depends on the maximum particle size of the material being tested. As a rule, a larger top size material requires a larger sample. A 35 lb sample of No. 5 coarse aggregate would not be as representative of that material as a 35 lb sample of natural sand. The size of sample for materials that do not meet a specific INDOT size are required to be the same as the INDOT size the aggregate gradation is comparable to.
REDUCING A SAMPLE TO TEST SIZE

The total sample is required to be reduced to a sample size that may be quickly tested. Time does not allow the Technician to test the total sample. The key to sample reduction is to ensure that the sample remains representative of the material in the stockpile. This practice is commonly referred to as splitting a sample. There are four different methods to reduce a sample to the proper test size. 1) Mechanical splitter is the most accepted method of reducing to test size all coarse aggregate material smaller than gradation size No. 2 2-18

2)

Sand splitter is the accepted method for fine aggregate that is drier than the saturated-surface-dry condition. As a quick check to determine this condition, if the sand retains the shape that is molded in the hand, the sand is considered wetter than saturated-surface-dry Miniature stockpile is the method used for fine aggregate that has free moisture on the particle surfaces Quartering is the method that is used when a mechanical splitter is not available

3)

4)

Mechanical Splitter

The mechanical splitter splits the sample into halves as the material passes through the spaces between the bars in the splitter. The same number of each particle size goes into each half of the sample, thus keeping the reduced sample representative of the total collected sample. In using the mechanical splitter, the splitter bars are required to be adjusted so that the bar opening is approximately 50 % larger than the maximum particle size of the material to be split. A No. 5 aggregate has a maximum particle size of 1 1/2 in. Therefore, the recommended bar opening is approximately 2.25 in. INDOT allows the bar opening at 3 in. or 6 bars (each bar is approximately 1/2 in.) for all coarse aggregate No. 5 or smaller. The splitter is required to be level to ensure that each half of the split is approximately the same size; within approximately 10 percent of each other by weight. The splitting procedure is as follows: 1) Properly place the pans under the splitter in such a way that all of the particles diverting in both directions are caught Pour the sample evenly into the hopper Open the hopper fully and allow the material to free fall through the splitter If wet particles stick inside the splitter, gently tap the splitter with a rubber hammer to loosen them To ensure that the sample has not been segregated during sampling, place both halves of the sample back into the hopper and repeat the splitting operation

2) 3)

4)

5)

2-19

6)

After the second splitting, the two receiving pans will contain approximately the same amount of material. Only one pan is placed back into the hopper and the splitting procedure repeated until a sample of the desired size is obtained. Skillful manipulation of the splitter allows a sample of nearly any size to be made that is still representative of the material in the stockpile.

Sand Splitter

The sand splitter is a small version of the mechanical splitter except that the openings are fixed and there are no hopper doors. The splitting procedure using the sand splitteris as follows: 1) 2) Place the pans under the splitter to catch all of the particles Slowly pour the dry sample into the splitter from the side (never from the end or corner) Recombine the samples and split the sample a second time to eliminate any segregation Reduce the sample to proper size by additional splitting of the material in one of the pans

3)

4)

Miniature Stockpile

The miniature stockpile method is used for reducing all samples of fine aggregates when the material is in a damp or moist condition. If the sample to be split is dry, the material is required to be moistened before using this method. The splitting procedure is as follows: 1) Place the original sample on a clean, dry plate or other hard, smooth, non-absorptive surface Using a trowel or other suitable tool, turn the entire sample over three times Shape the material into a conical pile With a spoon or small trowel, randomly take at least five small portions of material around the pile and one-third way up the cone until the required test sample is obtained 2-20

2)

3) 4)

Quartering

Quartering is a non-mechanical method of reducing a sample. This is the best method to be used when a mechanical splitter is not available. The quartering procedure is as follows: 1) Pour the sample in a conical pile in the center of a clean, dry, steel plate or other hard, smooth, non-absorptive surface Using a large trowel, shovel, or other suitable tool, turn the entire sample over three times and reshape the sample into a conical pile Uniformly flatten the pile until the diameter approximately equal to four to eight times the thickness is

2)

3)

4)

With a large trowel or other suitable tool, divide the sample in half by vertically passing the tool through the center of the pile. In a similar manner divide each of these halves into two parts, thus quartering the sample Combine diagonally opposite quarters of the material into two samples. Store one of these two halves. If the remaining material still weighs too much, repeat the entire quartering process until the proper test sample size is obtained.

5)

SIZE OF TEST SAMPLE (AFTER SPLITTING)

The original sample is required to be reduced to test sample size which falls within the minimum and maximum weight in the following table. AGGREGATE SIZE No. 2 No. 5 and No. 8 No. 9 No. 11 No. 12 Fine Aggregate MINIMUM (suggested) 11300 g 6000 g 4000 g 2000 g 1000g 300 g MAXIMUM (suggested) --8000 g 6000 g -------

2-21

GRADATION

Particle gradation is determined by a sieve or gradation analysis of aggregate samples. A sieve analysis requires passing the sample through a series of sieves, each of which has openings of specific sizes (Figure 220). Sieves are designated by the size of their openings. Coarse particles are trapped in the upper sieves; medium-sized particles pass through to the mid-level sieves; fines pass through to the lowest sieves. The aggregate gradation considers the percentage by weight of the total sample that passes through each sieve. This is determined by weighing the contents of each sieve following the sieve analysis, then calculating the percentage passing each sieve.

Figure 2-20. Sieve Analysis 2-22

Figure 2-21. Gradation Chart

2-23

For the purpose of description, certain terms are used in referring to aggregate fractions. They are: Coarse aggregate - Material that has a minimum of 20 percent retained on the No. 4 sieve Fine aggregate Material that is 100 percent passing the 3/8 in. sieve and a minimum of 80 percent passing the No. 4 sieve

Nominal Maximum Particle Size - Smallest sieve opening through which the entire amount of the aggregate is permitted to pass Maximum Particle Size - Largest sieve size listed in the Specifications through which all material is required to pass Aggregate gradation specifications for a given contract may be presented graphically. Figure 2-21 is a typical gradation chart. On the chart, sieve sizes are presented horizontally and the percent passing each sieve is shown vertically.
Sieve Analysis Test

Sieve analysis is used primarily to determine the particle-size distribution of materials. The results determine compliance of the particle-size distribution with the applicable requirements. The test is conducted on both the fine and coarse aggregates in accordance with AASHTO T 27, with exceptions as noted in Section 904.06. The procedure for a sieve analysis is as follows: 1) The dried sample is placed in the top sieve of properly nested sieves. The sieves are nested in sequence with the smallest sieve placed on the pan and stacked by increasing size. The shaking time is required to be sufficient to ensure that the sample is divided into fractional sizes. The actual shaking time is required to be determined in accordance with ITM 906. The following times are minimum for shakers: Coarse Aggregate, Size 9 or larger Coarse Aggregate, Smaller than Size 9 Fine Aggregates 2-24 5 Minutes 10 Minutes 15 Minutes

2)

3)

At the conclusion of sieving, the material retained on each sieve is carefully transferred to a weigh pan and weighed. The weight retained of the material on each sieve is recorded on the Gradation Analysis sheet. The weight may not exceed the allowable amount on each sieve as indicated in Table 1. The larger sieves (above the No. 16) are cleaned with a small trowel or piece of flat metal. The sieves between the No. 16 and No. 50 are cleaned with a wire brush. Sieves under the No. 50 are cleaned with a soft bristle brush. Care is required to be taken not to damage the sieves.

4)

The weight passing each sieve is calculated next by subtracting the weight retained on the largest sieve from the total sample weight. The weight retained on the next largest sieve is subtracted from the weight of material still remaining from the first subtraction. This process is continued for all sieves. Example: 1 in. 3/4 in. 3/8 in. No. 4 No. 8 Pan material 5942.1 - 690.6 5251.5 - 2492.7 2758.8 - 1397.1 1361.7 - 997.0 364.7 - 264.5 = = = = = = 5251.5 2758.8 1361.7 364.7 100.2 88.1

2-25

TABLE 1 APPROXIMATED SIEVE OVERLOAD

SCREEN SIZE STANDARD STANDARD 12 in. 8 in. 15 in. x 23 in. 14 in. x 14 in. DIAMETER DIAMETER

3 in. 2 in. 1-1/2 in. 1 in. 3/4 in. 1/2 in. 3/8 in. No. 4

40.5 kg 27.0 kg 20.2 kg 13.5 kg 10.2 kg 6.7 kg 5.1 kg 2.6 kg

23.0 kg 15.3 kg 11.5 kg 7.7 kg 5.8 kg 3.8 kg 2.9 kg 1.5 kg

12.6 kg 8.4 kg 6.3 kg 4.2 kg 3.2 kg 2.1 kg 1.6 kg 800 g

------------3.6 kg 2.7 kg 1.8 kg 1.4 kg 890 g 670 g 330 g

8 in. diameter sieves, No. 8 to No. 200 shall not exceed 200g / sieve 12 in. diameter sieves, No. 8 to No. 200 shall not exceed 469g / sieve

2-26

TOTAL WEIGHT: SIEVE SIZE 1 in. 1 in. in. in. in. No. 4 No. 8 No. 16 No. 30 No. 50 No. 100 No. 200 PAN DECANT ORIGINAL g

5942.1g WEIGHT RETAINED g 0g 690.6 g 2492.7 g 1397.1 g 997.0 g 264.5 g g g g g g 88.1 g FINAL g GRAMS LOSS g WEIGHT PASSING g 5942.1 g 5251.5 g 2758.8 g 1361.7 g 364.7 g 100.2 g g g g g g g PERCENT LOSS % PERCENT PASSING % % % % % % % % % % % % % PERCENT REQUIRED % % % % % % % % % % % % % PERCENT REQUIRED %

2-27

5)

The percent passing is calculated for each sieve by using the following formula: % Passing = Weight passing each sieve x 100 Original dry sample weight Example: 3/4 in. 5251.5 x 100 5942.1 2758.8 x 100 5942.1 = 88.4%

1/2 in.

46.4% etc.

6)

If the test has been done accurately, the sum of all the fractional weights retained (including the material in the pan) is approximately equal to the original dry weight. If the two weights differ by more than 0.3 percent, based on the original dry sample weight, the results are considered invalid. Original Dry Weight - Summation Weights Measured x100 Original Dry Weight

Example: 5942.1 - (690.6 + 2492.7 + 1397.1 + 997.0 + 264.5 + 88.1) x 100 = 5942.1 0.2% = valid test

2-28

TOTAL WEIGHT: SIEVE SIZE 1 in. 1 in. in. in. in. No. 4 No. 8 No. 16 No. 30 No. 50 No. 100 No. 200 PAN DECANT ORIGINAL g

5942.1g WEIGHT RETAINED g 0g 690.6 g 2492.7 g 1397.1 g 997.0 g 264.5 g g g g g g 88.1 g FINAL g GRAMS LOSS g WEIGHT PASSING g 5942.1 g 5251.5 g 2758.8 g 1361.7 g 364.7 g 100.2 g g g g g g g PERCENT LOSS % PERCENT PASSING % 100 % 88.4 % 46.4 % 22.9 % 6.1 % 1.7 % % % % % % % PERCENT REQUIRED % % % % % % % % % % % % % PERCENT REQUIRED %

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Moisture Content

When aggregates are obtained from the cold feed belt or the belt discharge for a drum mix asphalt mixture plant, the moisture of the aggregates is required to be determined to adjust aggregate weights for moisture content and to determine the amount of binder to add to the asphalt mixture. For moisture content, the sample is required to be reduced to test size and the test conducted as quickly as possible after the sample has been taken. Any delay in conducting the test after the sample has been obtained may allow the material to lose moisture and cause inaccurate results. The test procedure for moisture content is: 1) 2) 3) 4) Weigh the sample before drying and record the weight Dry the sample and allow to cool to room temperature Weigh the sample and record the weight Determine the moisture percent using this formula: % Moisture = Weight Wet - Weight Dry x 100 Weight Dry ASPHALT Asphalt is a black, cementing material that varies widely in consistency from solid to semisolid (soft solid) at normal air temperatures. When heated sufficiently, asphalt softens and becomes a liquid, which allows the asphalt to coat aggregate particles during asphalt mixture production. Asphalt is made up largely of a hydrocarbon called bitumen. Consequently, asphalt is often called a bituminous material. Virtually all asphalt used in the United States is produced by modern petroleum refineries and is called petroleum asphalt. The degree of control allowed by modern refinery equipment allows the production of asphalts with specific characteristics suited to specific applications. As a result, different asphalts are produced for paving, roofing and other special uses. Paving asphalt, commonly called binder, is a highly viscous (thick), sticky material. The asphalt adheres readily to aggregate particles and is therefore an excellent cement for binding together aggregate particles in asphalt mixture. The binder is a waterproofing material and is unaffected by most acids, alkalies (bases) and salts. This means that a properly constructed asphalt mixture pavement is waterproof and resistant to many types of chemical damage. 2-30

Binder for paving may also contain modifiers to improve performance properties. Some of these binders require special storage and handling. The material suppliers recommendations are required to be followed to insure that these performance characteristics are not altered or lost before mixing and placement of the asphalt mixture. Binder changes when heated and/or aged. The binder tends to become hard and brittle and therefore lose some ability to adhere to aggregate particles. These changes may be minimized by understanding the properties of the binder and taking steps during construction to ensure that the finished pavement is built in a way that retards the aging process.
SOURCE AND NATURE OF ASPHALT

Because asphalt is used for many purposes, there is sometimes confusion about where asphalt comes from, how asphalt is refined, and how asphalt is classified into grades. There is similar confusion about terms related to asphalt properties and use.
Petroleum Refining

Crude petroleum is refined by distillation, a process in which various fractions (products) are separated out of the crude. Distillation is accomplished by raising the temperature of the crude petroleum in stages. As shown in Figure 2-22, different fractions separate at different temperatures. The lighter fractions are separated by simple distillation. The heavier distillates, often referred to as gas oils, may be separated only by a combination of heating and applying a vacuum. The product that cannot be distilled under vacuum distillation is asphalt. Figure 2-23 is a schematic illustration of a typical refinery that indicates the flow of petroleum during the refining process.
Asphalt Refining

Different types of asphalt are required for different applications. To produce asphalts that meet specific requirements, refiners are required to control the properties of the asphalts they produce. This is often done by blending crude petroleums of various types together before processing. Blending allows refiners to combine crudes that contain asphalts of varying characteristics in such a way that the final product has exactly the characteristics required by the asphalt user.

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Once the crude petroleums have been blended together, vacuum distillation and solvent extractions are the two widely used processes by which asphalt may be produced. As discussed above, vacuum distillation requires separating the asphalt from the crude by applying heat and a vacuum. In the solvent extraction process, additional gas oils are removed from the crude, leaving residual asphalt.

Figure 2-22. Typical Distillation Temperatures and Products

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Figure 2-23. Typical Refining Process

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PERFORMANCE GRADED BINDER

In 1987, the Strategic Highway Research Program (SHRP) began developing a new system for specifying asphalt materials. The final product of the SHRP asphalt research program is a system called Superpave, short for Superior Performing Asphalt Pavements. Superpave represents an improved system for specifying binder and mineral aggregates, developing asphalt mixture designs, and analyzing and establishing pavement performance prediction. The system includes a binder specification, an asphalt mixture design and analysis system, and computer software that integrates the system components. The unique feature of the Superpave system is that the system is a performance-based specification system. The tests and analyses have direct relationships to field performance. The SHRP binder specifications are based on fundamental properties which are measured at actual in service temperatures where the critical distresses occur. The upper temperature extreme is designated as the average 7-day maximum pavement design temperature. This temperature is obtained by accumulating the temperature from each successive 7-day period throughout the summer, and selecting the 7-day period which yields the largest average. The lower temperature extreme is designated as the minimum pavement design temperature. The temperatures for the specification were determined by obtaining data from more than 1,000 weather stations. An example of how this grading system works is indicated in Figure 2-24. The specification limits for the PG Binders are listed in Section 902.01.

Figure 2-24. PG Grading System

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The PG asphalt binder specification is based on the following tests: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6)

Asphalt Binder Aging

Aging Dynamic Shear Direct Tension Bending Beam Viscosity Flash Point

Aging evaluation of the binder is conducted by both the Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) (Figure 2-25) and Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) (Figure 226). The RTFO test is to be conducted in accordance with AASHTO T 240 to simulate aging that occurs during construction.

Figure 2-25. Rolling Thin Film Oven (RTFO) 2-35

The PAV test (AASHTO R 28) is designed to simulate long-term in-service aging (8-10 years), and thereby provide a procedure to estimate the binder properties after aging. The PAV uses a pressurized container into which pans containing RTFO residue binders are placed. Samples in the PAV are subjected for 20 hours to a specified pressure and to variable temperatures depending on the climate of the region.

Figure 2-26. Pressure Aging Vessel

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Dynamic Shear

The dynamic shear test (AASHTO T 315) provides data on the visco-elastic or rheological properties of the binder. Rheology is defined as "the study of deformation and flow of matter", in this case binder. The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) is used to evaluate binders at upper and intermediate service temperature ranges, where rutting and fatigue are the respective primary distress mechanisms. Although rutting and fatigue cracking properties of asphalt mixture are not controlled solely by the binder, the information generated from this test is valuable in obtaining a better understanding of the visco-elastic properties of the binder. Figure 2-27 gives a schematic view of how the DSR functions.

Figure 2-27. Dynamic Shear Rheometer

Direct Tension

The direct tension test (AASHTO T 314) pulls a "dogbone" shaped specimen of binder to failure at a controlled rate of "stretching" or strain. The maximum load to failure (failure stress), as well as the maximum amount of stretch to failure (failure strain), are recorded. The test is used to estimate low temperature failure properties of the binder. A drawing of the test specimen is shown in Figure 2-28.

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Figure 2-28. Direct Tension

Bending Beam

Low temperature stiffness of the binder is evaluated using the bending beam rheometer. A constant load is applied to a beam sample of the binder which is submerged in a bath. Deflections of the beam are measured and a stiffness versus time curve is developed. Data generated from this test (AASHTO T 313) relates to low temperature thermal cracking. Figure 2-29 provides a schematic view of the test apparatus.

Figure 2-29. Bending Beam

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Viscosity

The rotational viscosity test (AASHTO T 316) consists of turning a spindle in a sample of binder and reading viscosity as the resistance to movement of the spindle. The test is conducted at high temperatures to ensure proper handling of the binder. A low temperature test may also be conducted to develop a viscosity-temperature curve. This curve may then be used to develop mixing and compaction temperatures for the specific binder. Figure 2-30 illustrates the test apparatus.

Figure 2-30. Brookfield Viscometer

Flashpoint

The flashpoint of a binder is the lowest temperature at which volatile materials separate from a sample in sufficient concentration to "flash" in the presence of an open flame. Flashpoint is not to be confused with firepoint, which is the lowest temperature at which the binder catches fire and burns. Flashpoint requires only instantaneous combustion of the volatile fractions separating from the binder. The flashpoint of a binder is determined to identify the maximum temperature at which the binder may be handled and stored without danger of flashing. This is important information since the binder is usually heated in storage to keep the viscosity low enough so that the binder may be pumped. 2-39

The procedure for determining flashpoint is to gradually heat a sample of binder in a brass cup while periodically holding a small flame over the surface of the sample (Figure 2-31). The temperature at which an instantaneous flashing of vapors occurs across the surface is taken to be the flashpoint. The Cleveland Open Cup Test (AASHTO T 48) is the procedure for determining the flashpoint.

Figure 2-31. Flashpoint Test; Cleveland Open Cup Test ASPHALT HANDLING, STORAGE, AND SAMPLING The safety record for handling, storing and sampling asphalt materials is good. Nonetheless, there have been accidents resulting in property damage, personal injury, and loss of life. To prevent such mishaps, the Technician is required to know and follow good safety practices. When an accident does occur, the Technician is required to know how to react and what first aid treatment is appropriate.

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The Technician is required to also be aware of the potential sources of contamination that may exist where asphalt materials are stored or handled. Changes in volume that the asphalt material undergoes when heated or cooled are required to also be understood. This knowledge is especially important when comparing asphalt material quantities measured at different temperatures.
HANDLING

At an asphalt mixture plant, asphalt material temperatures may exceed 300 F. Metal surfaces of plant equipment often range between 150 F and 200 F. Consequently, momentary contact with hot asphalt materials or with plant equipment, including tanks, pipelines, dryers, boilers, and boiler houses, may cause severe burns to exposed flesh. Four general precautions against such burns are: 1) 2) Be aware of where burn hazards are located Use designated walk areas and stay clear of hazardous situations Always wear appropriate work clothing Know and follow all plant safety procedures related to handling hot material and equipment

3) 4)

If a burn does occur, follow these general treatment guidelines: 1) In the case of local asphalt material skin burns, apply cold water or an ice pack to reduce the heat in the asphalt material and the skin In cases where burns cover more than 10 percent of the body (approximately the skin area of one arm or half a leg), apply lukewarm water instead of cold water. Lukewarm water reduces the temperature of the asphalt material and skin without causing shock, which may be induced by applying cold water or ice to major burns. Do not remove the asphalt material from the skin Do not cover the burned area with a bandage Have a physician examine the burn immediately

2)

3) 4) 5)

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Hydrogen sulfide is a product of the reaction between hydrogen and sulphur naturally present in asphalt materials. In low concentration, hydrogen sulfide is not dangerous; however, in the concentrations sometimes found in storage tanks and other closed areas, hydrogen sulfide may be lethal. To prevent overexposure to hydrogen sulfide fumes, follow these guidelines: 1) Keep your face at least two feet away from asphalt material tank hatch openings Stay upwind of open hatches Avoid breathing fumes when opening hatch covers or taking samples

2) 3)

In case of overexposure to hydrogen sulfide fumes, do the following: 1) 2) 3) 4) Move victim immediately to fresh air Administer oxygen if breathing is difficult Start artificial respiration if breathing stops Have the victim examined by a physician immediately

Figure 2-32 includes first aid information for asphalt burns.

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Figure 2-32. First Aid for Asphalt Burns

2-43

STORAGE

The Technician is not required to test the binder or asphalt emulsion for Specification purposes. However, the Technician is required to be aware that these materials are tested for compliance from the asphalt mixture plant and not the asphalt refinery. Therefore, the Technician is required to know what plant conditions may change the physical properties of these materials and possibly cause the materials to become out of Specifications. Three major problems may cause the asphalt binder to be outside of the Specifications. The first is contamination. If hot oil is used to heat the binder tank, then any leak in the system may contaminate the binder. The contamination results in a lower viscosity binder. Another source of contamination is fuel oil. If binder is contaminated with significant quantities of fuel oil because of flushing pumps and lines, then the binder stiffness drops. A second and more prevalent problem is the effect that extended heating in storage tanks has on the binder. When binder is heated, the binder slowly increases in stiffness. The rate of change in viscosity is dependent on the size of tank, surface area, amount of circulation, temperature, etc. The problem of compliance with the Specifications generally is found after long rainy periods with extended heating. Failures may be minimized by reducing heating and circulation during these periods of non-production. When the Technician has some doubts about the material, the binder is required to be tested to determine compliance. This greatly minimizes the number of problems and penalties associated with failures. A third problem encountered with binder is improper storage. Modified binders include additives to improve (extend) the grade to encompass a wider temperature range for performance. Many of these modified binders are required to be stored under special conditions to maintain their properties. Material supplier recommendations for storage and handling are required to be followed.

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SAMPLING

Normally binder samples are taken from a sampling valve on a storage tank. A few important rules to follow when sampling the binder are: 1) To ensure that samples are representative of the entire shipment, take the samples from the sampling valves provided for that purpose (Figure 2-33). Dip samples taken from the top of a tank are not normally representative. Other sampling methods are described in AASHTO T 40. Use only new, clean dry sample containers Allow at least 4 quarts of the binder to drain out of the valve before taking samples. This draining cleans out the valve and the lines and helps to provide a representative sample. Seal filled containers immediately with clean, dry, tight fitting lids. Wipe any spilled material from the container with a clean, dry cloth; never with a cloth dipped or soaked in solvent. Label all containers clearly. Do not label container lids, because once the labeled lid is removed, identifying the sample in the container is difficult. Do all labeling with a wick marking pen. Use tags only when there is no danger of the tags being lost in transit. Follow all safety precautions for handling and storing hot binder. The binder is hot when sampled; therefore, protective clothing (gloves, face shield, long-sleeved shirt) to protect from burns and splattering is required.

2) 3)

4)

5)

6)

Figure 2-33. Sampling Device for Storage Tanks

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BINDER VOLUME
SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of a volume of material to the weight of an equal volume of water, both at a specified temperature. As an example, a substance with a specific gravity of 1.6 weighs 1.6 times as much as an equal volume of water. Knowing the specific gravity of the binder being used is important for two reasons. First, binder expands when heated and contracts when cold. This means that the volume of a given amount of binder is greater at higher temperatures than at lower temperatures. Specific gravity measurements provide a yardstick for making temperature-volume corrections. Second, specific gravity of the binder is essential in the determination of the percentage of voids (air spaces) in the compacted pavement. Specific gravity is usually determined by the pycnometer method as shown in Figure 2-34. Because specific gravity varies with the expansion and contraction of binder at different temperatures, results are normally expressed in terms of Specific Gravity at a given temperature for both the material and the water used in the test. (Example: Sp.Gr. 1.05 at 60F/60F means that the specific gravity of the binder is 1.05 when both the binder and the water are at 60F).

Figure 2-34. Determining Specific Gravity Using Pycnometer

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TEMPERATURE VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS

Changes in volume of the binder may be a source for confusion in the plant when binder is required to be converted from weight to volume. When binder is shipped and stored, the basis of payment is weight. This procedure eliminates confusion in payment. However, binder in some plants is metered rather than weighed. When this occurs, the Technician is required to know how to convert weight to volume and volume to weight. The density or specific gravity of binder is the ratio of weight to volume at a specified temperature. Normally this temperature is 60 F. As the temperature of the binder increases the weight to volume ratio drops. If the binder is being metered, the density of the binder at 60 F and the temperature of the binder are required to be known. Also important to know is if the meter is compensating for this temperature and converting the registered volume back to 60 F. If not, then the binder content in the asphalt mixture is less than expected. Another use of temperature volume relationships is to determine inventory. If the storage tank is gauged and a volume is determined then that volume is required to be reduced to a volume at 60 F. This value may then be converted to weight. Examples of converting a tank gauge volume to avolume at 60 F and then to a weight are as follows: Example Volume of binder is measured to be 6505 gallons at a temperature of 290 F. The specific gravity of the binder is 1.021. The volume of binder at the standard base temperature of 60 F is: Volume correction factor of 0.9220 is read for the observed temperature of 290 F. Vol. @ 60 F = Vol. @ (actual temp.) x Vol. Conversion Factor Volume @ 60 F = 6505 x 0.9220 = 5998 gallons To convert volume at 60 F to Tonnage: Tonnage = Vol. @ 60 F x Specific Gravity @ 60 F x 8.33 lb/gal 2000 lb/t Tonnage = 5998 x 1.021 x 8.33 = 25.5 t 2000

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Figure 2-35. Temperature Volume Corrections for Binder

2-48

Temperature Volume Corrections for Binder (continued)

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ASPHALT SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION PROGRAM

The Asphalt Supplier Certification Program (ASC) is a program in which a qualified asphalt supplier is allowed to manufacture and ship PG binders without complete pre-testing of the PG binder by INDOT or the supplier. PG binders are required to be supplied by an approved supplier in accordance with ITM 581. PG binders that are shipped to asphalt mixture plants are required to have a shipping report indicating that the material was manufactured in accordance with the ASC program. Also, the supplier is required to furnish instructions with each PG binder concerning the proper storage and handling of the material.

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