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Recycling construction and demolition wastes a UK perspective

School of Geography, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK Building Research Establishment, East Kilbride, Glasgow, Scotland, UK Building Research Establishment, Garston, Watford, UK Department of Agriculture and Environmental Science, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
Keywords Waste, Recycling, Risk management, United Kingdom, Construction industry Abstract In England and Wales, the construction industry produces 53.5 Mt of construction and demolition waste (C&D waste) annually, of which 51 percent goes to landfill, 40 percent is used for land reclamation and only 9 percent is crushed for future use or directly recovered. C&D waste may be contaminated, either through spillage from industrial processes or contact with contaminated land. There are no guidelines on how to classify C&D waste as contaminated or on risk management for contaminated C&D waste. Research at the UK Building Research Establishment and the University of Manchester has shown that new taxes are making disposal of C&D waste to landfill uneconomic, that low grade ``land-modelling'' recycling is increasing, and that disposal on-site is preferred. Sampling spatially of structures before demolition and temporally of processed C&D waste emerging from crushers is enabling sources of contamination and exceedance of guideline values to be compared with natural background levels. Improved sampling procedures and recommendations for risk assessment for the re-use of C&D waste are being prepared.

Nigel Lawson and Ian Douglas Stephen Garvin

Clodagh McGrath

David Manning and Jonathan Vetterlein

Environmental Management and Health, Vol. 12 No. 2, 2001, pp. 146-157. # MCB University Press, 0956-6163

Introduction Construction and demolition (C&D) waste is increasingly being seen as a valuable source of engineering materials for the construction industry in the UK. Using C&D wastes potentially reduces reliance on primary aggregates and lowers the environmental impact of construction. The Environment Agency (England and Wales) estimates that the construction industry currently produces approximately 53.5 million tonnes of construction and demolition waste annually (Bell, 1997). At present C&D waste is disposed of as follows: . 27.4 million tonnes (51.2 percent) are disposed direct to landfill; . 21.2 million tonnes (39.6 percent) are exempt from licensed disposal and are primarily used for land modelling during the construction projects;
This work is supported by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Waste Minimisation in Industry (WMR3) Programme, grant references GR/M50485 and GR/M50515.

5 million tonnes (9.2 percent) are either crushed to produce a graded product or directly recovered.

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The 1995 UK Government White Paper Making Waste Work (DoE, 1996) had targets for increasing the use of waste and recycled materials as aggregates to 30 million tonnes per year by 2006. The UK Consultation Paper on sustainable construction Opportunities for Change (DETR, 1998) highlights the need for incentives to encourage the use of recycled material and acknowledges the importance of economic considerations. It also recognises constraints linked to the quality of the available waste and asks the question: ``What changes are needed to specifications and standards to encourage or require the use of recycled or reclaimed materials?'' The tax on the disposal of waste materials to landfill imposed as a ``green'' taxation measure in 1996 is an economic incentive to increase the recycling of C&D waste. The UK government has set targets that 60 percent of new developments must be located on brownfield sites. Many of these sites are likely to be contaminated and thus a number of difficulties have to be overcome before development can proceed. Buildings that have existed on contaminated land sites, particularly former industrial sites, may themselves be contaminated. C&D waste could therefore be contaminated, either as a result of its proximity to industrial processes, or by its association with contaminated land. In order to maximise the recycling of C&D waste there is a clear need to develop a risk assessment methodology based on knowledge of the contaminants present in C&D waste and in their availability. There are no guidelines on how to classify whether waste is contaminated or not. Further there is no risk management measures for dealing with such contamination when it is found. Indeed the concentrations and nature of contamination in C&D waste is not necessarily problematic, but many potential useful sources could be condemned to landfill for lack of suitable ways of assessing the C&D wastes and the risk management of the contamination. The Building Research Establishment (BRE) and the University of Manchester are therefore undertaking research aimed at developing a risk assessment methodology for contamination of C&D wastes. Construction and demolition wastes Recycling industry Growing evidence suggests that previous studies considerably underestimated the amount of construction and demolition waste being recycled or reclaimed. In terms of recycling, the landfill tax has contributed to a big increase in the number of fixed and mobile crushing and recycling sites. From an estimate of less than 100 in 1994 (Howard Humphries and Partners, 1994), there are now thought to be in excess of 400 sites (BRE, 2000). Some of these inert waste recycling sites are experiencing shortages of materials or customers depending on location.

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Quantities The C&D industry generates a significant quantity of waste (Table I), although estimates of total amounts vary (Howard Humphries and partners, 1994; Symonds, 1999; Hobbs and Collins, 1997; CIRIA, 1997). The best estimate of the production and the disposal of controlled waste in England and Wales are summarized in Table II.
Construction waste Concrete, bricks, blocks, aggregate Metals Excess mortar/concrete Timber and products Plastic packaging and plastic products Plasterboard and plaster Paper and cardboard Vegetation Soil Total construction waste Demolition waste Concrete Masonry Paper, cardboard, plastic and other Asphalt Wood based Mt y1 3.5 2.8 1.2 0.8 0.9 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.1 10.0 12.0 7.2 5.1 4.5 1.0 Mt y1

Total demolition waste 30.0 Table I. Road planings 7.0 7.0 Quantities of waste Total 47.0 from various sources in Notes: Construction and demolition waste arising: housing 40 percent, other 60 percent England

Waste type Commercial and industrial Demolition and construction Municipal and household Sewage sludge (dry solids) Total Table II. Summary of controlled waste in England and Wales: production and disposal

Total Other production Landfilled Incinerated disposala Mt pa % % % Recycled 82.4 53.5 25.8 1.0 162.7 60.6 51.2 88.6 10.5 61.6 2.0 5.0 8.1 1.9 17.5 39.6 29.8 22.1 19.9 9.2 6.4 51.6 14.4

Notes: a Predominantly in house disposal e.g. fly ash, and waste disposal which is exempt from licensing such as land-spreading paper pulp and food waste, material which can benefit agricultural land and construction wastes using in land modelling schemes. Charges and the imposition of a landfill tax have increased abuse of exemption schemes (note Table I is England only) Source: Douglas and Lawson (2000)

Standards and specifications British Standards (BS) covering aggregates for concrete are normally specified to BS882: specification for aggregates from natural sources for concrete, with BS1047 for air-cooled blast furnace slag or BS3797 for lightweight aggregates sometimes being given as alternatives. Although good general guidance on recycled aggregates is given in BS6543, this standard is rarely quoted in contract documents. The Highways Agency Specification 1998 (Highways Agency, 1998) permits the use of crushed concrete for pavement construction if it complies with the ``quality and grading requirements of BS882''. Unbound applications of recycled aggregates are covered in the Highways Specification and BRE Digest 276 (BRE, 1995). Following the publication in Japan, The Netherlands and Denmark of specifications for the use of recycled aggregates in concrete, an international document was prepared by RILEM in 1994 (RILEM, 1994). This has formed the basis of specification clauses for recycled aggregate being prepared for inclusion in European Standard specifications for aggregate (CEN Technical Committee TC 154 ``Aggregates''). Some years will elapse before this integrated approach can become operational. In the meantime the BRE has published Digest 433 (BRE, 1998) on ``Recycled Aggregates'' to bridge the gap between current UK practice and the introduction of standards for aggregate which will give full coverage to the use of recycled materials. Contamination of C&D waste Waste from new construction is composed primarily of a mixture of unused or damaged raw materials, as well as off-cuts (discarded cut material) and packaging. Demolition waste includes actual building components, such as fulllength studs and concrete slabs. The largest component of demolition waste is concrete, followed by brick and clay, wood and metals. Waste materials from new construction are usually clean and relatively uncontaminated, whereas demolition waste materials are often dirty or contaminated and are mixed with other materials. These differences between C&D wastes create specific opportunities and challenges for waste reduction. Although C&D waste is generally inert, a number of hazardous or potentially hazardous substances can be present (Table III). Many of the materials on the above list are transformed during the construction process into inert materials as they dry (paints and adhesives). However, residual materials in partially used containers require proper management and handling. Work at the BRE (Gutt and Smith, 1976) noted that bricks, stones and concrete from demolition sites were used extensively in the UK and Germany after 1945. However, difficulties arose when gypsum, gypsum plasterboard, mortar, wood and organics were present in the concrete mixes. The contamination of construction and demolition wastes can take various forms, as follows:

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Table III. Hazardous substances in C&D wastes

Acetone Acetylene gas Adhesives Ammonia Antifreeze Asphalt Benzene Bleaching agents Carbon Black Carbon dioxide (in cylinders) Caustic soda Chromate salts Chromium Cleaning agents Coal tar pitch Coatings Cobalt Concrete curing compounds Creosol Source: Magdich (1990)
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Cutting oil De-emulsifier for oil Diesel fuel oil Etching agents Ethyl alcohol Fibreglass, mineral wool Foam insulation Freon Gasoline Glues Greases Helium (in cylinders) Hydrochloric acid Insulations Kerosene Lime Lubricating oils Lye Metals

Methyl ethyl ketone Motor oil additives Paint remover Paint stripper Paint Pentachlorophenol Polishes for metal floors Putty Resins, epoxies Sealers Solder flux Solder, soft (lead) Solder, other Solvents Sulphuric acid Transit pipe Varnished Waterproofing agents Wood preservatives

Mixed contamination resulting from mixing of materials during excavation from site. Waste concrete removed, for example, from a floor may be mixed with contaminated soil, other materials or other wastes. Research at the BRE has supported the negative impact of gross contamination on the potential for recycling concrete (Collins, 1986). Surface contamination materials that have been used in foundations, road construction or in ground works are likely to have been in intimate contact with soil. Surface contamination could also include coatings and sheeting that have been used to protect the materials during their service life but are a barrier to reuse. Absorbed contamination contaminants that are soluble and mobile can potentially be absorbed into porous building materials. These contaminants are likely to be present in groundwater or contaminated surface water.

Contaminated land Risk assessment Contamination of land results from industrial processes, landfill activities and agricultural uses, as well as natural sources. Statistics of the extent of derelict and contaminated land in the UK are only now becoming available through the National Land Use Data Base (National Land Use Data Base, 2000). The latest survey of returns from 90 percent of all local authorities in England show 15,590ha of previously developed land which is now vacant and where reuse includes demolition and levelling and a further 17,260ha of derelict land and buildings damaged by previous industrial use and incapable of reuse without treatment.

Contamination, or the potential for it, is a material planning consideration that needs to be taken into account at various stages of the planning process. When it is known, or suspected, that the proposed development would be adversely affected by contamination the developer would need to carry out a specialist investigation. Should the degree of contamination be such that remedial action is required to protect users and buildings then planning permission may be granted subject to specifying the measures to be carried out. There are many types of sites on which contamination is potentially present. In the UK the Government has produced industry profiles that indicate the contaminants likely to be present on different types of sites. Detailed investigation of contaminated land is important for establishing sources and locations of pollutants. Work is in progress by UK agencies to develop procedures for the investigation and management of contaminated land. The overall process contains risk assessment, remedial measures and risk management. In the risk assessment phase the type, concentration and nature of the contamination is assessed. This includes the following four stages: (1) hazard estimation; (2) hazard assessment; (3) risk evaluation; (4) risk estimation. These stages include various activities such as desk research, site reconnaissance, site investigation and reference to guideline values. Assessments of risks to human health, water environments, plants, animals and buildings should be made. Assessing the significance of contamination in soil has resulted in difficulties for developers, and specialist consultants are employed to provide this assessment. Contaminated land and C&D wastes When industrial plants and premises are closed, controlled decommissioning, decontamination and demolition may be required to avoid risks to human health and the environment from hazardous and other residues in or on plant components or buildings, or as stockpiles of surplus materials (CIRIA, 1995). Standard sampling and analytical methods for determination of the extent of contamination present on building or equipment surfaces are not available. However, a number of techniques can be applied to materials on the building fabric. Surface samples can be taken using wet or dry phase wipes, while for porous materials it is necessary to use cores or drillings. The highest concentrations of contaminants are generally in cracks, crevices, corners and other discontinuities. This should be taken into account in designing any sampling strategy. Sampling for contaminants in a building using grid patterns, or derivatives of them, could allow a picture to be built up of the spread of contamination.

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Sampling and analysis of contaminated C&D wastes can be undertaken at any stage of the demolition and processing of the wastes. The methods employed for the analysis of C&D wastes are no different from methods used to assess the composition of building materials or soils. The following can be used: . Total (or acid soluble) concentrations for the assessment of inorganic contaminants. The sample will be taken by coring, drilling or crushing larger samples or structures. The material will be dried (in air) and crushed. The sample is then dissolved in acid and the extract analysed by GC-MS (Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectroscopy), ICP (Inductively Coupled Plasma) techniques, etc. for the concentration of heavy metal, sulfate, chloride, etc. . Water soluble concentrations for the assessment of inorganic contaminants. A sample of material is shaken with water (e.g. 2:1 extract) and the resultant leachate is filtered off. The leachate is subsequently assessed by GC-MS, ICP, etc. . Leachates Suitable methods have been developed to assess the concentration of contaminants in leachate. These include column and diffusion tank tests (Mulder, 1991). The research C&D waste treatment processes separate the coarse and fine fractions. The former is suitable for use as aggregate, for which selection is based on appropriate engineering criteria, and for which contamination may not be an important issue. The fine fractions may be used as a soil according to criteria set out in BS3882: 1994, which does not specifically address chemical contamination arising as a consequence of previous use of the material. In the absence of other guidelines, an initial assessment is made on the basis of whether or not a waste product passes or fails criteria set out within the ICRCL guidelines (Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land, 1987) or the Dutch list (Ferguson and Denner, 1994) (i.e. do concentrations of an element or organic species exceed action or intervention values?). In neither the Dutch list nor the ICRCL guidelines were the criteria designed to be applicable directly to demolition and construction waste, and so risk assessment using values from these sources strictly is not appropriate. The Dutch list (in its most recent form) takes into account toxicological factors relating to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for humans, and so to some extent reflects the availability of the contaminants for ingestion. C&D waste contamination varies across and within sites, and thus has a spatial dimension suitable for sampling procedures guided by geostatistics. However, on demolition, the C&D waste enters a processing stream, passing through a crusher, or at least being transported a short distance across a site. It is then part of a materials flow stream that will vary in contamination with time as different types of waste enter the process stream. Thus temporal sampling strategies are needed to integrate contaminant levels over a period of

time, enabling the frequency with which a given C&D waste process stream fails trigger value criteria to be assessed. In view of these uncertainties, the research programme at the Building Research Establishment and the University of Manchester has the following objectives:
.

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to develop a methodology and system of risk assessment for contaminants in building and demolition waste; to develop standard guidelines for C&D waste sampling for use in monitoring and assessing the risk of contamination; to produce clear, adaptable methodologies which are equally capable of use and application by SME companies as well as larger construction and waste management organisations.

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The programme is intended to address the risk assessment process and requires that investigation is made of suitable sampling and analytical techniques for contamination of C&D wastes. It also incorporates a study of operator's decision-making processes and actions in recycling C&D wastes. Sampling of uncontaminated waste streams In order to address both the background levels in this type of waste and the temporal changes of the levels of inorganic substances in the concrete, samples are being taken from two recycling plants each week, one processing mixed C&D wastes from demolished buildings and infrastructure and one processing road planings. The samples are being tested for levels of metals, sulfates and chlorides. These tests are intended to develop baseline data from which contamination levels in ``uncontaminated'' sources can be assessed. In addition, the natural chemical background levels present in various building materials, such as differing varieties of bricks and concrete, are also being established. Sampling of contaminated sources The strategy being used to develop the risk assessment of contamination in C&D wastes is to undertake sampling and analysis of materials from structures on former industrial sites. Site assessment includes the following:
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Site walkovers to identify potentially contaminated structures and foundations; Desk studies of available background environmental site investigations and reports; information such as

Discussions with the developer and previous staff. Empirical knowledge of the site during its industrial use is an invaluable part of site assessment;

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Identification of those areas of the site which are most likely to have been in contact with contaminants.

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The sampling of floor areas is undertaken by coring the concrete using standard rotary coring equipment. Core diameters of 100 and 200mm are used in the sampling. Difficulties in determining an appropriate sampling pattern arise because:
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The positioning of machinery and the shape of the building can mean that a grid structure is inappropriate and a regular sampling pattern or randomised structure is not possible. The sampling strategy must therefore concentrate on areas where contamination may exist, which can even include driveways, tank farms, cellars and pits. Concrete floors are of variable thickness, age and type; even within a few metres the type of concrete can vary greatly. Some cores through all the flooring strata can be extracted quickly and with ease, while others present major removal problems.

Sample cores are split to allow chemical tests and physical tests to be undertaken. Physical tests include strength and permeability. Electron microscopy can characterise the materials. The chemical tests include total contaminant concentrations on crushed samples from various depths in the core, diffusion tank tests on bulk samples and leachate column tests. Where the C&D waste is being crushed on site for reuse in land modelling, access roads on site or off site sale, the fine materials are sampled on a daily basis for chemical analysis. Most of the sites being investigated have ceased to operate. All contain a variety of buildings where different industrial processes have taken place. Samples are currently being taken from the following redevelopment sites: . A 7ha paper mill complex on which paper was manufactured for over 100 years;
. . . .

A lead smelting house attached to an explosives factory; The foundations of a former silicone plant; A textile manufacturing complex and bleach works; A 100ha colliery complex where surface structures were demolished ten years ago. The site incorporated a coal mine, a power station, a coke manufacturing plant and coal washing facilities. It is still thought to contain in excess of 350,000 tons of C&D waste.

Further sites so far identified as being of interest to the project and from which samples will probably be taken include the following:
. . .

A wire works Former chemical laboratories Multi-story apartment blocks

Gas work sites, including one site on which the production of gas ceased 50 years ago. Samples from such a site could provide a comparative study of changes in degree of contamination over time.

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Current practice in C&D waste recycling The study of operator's decision-making processes and actions in recycling C&D wastes has revealed several problems relating to the recycling of C&D wastes in the UK, notably:
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The imposition of the landfill tax, coupled with ever-increasing transport costs and tipping charges, mean that the disposal of C&D waste to landfill is rapidly ceasing to be a commercial option. However, whilst this tax has indeed reduced the amount of C&D waste being disposed of to landfill, exemptions to the tax permit the unregulated disposal of inert C&D waste as improvement to agricultural land or for the development of recreational facilities. Increased disposal costs are thus encouraging low grade recycling activities. Development time constraints, transport and disposal costs, and the low monetary value of recycled C&D waste encourage the retention of C&D waste ``on site'' for land modelling purposes, regardless of whether or not this is environmentally desirable. Timber is a major problem to contractors recycling C&D waste. It cannot be burned and it must be disposed to landfill. Separation from concrete and bricks is costly. If a site is mainly covered by concrete, environmental site assessors only dig trial pits in ``soft'' areas and only soils are analysed.

The decision on whether or not material is contaminated is made on the basis of the contaminant levels found during soil analysis and on visual inspection only. Time and cost constraints render the separate analysis of ``hard'' C&D wastes uneconomical. The Environment Agency accepts this practice. The Environment Agency take the view that it is preferable to concentrate on levels of pollutants present in the finer particles because of their mobility and because of the increased leachability of fine material. The prime concerns of the agency are contamination to the wider environment and the subsequent reuse of the site. It is therefore reasonable to assume that contaminated C&D waste is being reused and uncontaminated C&D waste is being condemned to landfill. Discussion and conclusions Large quantities of C&D waste are being used for low grade recycling activities, be it due to the cost of disposal to landfill, transport costs, time constraints or the low value of recycled material. Furthermore, contamination of C&D waste is a potential barrier to recycling and reuse and much C&D

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waste is incorporated in contaminated land and becomes part of the contaminated land remediation process. In order to reverse this situation appropriate tools are required for the risk assessment of contamination in C&D wastes. This has not currently been addressed by the construction industry in the UK. Considerable effort has been directed over the past ten years, in the UK, at developing risk assessment methodologies for contaminated land. There exists considerable information on appropriate sampling strategies, sample preparation and analytical methods for assessing contaminated land. Other countries such as The Netherlands have addressed problems of leachate of contaminants from building materials into soil and European standards are in development to address this problem. A separate assessment of contaminants in ``hard'' C&D waste materials needs to be made. The increased use of C&D waste as alternatives to newly quarried aggregates will only become a reality with the development of appropriate risk analysis geared specifically to these materials. The Environment Agency's guidelines on the management of C&D waste need updating. The research programme at the Building Research Establishment and the University of Manchester is addressing this problem. By sampling both process streams and contaminated material as well as existing background values, it will be able to evaluate how well current practice deals with the risk of contamination.
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Gutt, W.H. and Smith, M.A. (1976), ``Aspects of waste materials and their potential for use in concrete'', Resource Recovery and Conservation, Vol. 1, pp. 345-67. Highways Agency (1998), Manual of Contract Documents for Highway Works: Volume 1 Specification for Highway Works, The Stationery Office, London. Hobbs, G and Collins, R. (1997), Demonstration of Reuse and Recycling of Materials: BRE Energy Efficient Office of the Future. Information Paper IP3/97, CRC 1997, Building Research Establishment, Garston. Howard Humphries and Partners (1994), Managing Demolition and Construction Wastes. Report of the Study on the Recyling of Demolition and Construction Wastes in the UK, for the Department of the Environment, HMSO, London. Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land (1987), ``Guidance on the assessment and redevelopment of contaminated land'', ICRCL Guidance Note 59/83, 2nd ed. Magdich, P. (1990), Construction and Demolition by Pollution Prevention Handbook, California Department of Health Services, Los Angeles, CA. Mulder, E. (1991), ``The leaching behaviour of some primary and secondary raw materials used in pilot-scale road bases'', in Goumans, J.J.J.R., van der Sloot, H.A. and Aalbers, Th.G., Waste Materials in Construction, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 225-64. National Land Use Data Base (2000), http://www.nlud.org.uk/STATS/Bulletin/table2.gif RILEM (1994), ``Specifications for concrete with recycled aggregates, RILEM TC-121-DRG, Task Force 1 Report'', Materials and Structures, Vol. 27, pp. 557-9. Symonds (1999), Construction and Demolition Waste Management Practices, and Their Economic Impacts, Report to DGXI, European Commission, Symonds Group, East Grinstead.

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