Neudorfer, P.

Frequency Response
The Electrical Engineering Handbook
Ed. Richard C. Dorf
Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000
2000 by CRC Press LLC
11
!requency Response
11.1 Intioduction
11.2 Lineai Fiequency Response Plotting
11.3 Bode Diagiams
11.4 A Compaiison of Methods
11.1 Intruductiun
The IEEE Standaid Dictionaiy of Electiical and Electionics Teims defnes frequency response in stable, lineai
systems to be the fiequency-dependent ielation in both gain and phase diffeience between steady-state sinu-
soidal inputs and the iesultant steady-state sinusoidal outputs" IEEE, 1988]. In ceitain specialized applications,
the teim [requenty resonse may be used with moie iestiictive meanings. Howevei, all such uses can be ielated
back to the fundamental defnition. The fiequency iesponse chaiacteiistics of a system can be found diiectly
fiom its tiansfei function. A single-input/single-output lineai time-invaiiant system is shown in Fig. 11.1.
Foi dynamic lineai systems with no time delay, the tiansfei function H(s) is in the foim of a iatio of
polynomials in the complex fiequency s,
wheie K is a fiequency-independent constant. Foi a system in the sinusoidal steady state, s is ieplaced by the
sinusoidal fiequency , (, ) and the system function becomes
H(, ) is a complex quantity. Its magnitude, H(, ), and its aigument oi phase angle, aigH(, ), ielate,
iespectively, the amplitudes and phase angles of sinusoidal steady-state input and output signals. Using the
teiminology of Fig. 11.1, if the input and output signals aie
x() X cos ( -
x
)
y() Y cos ( -
y
)
then the output`s amplitude Y and phase angle
y
aie ielated to those of the input by the two equations
Y H(, )X
y
aigH(, ) -
x
H s K
N s
D s
( )
( )
( )

1
H , K
N ,
D ,
H , e
, H ,
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
u
u
u
u
u

aig
auI eudorler
Seorr|e Inverry
2000 by CRC Press LLC
The phiase [requenty resonse t|aratersts usually
implies a complete desciiption of a system`s sinusoidal
steady-state behavioi as a function of fiequency. Because
H(, ) is complex and, theiefoie, two dimensional in natuie,
fiequency iesponse chaiacteiistics cannot be giaphically dis-
played as a single cuive plotted with iespect to fiequency.
Instead, the magnitude and aigument of H(, ) can be sep-
aiately plotted as functions of fiequency. Often, only the
magnitude cuive is piesented as a concise way of chaiactei-
izing the system`s behavioi, but this must be viewed as an incomplete desciiption. The most common foim
foi such plots is the Bode diagram (developed by H.W. Bode of Bell Laboiatoiies), which uses a logaiithmic
scale foi fiequency. Othei foims of fiequency iesponse plots have also been developed. In the Nyquist plot
(Haiiy Nyquist, also of Bell Labs), H(, ) is displayed on the complex plane, ReH(, )] on the hoiizontal
axis, and ImH(, )] on the veitical. Fiequency is a paiametei of such cuives. It is sometimes numeiically
identifed at selected points of the cuive and sometimes omitted. The Nichols chart (N.B. Nichols) giaphs
magnitude veisus phase foi the system function. Fiequency again is a paiametei of the iesultant cuive,
sometimes shown and sometimes not.
Fiequency iesponse techniques aie used in many aieas of engineeiing. They aie most obviously applicable
to such topics as communications and flteis, wheie the fiequency iesponse behaviois of systems aie cential to
an undeistanding of theii opeiations. It is, howevei, in the aiea of contiol systems wheie fiequency iesponse
techniques aie most fully developed as analytical and design tools. The Nichols chait, foi instance, is used
exclusively in the analysis and design of feedback contiol systems.
The iemaining sections of this chaptei desciibe seveial fiequency iesponse plotting methods. Applications
of the methods can be found in othei chapteis thioughout the HanJ|oo|.
11.2 Linear Frequency Respunse P!utting
Lineai fiequency iesponse plots aie piepaied most diiectly by computing the magnitude and phase of H(, )
and giaphing each as a function of fiequency (eithei [ oi ), the fiequency axis being scaled lineaily. As an
example, considei the tiansfei function
Foimally, the complex fiequency vaiiable s is ieplaced by the sinusoidal fiequency , and the magnitude and
phase found.
The plots of magnitude and phase aie shown in Fig. 11.2.
FIGURE 11.1 A single-input/single-output lin-
eai system.
H s
s s
( )
,

+ +
160,000
2
220 160 000
H ,
, ,
H ,
H ,
( )
,
( ) ( ) ,
( )
,
( , ) ( )
aig ( ) tan
,
u
u u
u
u u
u
u
u

+ +

160 000
220 160 000
160 000
160 000 220
220
160 000
2
2 2 2
1
2

2000 by CRC Press LLC
11.3 Bude Diagrams
A Bode diagiam consists of plots of the gain and phase of a tiansfei function, each with iespect to logaiithmically
scaled fiequency axes. In addition, the gain of the tiansfei function is scaled in decibels accoiding to the
defnition
This defnition ielates to tiansfei functions which aie iatios of voltages and/oi cuiients. The decibel gain
between two owers has a multiplying factoi of 10 iathei than 20. This method of plotting fiequency iesponse
infoimation was populaiized by H.W. Bode in the 1930s. Theie aie two main advantages of the Bode appioach.
The fist is that, with it, the gain and phase cuives can be easily and accuiately diawn. Second, once diawn,
featuies of the cuives can be identifed both qualitatively and quantitatively with ielative ease, even when those
featuies occui ovei a wide dynamic iange. Digital computeis have iendeied the fist advantage obsolete. Ease
of inteipietation, howevei, iemains a poweiful advantage, and the Bode diagiam is today the most common
method chosen foi the display of fiequency iesponse data.
A Bode diagiam is diawn by applying a set of simple iules oi pioceduies to a tiansfei function. The iules
ielate diiectly to the set of poles and zeios and/oi time constants of the function. Befoie constiucting a Bode
diagiam, the tiansfei function is noimalized so that each pole oi zeio teim (except those at s 0) has a dc
gain of one. Foi instance:
Figure 11.2 Lineai fiequency iesponse cuives of H(, ).
H H H ,
dB dB
20
10
log ( ) u
H s K
s
s s
K s
s s
K
s
s s
:

( )
( )
/
( / ) ( )

+
+

+
+

+
+
u
u
u
u
u
u
t
t
1
1
1
1
2000 by CRC Press LLC
In the last foim of the expiession,
:
1/
:
and

1/

.

is a time constant of the system and s -

is the
coiiesponding natuial fiequency. Because it is undeistood that Bode diagiams aie limited to sinusoidal steady-
state fiequency iesponse analysis, one can woik diiectly fiom the tiansfei function H(s) iathei than iesoiting
to the foimalism of making the substitution s ,
Bode fiequency iesponse cuives (gain and phase) foi H(s) aie geneiated fiom the individual contiibutions
of the foui teims K , s
:
- 1, 1/s, and 1/(s

- 1). As desciibed in the following paiagiaph, the fiequency iesponse
effects of these individual teims aie easily diawn. To obtain the oveiall fiequency iesponse cuives foi the tiansfei
function, the cuives foi the individual teims aie added togethei.
The teims used as the basis foi diawing Bode diagiams aie found fiom factoiing N(s) and D(s), the numeiatoi
and denominatoi polynomials of the tiansfei function. The factoiization iesults in foui standaid foims. These
aie (1) a constant K, (2) a simple s teim coiiesponding to eithei a zeio (if in the numeiatoi) oi a pole (if in
the denominatoi) at the oiigin; (3) a teim such as (s - 1) coiiesponding to a ieal valued (nonzeio) pole oi
zeio; and (4) a quadiatic teim with a possible standaid foim of (s/u
n
)
2
- (2/u
n
)s - 1] coiiesponding to a
paii of complex conjugate poles oi zeios. The Bode magnitude and phase cuives foi these possibilities aie
displayed in Figs. 11.3-11.5. Note that both decibel magnitude and phase aie plotted semilogaiithmically. The
fiequency axis is logaiithmically scaled so that eveiy tenfold, oi decade, change in fiequency occuis ovei an
equal distance. The magnitude axis is given in decibels. Customaiily, this axis is maiked in 20-dB inciements.
Positive decibel magnitudes coiiespond to amplifcations between input and output that aie gieatei than one
(output amplitude laigei than input). Negative decibel gains coiiespond to attenuation between input and
output.
Figuie 11.3 shows thiee sepaiate magnitude functions. Cuive 1 is tiivial; the Bode magnitude of a constant
K is simply the decibel-scaled constant 20 log
10
K, shown foi an aibitiaiy value of K 5 (20 log
10
5 13.98).
Phase is not shown. Howevei, a constant of K > 0 has a phase contiibution of 0 foi all fiequencies. Foi K <
0, the contiibution would be 180 (Recall that -cos cos ( 180). Cuive 2 shows the magnitude fiequency
iesponse cuive foi a pole at the oiigin (1/s). It is a stiaight line with a slope of -20 dB/decade. The line passes
thiough 0 dB at 0 iad/s. The phase contiibution of a simple pole at the oiigin is a constant -90, independent
of fiequency. The effect of a zeio at the oiigin (s) is shown in Cuive 3. It is again a stiaight line that passes
thiough 0 dB at 0 iad/s; howevei, the slope is -20 dB/decade. The phase contiibution of a simple zeio at
s 0 is -90, independent of fiequency.
Figure 11.3 Bode magnitude functions foi (1) K 5, (2) 1/s, and (3) s.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Note fiom Fig. 11.3 and the foiegoing discussion that in Bode diagiams the effect of a pole teim at a given
location is simply the negative of that of a zeio teim at the same location. This is tiue foi both magnitude and
phase cuives.
Figuie 11.4 shows the magnitude and phase cuives foi a zeio teim of the foim (s/
:
- 1) and a pole teim
of the foim 1/(s/

- 1). Exact plots of the magnitude and phase cuives aie shown as dashed lines. Srag|
|ne aroxmaons to these cuives aie shown as solid lines. Note that the stiaight line appioximations aie so
good that they obscuie the exact cuives at most fiequencies. Foi this ieason, some of the cuives in this and
latei fguies have been displaced slightly to enhance claiity. The gieatest eiioi between the exact and appioximate
magnitude cuives is 3 dB. The appioximation foi phase is always within 7 of the exact cuive and usually
much closei. The appioximations foi magnitude consist of two stiaight lines. The points of inteisection between
these two lines (
:
foi the zeio teim and

foi the pole) aie breakpoints of the cuives. Bieakpoints

of Bode gain cuives always coiiespond to locations of poles oi zeios in the tiansfei function.
In Bode analysis complex conjugate poles oi zeios aie always tieated as paiis in the coiiesponding quadiatic
foim (s/
n
)
2
- (2 /
n
)s - 1].
1
Foi quadiatic teims in stable, minimum phase systems, the damping ratio
(Gieek lettei zeta) is within the iange 0 < < 1. Quadiatic teims cannot always be adequately iepiesented by
stiaight line appioximations. This is especially tiue foi lightly damped systems (small ). The tiaditional
appioach was to diaw a pieliminaiy iepiesentation of the contiibution. This consists of a stiaight line of 0 dB
fiom dc up to the bieakpoint at
n
followed by a stiaight line of slope 40 dB/decade beyond the bieakpoint,
depending on whethei the plot iefeis to a paii of poles oi a paii of zeios. Then, iefeiiing to a family of cuives
as shown in Fig. 11.5, the pieliminaiy iepiesentation was impioved based on the value of . The phase
contiibution of the quadiatic teim was similaily constiucted. Note that Fig. 11.5 piesents fiequency iesponse
contiibutions foi a quadiatic paii of poles. Foi zeios in the coiiesponding locations, both the magnitude and
phase cuives would be negated. Digital computei applications piogiams iendei this pioceduie unnecessaiy foi
puiposes of constiucting fiequency iesponse cuives. Knowledge of the technique is still valuable, howevei, in
the qualitative and quantitative inteipietation of fiequency iesponse cuives. Localized peaking in the gain cuive
is a ieection of the existence of resonance in a system. The height of such a peak (and the coiiesponding
value of ) is a diiect indication of the degiee of iesonance.
Bode diagiams aie easily constiucted because, with the exception of lightly damped quadiatic teims, each
contiibution can be ieasonably appioximated with stiaight lines. Also, the oveiall fiequency iesponse cuive is
found by adding the individual contiibutions. Two examples follow.
1
Seveial such standaid foims aie used. This is the one most commonly encounteied in contiols applications.
Figure 11.4 Bode cuives foi (1) a simple pole at s -

and (2) a simple zeio at s -
:
.
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Examp!e 1
In Fig. 11.6, the individual contiibutions of the foui factoied teims of (s) aie shown as long dashed lines.
The stiaight line appioximations foi gain and phase aie shown with solid lines. The exact cuives aie piesented
with shoit dashed lines.
Examp!e 2
Note that the damping factoi foi the quadiatic teim in the denominatoi is 0.35. If diawing the iesponse
cuives by hand, the iesonance peak neai the bieakpoint at 100 would be estimated fiom Fig. 11.5.
Figuie 11.7 shows the exact gain and phase fiequency iesponse cuives foi C(s).
Figure 11.5 Bode diagiam of 1/(s/
n
)
2
- (2 /
n
)s - 1].
10
20
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
u/u
n
Frequency Ratio
2
0

l
o
g

P
h
a
s
e

A
n
g
l
e
,

D
e
g
r
e
e
s
u/u
n
Frequency Ratio
(a)
(b)
-20
0
-40
-60
-80
-100
-120
-140
-160
-180
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
s
s
s s
s
s s
s
s s
( )
10
4
2 5
4
1
1100 10
10
100 1000
10
100 1 1000 1 + +

+ +

+ +

( )( ) ( / )( / )
C s
s
s s
s
s s
( )
( )
,
( / )
( / ) ( . )( / )

+
+ +

+
+ +
1000 500
70 10 000
50 500 1
100 2 0 35 100 1
2 2
2000 by CRC Press LLC
11.4 A Cumparisun ul Methuds
This chaptei concludes with the fiequency iesponse of a simple system function plotted in thiee diffeient ways.
Examp!e 3
Figuie 11.8 shows the diiect, lineai fiequency iesponse cuives foi T(s). Coiiesponding Bode and Nyquist
diagiams aie shown, iespectively, in Figs. 11.9 and 11.10.
Figure 11.6 Bode diagiam of (s).
Figure 11.7 Bode diagiam of C(s).
T s
s s s
( )
( )( )( )

+ + +
10
100 200 300
7
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Figure 11.8 Lineai fiequency iesponse plot of T(s).
Figure 11.9 Bode diagiam of T(s).
Figure 11.10 Nyquist plot of T(s).
2000 by CRC Press LLC
Dehning Terms
Bode diagram: A fiequency iesponse plot of 20 log gain and phase angle on a log-fiequency base.
Breakpoint: A point of abiupt change in slope in the stiaight line appioximation of a Bode magnitude cuive.
Damping ratio: The iatio between a system`s damping factoi (measuie of iate of decay of iesponse) and the
damping factoi when the system is ciitically damped.
Decade: Synonymous with powei of ten. In context, a tenfold change in fiequency.
Decibel: A measuie of ielative size. The decibel gain between voltages V
1
and V
2
is 20 log
10
(V
1
/V
2
). The decibel
iatio of two poweis is 10 log
10
(P
1
/P
2
).
Frequency response: The fiequency-dependent ielation in both gain and phase diffeience between steady-
state sinusoidal inputs and the iesultant steady-state sinusoidal outputs.
Nichols chart: Contiol systems - a plot showing magnitude contouis and phase contouis of the ietuin
tiansfei function iefeiied to as oidinates of logaiithmic loop gain and abscissae of loop phase angle.
Nyquist plot: A paiametiic fiequency iesponse plot with the ieal pait of the tiansfei function on the abscissa
and the imaginaiy pait of the tiansfei function on the oidinate.
Resonance: The enhancement of the iesponse of a physical system to a steady-state sinusoidal input when
the excitation fiequency is neai a natuial fiequency of the system.
Re!ated Tupics
2.1 Step, Impulse, Ramp, Sinusoidal, Exponential, and DC Signals 100.3 Fiequency Response Methods: Bode
Diagiam Appioach
Relerences
R.C. Doif, MoJern Conro| Sysems, 4th ed., Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1986.
IEEE SanJarJ Dtonary o[ E|etrta| anJ E|etronts Terms, 4th ed., The Institute of Electiical and Electionics
Engineeis, 1988.
D.E. Johnson, J.R. Johnson, and J.L. Hilbuin, E|etrt Crtu na|yss, 2nd ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-
Hall, 1992.
B.C. Kuo, uomat Conro| Sysems, 4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1982.
K. Ogata, Sysem Dynamts, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1992.
W.D. Stanley, Newor| na|yss w| |taons, Reston, Va.: Reston, 1985.
M.E. Van Valkenbuig, Newor| na|yss, 3id ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pientice-Hall, 1974.
Further Inlurmatiun
Good coveiage of fiequency iesponse techniques can be found in many undeigiaduate-level electiical engi-
neeiing textbooks. Refei especially to classical automatic contiols oi ciicuit analysis books. Useful infoimation
can also be found in books on active netwoik design.
Examples of the application of fiequency iesponse methods abound in jouinal aiticles ianging ovei such
diveise topics as contiols, acoustics, electionics, and communications.