In Malaysia, a sudden change in language policy, from Bahasa Melayu to English, has been instituted for the disciplines

of science and technology at varying levels of the educational system. For this paper, it will be the domain of higher education that will be focused on. In 2005, the students who had their pre-university courses in English would be first year students in university. These are undergraduates who would expect to have their first year university courses conducted in English. Unfortunately, this has not been the case as reflected by the letters written by a number of parents to the mainstream print media. Therefore this paper aims to unravel the reality of implementation of change in MOI in public universities. This will be done by examining the nature of transmission of directives from the higher levels of the Ministry to the academic management of public universities. What is the underlying ideology of the nature of directives issued to public universities? In turn, what are the attitudes of academic management and lecturers to this change in policy and how are they approaching the implementation of the policy in their institutions of higher learning? This will enable us to unravel the varying expectations and realities of implementation from the perspective of the government authorities, the public universities and society.

Unravelling reasons for change, conflict and compromise in mother-tongue education

Saran Kaur Gill, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Malaysia experienced a major shift in language policy in 2003 for the subjects of science and maths. This meant a change in the language of education for both national and national-type schools. For national schools, this resulted in a shift from Bahasa Malaysia, the national language to English. Parallel with this, to ensure homogeneity of impact of change, the State persuaded the nationaltype schools, which have been utilizing the language of community, Mandarin and Tamil respectively, as medium of instruction since independence in 1957, to shift to English for the teaching of science and maths. This paper aims to unravel the socio-political reasons underlying the shift with a focus on the Chinese communitys responses to the change. This will be carried out by examining the discourses of the debate contested by members of the Chinese community, juxtaposed against the reasons for the change, set forth by the State, as articulated by the former Prime Minister of Malaysia, Mahathir Mohamad. This multi-pronged approach will be used to unravel the underlying ideologies for the change and the reluctant compromise that was reached by the Chinese community. DOI: 10.1075/aila.20.09gil

Abstract The history of Malaysia's linguistic politics and policies reflect so much of what has been at the heart of Malaysia's creation of its own identity, and in more recent times, what it sees as its special roles in. the wider world. In another perspective, it could be argued that this linguistic history reflects a shift from a reactive language policy seeking to solve pressing internal tensions, largely ethnic in nature, in the period from 1957 to the early 1990s, to a clearly more proactive policy which is heavily involved in forging a newer Malaysia with external priorities and often asserted aspirations of playing a larger role on the global stage. It is probably also true to say that much of this latter shift to a proactive stance is closely associated with Dr Mahathir's administration, and with the present Defence Minister, Najib Tun Razak, who as Minister for Education in the early 1990s made much of the public running for the shift allowing - indeed, encouraging - a competence in English to be a critical feature for the new Malaysia of the 21st Century. This discussion therefore will focus on this shift in Malaysia's language policies from a reactive to a proactive stance, and will also examine some of the critical scenarios that have impacted on Malaysia's language policies for the 21st Century. Much of this analysis will consequently focus on English language policies and issues as these constitute the linguistic engine behind much of Malaysia's extension to its self image - an engine that simultaneously is emerging in many polities, but an engine that is often causing concern over its apparent 'killer' nature in terms of the fate of other languages on the world scene. It will be very apparent that language policy never arises in a vacuum and consequently there needs to be some

recognition of the evolving Malaysian political tapestry pre- and post 1999 elections and an appreciation of the impact of September II, 2001 on Malaysia in the early 21st Century.

TESOL QUARTERLY Vol. 37, No. 4, Winter 2003 589 The Impact of English as a Global Language on Educational Policies and Practices in the Asia-Pacic Region* DAVID NUNAN The University of Hong Kong Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region, China This article presents the results of an investigation into the place of English in the curriculum in several countries in the Asia-Paci c region. The study indicates that the emergence of English as a global language is having considerable impact on policies and practices in all countries surveyed. However, it also reveals signi cant problems, including confusion and inconsistency, at the level of policy, particularly regarding the issue of age of initial instruction, inequity regarding access to effective language instruction, inadequately trained and skilled teachers, and a disjunction between curriculum rhetoric and pedagogical reality. D espite the apparent widespread perception that English is a global language, relatively little systematic information has been gathered on its impact on educational policies and practices in educational systems around the world. The purpose of this study is to explore the impact of English on educational policies and practices in countries in

the Asia-Paci c region, particularly Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. These countries were chosen because they represent a range of contrasting characteristics and features, from developed to developing, ex-colonial to independent, large to small, and culturally diverse to culturally cohesive. The case study methodology revealed a variety of details about each county, which offer a glimpse at the educational policy realities of the pervasive role of English internationally. *This study is based on a Spotlight Presentation given at the 36th Annual TESOL Convention, April 2002, in Salt Lake City, Utah, in the United States. It was stimulated by an invitational conference on research priorities in TESOL, sponsored by the TESOL International Research Foundation in February 2002. During the conference, the need for research into the impact of English as a global language emerged as a major theme. (For a detailed review of this and other issues covered at this conference, see Duff & Bailey, 2001.)590 TESOL QUARTERLY WHAT IS ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE? In his book English as a Global Language, Crystal (1997) asserts, A language achieves a genuinely global status when it develops a special role that is recognized in every country (p. 2). The denition hinges on the special role, which Crystal describes as serving as the native language of the majority (such as English does in the United States or Australia), serving as the of cial language, or achieving the status of the priority foreign language (i.e., the foreign language of choice for children in schools). Crystals analysis offers some criteria by which TESOL professionals can begin to interpret the global status of the English language and English language education, observed through its use as the

language of business, technology, science, the Internet, popular entertainment, and even sports. Beyond the criteria of native language, of cial language, and priority foreign language, it is dif cult to quantify the proportional use of English versus other languages in everyday life. Nevertheless, applied linguists have provided some data. In academic contexts, Swales (1987) estimated that more than 50% of the millions of academic papers published each year are written in English, and the percentage was growing year by year. English is currently the undisputed language of science and technology, and scienti c journals in many countries are now switching from the vernacular to English. In speci c disciplines, English appears to be the universal language of communication. For example, 98% of German physicists now claim English as their de facto working language. They are closely followed by chemists (83%), biologists (81%), and psychologists (81%) (Graddol, 1997; see also, Block & Cameron, 2002; Crystal, 1997). The pervasive view of the globalization of English is tempered by a few observations. In a study commissioned by the British Council, Graddol (1997) speaks about the apparently unstoppable (p. 2) trend toward global English usage, but also points out that this could change suddenly and unexpectedly due to some relatively minor change in world events. Examining actual language use, Wallraff (2000) argues that, for example, the spread of Spanish in the United States indicates that English is not sweeping away all before it. These voices, however, are rare and faint in relation to the widespread perceptions and concerns about the unabated spread of English, and, as a consequence, TESOL professionals need a clearer understanding of educational policy implications of

global English.THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 591 EDUCATIONAL POLICY RESPONSE Few TESOL professionals can deny seeing the day-to-day results of the sociopolitical phenomenon of global English in the policies they encounter. Anecdotal evidence suggests that governments around the world are introducing English as a compulsory subject at younger and younger ages, often without adequate funding, teacher education for elementary school teachers, or the development of curricula and materials for younger learners. In business, industry, and government, workers are increasingly expected to develop pro ciency in English. These demands for English offer opportunities to the TESOL profession, but at the same time they have created many challenges for TESOL educators internationally. An initial challenge is simply to document the nature of the educational policy responses to the growing need for English in countries where English is not a native language for the majority. Such descriptive data are needed as a starting point to eventually address questions being raised by governments, bureaucracies, and industry about language policy and language education. Because TESOL professionals hold a central place in English language policy, they need to understand the impact of English as a global language on the educational practices and medium of instruction in educational systems around the governments and ministries of education are framing policies and world. Currently,

implementing practices in the language area without adequately considering the implications of such policies and practices on the lives of the teachers and students they affect (Szulc-Kurpaska, 1996). It would therefore be imprudent for TESOL professionals to remain unaware of such policies.

This study begins to shed light on policy decisions about English by seeking descriptive and interpretive accounts of the place of English within the educational systems of the following countries in the AsiaPaci c region: Mainland China, Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Each country is treated as a case within this multiple-case study of these key Asian countries. Although similar questions could be raised concerning other sectors, such as university, workplace education, and adult vocational programs, the guiding questions for the study focused on the impact of English as a global language on policies and practices within school education. 1. Has the emergence of English as a global language in uenced language planning and policy making? If so, in what ways has this in uence manifested itself? 2. What are the principles underpinning the English language curriculum, and how are they manifested in practice?592 TESOL QUARTERLY 3. What is the impact of English as a global language on educational practices and medium of instruction? 4. What are the costs and bene ts, in terms of time, money, and effort, of teaching EFL? 5. Has the introduction of English had an impact, or is it likely to have an impact in the future, on L1 or indigenous language development? METHOD I investigated these questions through a case study in which I analyzed published governmental and quasi-governmental documentation and interviewed informants representing different stakeholders within the educational systems of the countries that took part in the study. I attempted to obtain perspectives from similar sources in the seven

countries but was limited by those who chose to participate in the study. In some countries, for instance, I was able to gain access to relatively highly placed of cials in ministries of education. In other countries, however, I was not able to do so. Data Collection I rst collected and analyzed published policy statements, documents, and programs drawn from a number of sources, including recent books, articles, government reports, syllabuses, and curriculum documents. I obtained these materials in several different ways. Some were publicly available; others were provided by informants. These documents provided a backdrop for more detailed data collection through guided interviews with informants. The second source of data was guided interviews with 68 informants, the majority of whom I had met in the course of teaching and researching in the region over many years. In other instances, regional of cials from the British Council and the United States Information Service provided me with contacts. The informants represented different positions, interests, and perspectives within the educational sectors of their respective countries, including academics/teacher trainers, ministry of cials, publishers, and teachers (see Table 1). Prior to their interviews, informants received background information on the study along with the general questions set out above. In addition, I sought responses to the following more speci c questions: 1. At what age and grade level is English introduced as a compulsory subject?THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 593 2. How many hours per week and weeks per year is English taught at each grade level?

3. What plans, if any, are there to lower the age at which English is introduced as a compulsory subject? 4. To what extent is English used as a medium of instruction for other subjects? I conducted the interviews through a range of media: face-to-face, telephone, e-mail, and, in one instance, an Internet chat line. Choice of medium was left to the informants and did not appear to affect the nature of the information provided. Data Analysis Once I had obtained all the data for each country, I analyzed it by identifying responses to the guiding questions and the more speci c information I sought, looking particularly for points of agreement. I wrote a rst draft of the present article and circulated it to the informants so they could verify the data and the interpretations derived from them. FINDINGS Despite some generalizations that can be made about English language teaching (ELT) policies across the countries, each country has a distinct pro le and is therefore presented individually. In this section, I present the data yielded by documentary analysis and informant interviews (see Table 2 for a summary). TABLE 1 Informants by Position and Country (N = 68) Country Hong Position China Kong Japan Korea Malaysia Taiwan Vietnam Academic/ 4 4 2 3 2 2 2

teacher trainer Ministry of cial 2 6 0 0 0 0 1 Publisher 2 3 1 1 0 2 0 Teacher 5 6 5 3 4 7 1594 TESOL QUARTERLY TABLE 2 Summary of Findings Grade level and age at which English is introduced as a Frequency of Impact of English Country compulsory subject instruction as a global language China Grade 3, Age 9 Primary school: 23 age for compulsory English 40-minute lessons/week; lowered from 11 to 9 in secondary school: 56 September 2001 45-minute lessons/week English teaching emerging as private business English becoming increasingly signi cant as university entry requirement English enhancing promotional prospects in the workplace Hong Year 1, Age 6 Primary school: 46 overwhelming concern in Kong hours/week; secondary government and business school: 79 hours/week sectors that Hong Kong will lose economic advantage if

English language skills are not enhanced Japan First year, Age 12 Junior high school: 3 from 2002, primary 50-minute lessons/week students increasingly exposed to English, especially listening and speaking Korea Grade 3, Age 9 Grades 36: 12 hours/week; compulsory English lowered Grades 79: 24 hours/week; from age 13 to 9 Grades 1012: 4 hours/week huge nancial investment in teaching English concern with negative effects on national identity due to early introduction of English Malaysia Age 7 Primary school: 90 minutes/ concern with decline in week; secondary school: educational standards and 4 hours/week competitive economic advantage fear of impact on national language Taiwan Grade 1, Ages 67 12 hours/week compulsory English lowered from Grade 5 to Grade 1 Vietnam Grade 6, Grades 69: 4 45-minute English compulsory from Ages 1112 lessons/week; Grades 1012: junior high school (ages 3 45-minute lessons/week 1112) English plays central role in education and employment

 English pro ciency now required for most professional employmentTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 595 China I collected data for China through face-to-face interviews and documentary analysis. Informants included a managing director for China of a multinational publishing company; the director of the Foreign Languages Department of the Peoples Education Press (a company controlling approximately 70% of the school textbook market in China); the dean of the Institute of Education at Beijing Foreign Studies University; the general-secretary of the National Foreign Language Teaching Association, Education Society of China. I consulted documents, including the syllabuses for the middle school and high school system. Despite Chinas centralized approach to education, it is dif cult to get an accurate picture of what is happening there because of the sheer size and diversity of the country. There seems to be a general divide between the wealthier coastal regions and the interior. Another divide is that between urban and nonurban areas. (For current reviews of education reform in China, see Cortazzi & Jin, 1996; Lam & Chow, 2001; Liu, 1996; see also Bolton & Tong, 2002, which is devoted to an examination of English in China.) In September 2001, English was introduced as a compulsory subject in Grade 3 in all elementary schools that have suitably quali ed teachers. (Suitably quali ed was not dened by the informant who provided this information.) This represents a lowering of the age of compulsory instruction from 11 to 9. In primary school, there are generally two or three 40-minute lessons a week. In secondary school, there are either ve

or six 45-minute lessons. According to the informants, the impact of English as a global language has been considerable. Entry requirements to university, promotional prospects in the workplace, curricula, and published materials have all been affected. Teaching English is emerging as a private business outside regular schools and universities, particularly in big cities, such as Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Beijing. (One publishing industry informant told me her company estimated that there were 600,000 new enrolments in private-conversation schools every 4 to 6 months.) Two major in uences that informants frequently mentioned included Chinas joining of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the awarding of the 2008 Olympic Games to Beijing. The Degree Committee of the State Council has approved 45 Sino-foreign joint programs, which can grant degrees from foreign universities in China. All programs are taught bilingually (English and Chinese). Also in September 2001, all colleges and universities under the control of the Ministry of Education were instructed to use English as the main teaching language in the following courses: information technology, biotechnology, new-material technology, nance, foreign trade,596 TESOL QUARTERLY economics, and law. Other courses would be added as resources became available. Criteria for selecting courses were that they facilitate entry to the WTO, and that they not be politically sensitive. (Politically sensitive courses have to be taught using textbooks written in China. Courses that are not politically sensitive can use foreign textbooks.) The main obstacle to implementing this policy was obtaining suitably quali ed teachers (Chan, 2001). The latest syllabi across the board are based on a functional/notional

view of English and refer frequently to concepts such as communicative language teaching (CLT) and learner-centeredness. The latest university syllabi also refer to interdisciplinary support between English and other areas, such as law and commerce. Because of factors mentioned above, such as size, it is dif cult to determine the extent to which classroom realities re ect of cial rhetoric. Coastal areas and big cities have an advantage over inland and rural areas in terms of resources, with inevitable implications for what happens at the level of the classroom. English appears to have little impact on Chinese language itself, despite the eagerness of young people to practice their English. According to recent studies, there is little code mixing between English and Chinese (Bolton & Tong, 2002). In general, content-based instruction is not a feature of the Chinese educational system. However, some of the top schools in large cities, such as Beijing and Shanghai, have started teaching math and science in English. More universities are starting to teach courses in English, and this is becoming a requirement in certain subject areas. This move to content-based instruction at the tertiary level will increasingly affect English language instruction at the secondary level. Hong Kong I collected data for the Hong Kong survey from face-to-face interviews and government documents. Interviewees included the chief executive of the Curriculum Development Institute and the president of the North Asia subsidiary of an international publishing company that controls most of the ELT publishing market in the Special Administrative Region

(SAR). I also carried out two focus group interviews with a group of six primary and secondary school teachers. I consulted a range of government documents, including the latest government reviews and consultation documents as well as the English language syllabi for primary and secondary schools. As a former colony of Great Britain where English remains an of cial language alongside Cantonese and, increasingly, Putonghua, HongTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 597 Kong has a special place in this survey. Schools are classi ed into ve (soon to be reduced to three) bands, which are meant to re ect students ability, but which, not surprisingly, also re ect the socioeconomic status of the students and their parents. Schools are classi ed as either Chinese medium of instruction (CMI) or English medium of instruction (EMI) schools, the latter embracing a range of immersion-type curriculum models (Marsh, Hau, & Kong, 2000). Until the late 1990s, the EMI schools outnumbered the CMI schools by a ratio of 9:1, even though many students and some teachers were not pro cient in the English language. (A government report in 1990 stated that 70% of schoolchildren were unable to cope with English as a medium of instruction.) Although the textbooks, written work, and examinations were in English in many EMI schools, oral and aural communication was conducted in Cantonese, and students only encountered English in its written form. This resulted in students who were functionally illiterate in Chinese on the one hand and unable to communicate effectively in spoken English on the other. In all schools, English is introduced at the primary level in Year 1, when children are 6 years old. In EMI schools, it is also used as the

teaching medium across the curriculum. In primary school, English is taught 46 hours a week. In secondary school, it is taught 79 hours a week. (The school year is 3537 weeks long.) There is no of cial plan to lower the age at which English is offered as a compulsory subject, which would entail it being offered in kindergarten. However, some English is introduced in almost all kindergartens in the form of the alphabet and key words. English symbolizes wealth and power in Hong Kong, and this has not changed since 1997, when the new government of the Hong Kong SAR took power from Great Britain. For more than a century, English has been the prevalent language in the government, legislature, and judiciary. Hong Kong is a major international trading, business, banking, and communications center, and English is seen as a key to maintaining its position in these areas (Forey & Nunan, 2002). The prevailing rhetoric is that as a global language, English is a crucial tool for economic, social, and technological advancement. This is made explicit in government policy documents. For example, the syllabus for English language at the secondary (15) level (Curriculum Development Council, 1999), states that: As a result of the number, size and in uence of the English-speaking countries in the world and their scienti c, technological, economic, commercial and cultural in uences, English has become a truly international language. English is the language of international communication, commerce, education and entertainment. The mastery of English therefore opens up598 TESOL QUARTERLY new possibilities for our students in career advancement, educational attainment and personal ful llment. (p. 1) The in uence of English as a global language on policy and practice

is also evident in another key government document (Curriculum Development Council, 2000), which states that English Language Education seeks to provide a curriculum framework that contributes to enhancing the language pro ciency of young people for the following reasons: To enhance the competitiveness of Hong Kong so that it will be able to maintain its position as an international business centre and a knowledgebased economy, capable of rising to the challenges of global competition; To help our young people to develop a worldwide outlook through broadening their knowledge and experience; To enable our young people to use English pro ciently for study, work, leisure and effective interaction in different cultural environments; and To help our young people succeed in life and nd greater personal ful llment. (p. 2) From the rhetoric of recently published government documents as well as government-funded initiatives, such as the Target-Oriented Curriculum, CLT is the current philosophical orthodoxy in Hong Kong (Education Commission, 1990). At the classroom level, this philosophy is re ected in task-based language teaching (TBLT) and a learner-centered approach to instruction. Learner-centeredness is re ected in the strong links that are drawn between language instruction and a focus on the development of thinking and learning-how-to-learn skills. The development of information technology skills, another key aspect of government policy, is also re ected in curriculum documents on language teaching. The rhetoric has been reinforced through teacher training courses, workshops, and seminars. However, the extent to which these are implemented depends very much on individual schools and teachers.

English still plays a more prominent role as a medium of instruction in Hong Kong than in most other countries surveyed in this study. At the primary level, English is taught as a subject in most schools, except for a very small number of elite schools, which introduce English as a medium of instruction in Year 3 or 4 in certain subjects. At the secondary level, English is used as a medium of instruction for all subjects except Chinese-related subjects in all EMI schools from Forms 13. In CMI schools, English is taught only as a subject, with extra resources to support the teaching and learning of English as a second or foreign language. However, from Form 4 onwards, schools are free to decide their own medium of instruction. Many CMI schools switch back to usingTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 599 English as a medium of instruction to help students prepare for the public examinations in Forms 5 and 7 and to prepare them for tertiary studies. (English is mandated as the language of tertiary education in Hong Kong.) Despite the obsession with English and the huge amounts of money poured into English language education at every level, government and business remain (and have become increasingly) dissatis ed with the English language pro ciency of students graduating from secondary school and university. The skills and pro ciency of teachers have been called into question recently, and the government has introduced an extremely controversial measurea system of benchmarking English teachers pro ciency in the language. Another, somewhat less controversial measure has been the introduction of a Native English Teacher (NET) scheme under which native-speaking teachers of English are recruited to provide appropriate models of English that the Education

Department seems to think Cantonese-speaking teachers of English lack. A major problem throughout the region is a lack of trained teachers. Despite its relative wealth, Hong Kong is no exception. When it took power from Great Britain in 1997, the new government of the Hong Kong SAR announced that all teachers would be required to have a degree and a professional teaching quali cation. At that time, 70.6% of secondary school teachers and 37.2% of primary school teachers had such quali cations. By 2002, the gures had dropped to 57% for secondary school teachers and 27.8% for primary school teachers. The Hong Kong Education and Manpower Bureau attributes the decline to a shortage of resources: There is a mismatch between the supply and demand for teachers, with a long term shortage of teachers in certain subjects, especially English language (Chan, 2001, p. 4). Japan Japan requires 9 years of compulsory education, 6 at the primary and 3 at the junior high level. English is introduced as a compulsory subject in the rst year of junior high, when learners are 12. Students receive three 50-minute lessons a week in each of the 3 years of junior high. Although there are no plans to lower the age at which English is taught as a compulsory subject, as of 2002, all public primary schools offered a course called General Studies. This course is taught three times a week to all third through sixth graders and is supposed to cover foreign languages, including English, global education, welfare, and the environment. According to one informant, many primary schools are planning to introduce English, focusing on listening and speaking, within the General Studies program. Because the Ministry of Education has stipulated600 TESOL QUARTERLY

that the purpose is not to teach English in primary school, but to provide fun time in English, there will be no textbooks. The amount of English taught and the actual content will vary from school to school. Of cial government rhetoric is evident in the Course of Study for Lower Secondary Schools (Ministry of Education, 1999), which sets out the following objectives. To deepen students understanding of language and culture through learning a foreign language and to foster a positive attitude toward communicating in it by developing their basic ability for practical communication such as listening or speaking skills. To implement real communicative activities for students to communicate their feelings or thoughts. To help students nd proper expressions for each concrete case or situations in such communicative activities. (p. 2) According to another informant, although the government rhetoric stresses the development of practical communication skills, this is rarely re ected at the classroom level, where the emphasis is on the development of reading and writing skills for the purposes of passing entrance examinations into senior high school and college. Japan has operated the Japan Exchange and Teaching ( JET) Programme (similar to the NET scheme in Hong Kong) for about 15 years. Under this scheme, approximately 5,000 native speakers of English provide support instruction in the schools. The salary for each JET teacher is roughly 300,000 yen a month, making the scheme a costly one. As in Hong Kong, the scheme is controversial and has been criticized by Japanese and JET teachers alike, although some aspects of the scheme have met with quali ed success (Sturman, 1992).

Korea In Korea, English is introduced in the third grade, when children are 9. The school year consists of 30 weeks per year. Students receive 1 2 hours of instruction a week in Grades 36, 24 hours a week in Grades 7 9, and 4 hours a week in Grades 1012. The age for compulsory English was lowered from 13 to 9 in 1997. There are no plans to lower it further (Kwon, 2000; Park, 2000). English is a major concern in all areas of government, business, and education. All colleges and universities require 312 credit hours of English, and many universities and employers require minimum Test of English for International Communication and Test of English as a Foreign Language scores from those seeking either education or employment.THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 601 In 1995, the Sixth National Curriculum adopted a communicative, grammatical-functional syllabus. In 2001, the Ministry of Education adopted a policy of teaching English through English, which encourages the use of English in English classes. However, as with other countries in the region, a major problem is that many English teachers simply do not have the pro ciency, and therefore the condence, to teach in English. Park (2000) asserts that this is a major problem that can only be addressed through teacher education. Although the policy and textbooks changed to a communicative orientation in 1995, most teachers do not have the English language pro ciency or methodological skills to implement the policy, and there has not been a great deal of change from the grammar-translation approach. Some universities offer pay incentives to encourage teachers

to teach in English. A tremendous amount of money has been spent on teaching and learning English. On average, Korean families spend one third of their income on private lessons for their children in English, art, and music. Increasing numbers of English-medium schools are also beginning to appear, and the largest of these have student enrolments running into the hundreds of thousands. Some concern has been expressed about the negative effects that early introduction of English is having on national identity (see, e.g., Crystal, 2000). However, this concern seems to be somewhat muted and does not seem to have had much impact on the explosive demand for English language. Several informants were more concerned that introducing English language literacy to students before they had attained literacy in Korean would have a negative impact on their L1 literacy. According to informants, other subjects are not generally taught in English at the elementary and secondary school levels. However, there is some content-based instruction at the university level. Malaysia As a former colony of Great Britain, Malaysia also represents a special case within this survey. In national (Malay) schools, English is introduced at the age of 7. Vernacular (Mandarin and Tamil) schools introduce it 2 years later. In general, students receive 90 minutes of instruction a week in primary school, and 4 hours a week in secondary school. There are no plans to introduce English as a compulsory subject any earlier. The emergence of English as a global language and a perception that English language skills are in decline have caused concern at the

national government level. The government has commissioned the University of Malaya to investigate and identify causes of deterioration in English among university students.602 TESOL QUARTERLY The rhetoric in Malaysia is that of the communicative movement. It was one of the rst countries in the world to embrace a task-based approach to instruction. According to one informant, Implementation (of task-based learning) is constrained by formal top-down traditional methods. It is dif cult to assess whether the tasks meet any of the students own purposes. Another informant stated: Anecdotal evidence supported by reactions from the Ministry of Education suggests that practice is far removed from the curriculum rhetoric. At a more fundamental level, a signi cant proportion of teachers, especially in the rural areas, do not have suf cient command of the English language to conduct their classes with con dence. There is considerable consternation in Malaysia at the emergence of English as a global language because of its potential impact on the national language, which is heavily promoted for political reasons. In the 1960s and 1970s, English was abandoned as a medium of instruction, and it was only during the 1990s that the government realized that the loss of English would adversely affect economic development. Deterioration standards of English is seen as a major obstacle to the aspiration that Malaysia be declared a developed nation by 2020. (As one informant said, Global English has caught them *the government+ cold.) The nancial commitment to teaching English is considerable. Prior to independence, standards of English were high. However, success of in the

the national language policy has had an adverse impact on English. English is now considered a foreign rather than an additional language. This is especially so in rural areas. Parents who can afford the tuition are arranging for private English classes for their children. In national schools, the language is exclusively Malay. In the vernacular schools, the languages are Mandarin and Tamil. The Ministry of Education is working on the reintroduction of English as a medium of instruction in science and technical subjects at school and university. (The use of English for teaching math and science was implemented in January 2003.) All university lecturers in public universities who speak Tamil are obliged to use English. In practice, code switching is common, particularly in specialist subject areas such as medicine, architecture, and engineering. Taiwan In Taiwan, face-to-face interviews were conducted with the managing director of an international publishing company (currently developingTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 603 core English texts for the Taiwanese public school system), the president of the English Teachers Association of Taiwan, and English teachers from a number of schools and colleges, including Fu Jen High School, National Tainan First Junior High School, the Chinese Culture University, Providence University, and National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences. Ministry of Education position papers and syllabuses were also consulted. The emergence of English as a global language has had a major in uence on the governments thinking. Taiwan aims to be a major economic global player and sees the economic imperative as a major

impetus for promoting the learning of English. Thus, in September 2001, English was introduced in Grade 5 (in which learners are 1011 years of age), but this was then lowered to Grade 1 in 2002. Classes are taught 12 hours per week during the two 20-week semesters in each school year. A recently published document on the English curriculum sets out the of cial government line on principles underpinning the curriculum (Ministry of Education, Taiwan, 2000). The objective of the elementary/junior high school curriculum should be to instill a basic communicative ability, to prepare students to take a global perspective, and to give individuals condence in communicating in the global area (thus improving the nations competitiveness). Elementary and middle schools should provide a natural and enjoyable language learning environment. (p. 2) All informants agree that Ministry expectations are far above what most schools and teachers can deliver. A major issue is the training of teachers, and teacher training programs are very limited. Even teachers who have completed training programs have dif culty with their English skills as well as their teaching pedagogy, particularly with regard to teaching younger learners. This is because most teacher educators have no experience themselves in teaching younger learners. The entire public school system in Taiwan is undergoing tremendous change with the introduction of a new initiative entitled the Nine Year Program, which aims to integrate Chinese, English, information technology and computing skills, math, science, and social studies in elementary and junior high school curricula. Governmental investment is large, but the hope is that this initiative

will have a bene cial effect later on, resulting in higher levels of pro ciency in English at the university level. (Informants generally agreed that the level of English pro ciency among university students is still quite low when it comes to communicative use.) According to QUARTERLY the informants, content-based instruction is a foreign604 TESOL

concept in Taiwan. Whether this changes in the future, as appears to be the case in some contexts in Mainland China, is dif cult to say, and informants were unable to offer a perspective on this point. Vietnam Economically, Vietnam was the poorest of the countries surveyed, with extremely limited resources available for all forms of education. Policy and practice issues relating to English were of particular interest. The school year in Vietnam runs for 30 weeks, from September through May. Children begin elementary school at the age of 6 and spend 5 years at that level before graduating to junior high school at the age of 11 or 12. It is here that they begin studying English as a compulsory subject for four 45-minute periods a week. In senior high school (Years 10, 11, and 12), English is also compulsory, although the number of periods per week drops from four to three. The above data represent the number of lessons prescribed by the Ministry of Education and Training. In practice, however, considerable variation exists. For example, in Ho Chi Minh City, schools may teach up to 6 periods a week of English. In addition, there are schools that specialize in English, where students may study the subject for as many as 14 periods a week.

Some thought has been given to lowering the age at which English is introduced as a compulsory subject. A limited number of elementary schools in Ho Chi Minh City have begun experimenting with classes in English. In addition to government-run schools, some private language schools throughout the country offer English to children as young as 5 or 6. The prevailing rhetoric in Vietnam appears to be communicative, with an integrated four-skills focus in the early years. In high school, however, the focus is exclusively on reading. Thus, the Year 7 textbook covers the four skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing as the basis for developing students reading skills in subsequent years. In the Year 12 textbook, students review the materials they have studied in previous years and continue to practice their four language skills, but the emphasis is mostly on developing their reading skills. Despite the lip service paid to CLT, there appears to be a large gap between the rhetoric and the reality. When re ecting on her own experience as an English teacher in Vietnam, one informant stated: All the books present a lot of exercises on grammar and reading comprehension. I used to teach high school and left after eighteen years. From my experience, the students cannot use the language in communicating. ThereTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 605 used to be no tapes for listening, and there are no listening exercises. They have made the tapes for listening now, but the books are just the same. The globalization of English has had a considerable impact on policy and practice in Vietnam. In the words of one informant: It can be said that the English has become a must for success in both studying and working. One of the most common requirements in job advertisements is

pro ciency in English (another is computer skills). Since 1986, the year the government began to apply its open door policy, language centers have mushroomed all over Ho Chi Minh City and other big cities and towns. English is also compulsory at university level and it helps both students and workers to gain scholarships to go abroad. GENERALIZATIONS The case study data led to generalizations across the countries in the Asian Paci c in the areas of impact on policy, differential access to English within each country, teacher education, principles of language education, and effects on the home language. Policy Impact of English as a Global Language This investigation has shown that English has had a signi cant impact on policy. For example, despite considerable country-by-country variation (see Table 2), the age at which English is a compulsory subject in most of the countries has shifted down in recent years, a shift that is predicated on the importance of English as a global language. Underlying the shift is an assumption on the part of the governments and ministries of education that when it comes to learning a foreign language, younger is better. This view seems to be rmly entrenched in popular opinion, which in uences policy decisions, despite its controversial nature in the professional literature (see, e.g., Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2001; Marinova-Todd, Marshall, & Snow, 2000, 2001). Access to English In most of the Asian Paci c countries surveyed, considerable inequity exists in terms of access to effective English language instruction. In China, for instance, the haves versus the have-nots and city versus rural

divides and the inequities owing from these divides have been exacerbated by the growing importance of English and the inequitable access606 TESOL QUARTERLY to quality instruction in English. In a number of the countries, informants spoke frankly of the fact that the quality of English language education in the public sector was so poor that no one learns English in school. These informants reported that the only children who stood a chance of learning English were those whose parents could afford to send them to private, after-school language classes. The data from this study strongly support the following assertion by Bruthiaux (2002): In most markets, the consumers of English language education are the relatively well-off, already far beyond the stage of mere survival. To the extent that the severely poor are aware of it at all, the global spread of English is a sideshow compared with the issue of basic economic development and poverty reduction. (p. 290) Teacher Education Teacher education and the English language skills of teachers in public-sector institutions are inadequate, according to the informants in all the countries included in this study. Although this may not be surprising in developing countries, such as China and Vietnam, it must be of major concern in more developed countries, such as Malaysia and Hong Kong, where millions of dollars have been poured into teacher education in recent years. Of even greater concern has to be the widespread use of nonquali ed teachers throughout the region and a decline in the percentage of quali ed English teachers in public schools in places such as Hong Kong. Principles of Language Education All of the countries surveyed subscribe to principles of CLT, and in a

number of them, TBLT (the latest methodological realization of CLT) is the central pillar of government rhetoric. However, in all the countries surveyed, it would seem that rhetoric rather than reality is the order of the day. Poor English skills on the part of teachers as well as inadequate teacher preparation make it very dif cult, if not impossible, for many teachers to implement CLT in their classrooms. In places such as Hong Kong and Taiwan, where principles of TBLT are beginning to appear in commercial textbooks aimed at the public school sector, most teachers have a poor understanding of the ideas, and it remains to be seen whether they will be able to use these materials effectively.THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 607 Effect on Learners Home Language There is growing concern in the literature about the impact of English on rst and vernacular languages (Crystal, 2000; Phillipson, 1992; Shorris, 2000; Philippine Commission on Educational Reform [PCER], 2000). I asked informants their views on this issue, but none expressed a major concern, perhaps because the impact on smaller vernacular languages is not considered to be too serious in the countries I surveyed. I thought it might be a potential concern in the Philippines, where it is referred to in the PCER report; however, even the Minister of Education did not mention it. DISCUSSION The results of this study point to a number of concerns about current ELT practices that require at least some comment, even though solutions may not be immediately apparent. Language Pro ciency of Teachers

In the countries surveyed, the English language pro ciency of many teachers is not suf cient to provide learners with the rich input needed for successful foreign language acquisition. This nding is alarming in view of the popular and some professional views about the conditions required for successful foreign language instruction in the early years. According to Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000), Investment in elementary foreign language education may well be worth it, but only if the teachers are native or native-like speakers and well trained in the needs of younger learners; if the early learning opportunities are built upon with consistent, well-planned, ongoing instruction in the higher grades; and if the learners are given some opportunities for authentic communicative experiences in the target language. Decisions to introduce foreign language instruction in the elementary grades should be weighed against the costs to other components of the school curriculum; as far as we know, there are no good studies showing that foreign language instruction is worth more than additional time invested in math, science, music, art, or even basic L1 literacy instruction. (pp. 2829) If this strong position were justi ed, the ndings of this research, which suggest that teachers in the public schools are anything but native or native-like in English language pro ciency, would be cause for608 TESOL QUARTERLY concern. Although I would argue that a high level of pro ciency in the language is desirable, I believe the authors go too far in asserting that elementary education will only be effective if teachers are native or native-like speakers. Technology and rich, input-based programs can do a great deal to support teachers who do not have high levels of uency in

the target language (Anderson & Nunan, 2003) if they have access to appropriate materials and education about how to use them. Access to rich input, either from native speakers, highly competent speakers of the language, or appropriate technology, is fundamental to the development of high-level skills in the target language (Ellis, 1994). Recognizing that such input does not need to come from the local teacher, the solution on the part of Hong Kong and Japan is to recruit large numbers of native-English-speaking teachers through the NET and JET Programmes. These schemes have been extremely expensive and have had mixed success, although, in the case of Hong Kong, at least, it is too early to provide a detailed evaluation of the effectiveness of the NET scheme. My own view is that, in the long term, this investment would be better spent on programs to enhance the pro ciency and professional skills of local teachers. Extended Exposure to and Interaction in English To achieve consistent and measurable improvements in the target language, learners need adequate exposure to it. In actuality, in most of the countries surveyed, the luckier students, particularly those in the early years, will receive only an average of 5060 hours of English language instruction a year, which is probably less than what is needed for signi cant progress in a foreign language. The fortunate students whose parents can afford it will receive supplementary instruction in private, after-school classes. If they are lucky enough to nd themselves in schools run by quali ed teachers, they may reach the critical mass of hours required to register genuine and long-lasting progress toward high levels of pro ciency. If they do,

indications are that they will reap signi cant economic rewards and, thus, perpetuate or exacerbate the economic divide that exists in most countries, certainly in most of the countries that were surveyed. It must be a major concern to all those involved in English language education that the efforts currently underway do not appear to be re ected in signi cantly enhanced English language skills. Even in Hong Kong, where, on paper at least, there is considerably more English than in most other countries in the region, many students leave high school with only the most limited ability to communicate in the language. Another important, and related, feature of successful foreign lan-THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 609 guage education is the opportunity for learners to take part in authentic communicative interaction. It is true that lip service is paid to CLT, and that the principles of CLT are enshrined in all of the documents examined for this research. However, all informants, in all the countries surveyed, reported a huge gap between ministerial rhetoric and classroom reality. Teacher Education With the introduction of English at the primary school level, teachers need special training in the needs of younger learners. Curricula, teaching methods, and materials should meet the needs of the learners of different ages and at different stages. In reality, adequate and appropriate training is a major problem in all countries surveyed. In Hong Kong, the government has made serious efforts to enhance the professional skills of English teachers and has mandated the benchmarking of English teachers. However, all of the countries (as is the case in most other parts of the world) lack a pedagogy that is appropriate for young learners. In addition, there is little evidence that differentiated

curricula to meet the needs of learners at different chronological ages and stages have been developed or are being developed, although this is changing in some of the countries (the change being driven as much by forward-looking commercial publishers as by ministries of education). Policy Questions of Age and Intensity Apart from questions about the optimal age at which English should be introduced as a foreign language and with what intensity is a more fundamental question: Is English, in fact, a necessity in the countries in question? The single most pervasive outcome of this study is that English language policies and practices have been implemented, often at signi cant cost to other aspects of the curriculum, without a clearly articulated rationale and without a detailed consideration of the costs and bene ts of such policies and practices on the countries in question. Furthermore, there is a widely articulated belief that, in public schools at least, these policies and practices are failing. In countries where a considered response to the question posed in the preceding paragraph is yes, the following actions are recommended: 1. a review of the starting age and intensity of foreign language instruction, along with the articulation of a rationale for both 2. an audit of the human and material resources allocated to English language instruction and an assessment of the adequacy of these in610 TESOL QUARTERLY relation to the needs of the learners, along with a cost-bene t analysis of English language education within the educational system as a whole 3. an investigation into the extent to which principles enshrined in of cial curriculum documentation are effectively realized at the level

of classroom practice 4. an analysis of pre- and postexperience teacher education provisions and an assessment of the appropriateness of these 5. a critical review of the principles underlying the curriculum, and an assessment of the appropriateness of the principles to the context in which the curriculum is used 6. in cases where English is introduced before L1 literacy is fully established, an investigation into the effect of the introduction of an L2 on L1 literacy and oracy development CONCLUSION The results of this investigation have identi ed some of the effects of English as a global language on policies and practices in a number of countries in the Asia-Paci c region. These countries are investing considerable resources in providing English, often at the expense of other aspects of the curriculum, but the evidence suggests that these resources are not achieving the instructional goals desired. It would seem advisable, then, for governments and educational bureaucracies to review their policies on ELT. If English is a necessity, steps should be taken to ensure that teachers are adequately trained in language teaching methodology appropriate to a range of learner ages and stages, that teachers own language skills are signi cantly enhanced, that classroom realities meet curricular rhetoric, and that students have suf cient exposure to English in instructional contexts. In view of the central role that ELT is playing in educational decision making in these, and presumably other, countries, the TESOL profession also needs to increase knowledge about the actual uses of English and its

effects. Research is needed on the English language requirements of workers in workplaces and occupations, from multinational corporations to government and quasi-government institutions, such as hospitals and other public institutions. Although industry-speci c needs analyses are common, there are few empirical investigations into the speci c nature of the demand for English in the everyday working lives of individuals outside of elds such as tourism. One of the few empirical studies in the literature (Forey & Nunan, 2002) established that there was an urgentTHE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 611 need for professional English of a particular kind. However, the study only looked at a single profession (accountancy) within a single geographical region (Hong Kong). Assuming the need for English is reality rather than myth, data are needed on the most effective and cost-effective means of meeting this need and on the curriculum modes that are most effective (e.g., traditional classroom-based, self-access, independent learning, distance learning, technology, Web-based). Related to these imperatives is the need for data on the implications of the changing workplace and economy globally for the teaching, learning, and use of English, often with speakers of other nonstandard varieties of English. The pressure being imposed by globalization is illustrated by a multinational corporation in Latin America that recently made English the of cial language of the corporation. Middle managers within the corporation are required to reach salary-dependent English language benchmarks by the end of 2003. Finally, at a sociocultural level, the effect of the emergence of English as a global language on rst and indigenous language development

needs to be studied, and, in developing countries, a key question is the extent to which access to English is a mechanism for determining who has access to economic advancement and who does not. (For a discussion on this issue, see Bruthiaux, 2002; Kachru, 1992; and Phillipson, 1992.) The Philippine government has become so concerned about the effect of English as a medium of instruction on school children that it is proposing that schools switch from using English and Filipino to using the vernacular from Grade 1 (Philippine Commission on Educational Reform, 2000), based on the assumption that this change will make students stay in, rather than drop out of, school, learn better, quicker and more permanently (p. xviii). However, in other areas, the spread of English may threaten the right of children to be educated in their own language (Crystal, 2000; Nunan, 2001). In short, the educational policy decisions that were the focus of this research are interconnected in complex ways with a matrix of other issues about which TESOL professionals need to develop an understanding. This research was intended to offer a rst step in what needs to be a continued effort for the profession to document, conceptualize, and respond to the fact that English is a global language. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Professor Ronald Carter from the University of Nottingham as well as three anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article.612 TESOL QUARTERLY THE AUTHOR David Nunan is chair professor of applied linguistics and director of the English Centre at the University of Hong Kong. REFERENCES

Anderson, N., & Nunan, D. (2003, March). Strategies for successful listening and reading development. Paper presented at the 37th Annual TESOL Convention, Baltimore, MD. Block, D., & Cameron, D. (Eds.). (2002). English and globalization. London: Routledge. Bolton, K., & Tong, Q. S. (Eds.). (2002). English in China [Special issue]. World Englishes, 21(2). Bruthiaux, P. (2002). Hold your courses: Language education, language choice, and economic development. TESOL Quarterly, 36, 275296. Chan, V. (2001, September 25). English takes over in technical courses. South China Morning Post, p. 4. Cortazzi, M., & Jin, L. (1996). English teaching and learning in China. Language Teaching, 29, 6180. Crystal, D. (1997). English as a global language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. (2000). Language death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Curriculum Development Council. (1999). Syllabuses for secondary schools English language (Secondary 15). Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region, China: Hong Kong Education Department. Curriculum Development Council. (2000). Learning to learnKey learning area: English language education. Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region, China: Hong Kong Education Department. Duff, P., & Bailey, K. (Eds.). (2001). Identifying research priorities: Themes and directions for the TESOL International Research Foundation. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 595616. Education Commission. (1990). Education commission report number 4. Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region, China: Hong Kong Education Department.

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Forey, G., & Nunan, D. (2002). The role of language and culture within the accountancy workforce. In C. Barron, N. Bruce, & D. Nunan (Eds.), Knowledge and discourse: Towards an ecology of language. London: Longman/Pearson. Graddol, D. (1997). The future of English. London: British Council. Kachru, B. (Ed.). (1992). The other tongue: English across cultures. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Hyltenstam K., & Abrahamsson, N. (2001). Age and L2 learning: The hazards of matching practical implications with theoretical facts. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 151170. Kwon, O. (2000). Koreas English education policy changes in the 1990s: Innovations to gear the nation for the 21st century. English Teaching, 55, 47 91. Lam, A., & Chow, K. (2001, March). English language education in China: An update. Paper presented at the International Conference on Globalization, Culture, and English Language Education in China and Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, Special Administrative Region, China. Liu, D. (1996, January). English language teaching in schools in China. Paper presented at the English 2000 Conference, Beijing, China.THE IMPACT OF ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE 613 Marinova-Todd, S., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. (2000). Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 934. Marinova-Todd, S., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. (2001). Missing the point: A response to Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 171181. Marsh, H., Hau, K. T., & Kong, C. K. (2000). Late immersion and language instruction in Hong Kong high schools: Achievement growth in language and

nonlanguage subjects. Harvard Educational Review, 70(3), 302346. Ministry of Education, Taiwan. (2000). The English curriculum. Taipei, Taiwan: Author. Ministry of Education. (1999). Course of study for lower secondary schools. Tokyo: Author. Nunan, D. (2001). English as a global language. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 605 606. Park, J.-K. (2000, August). Teacher education for ELT in Korean elementary schools. Paper presented at the English Language Teaching Contacts Scheme (ELTeCS) Conference on Young Learners ELT Curriculum in East Asia, Taiwan Normal University, Taipei, Taiwan. Philippine Commission on Educational Reform. (2000). Philippine agenda for educational reform: The PCER report. Manila, Philippines: Department of Education, Culture and Sports. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shorris, E. (2000, August). The last word: Can the worlds small languages be saved? Harpers Magazine, 3543. Sturman, P. (1992). Team teaching: A case study from Japan. In D. Nunan (Ed.), Collaborative language learning and teaching (pp. 141161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Swales, J. (1987). Utilizing the literatures in teaching the research paper. TESOL Quarterly, 21, 4168. Szulc-Kurpaska, M. (1996). A survey of early foreign and second language programmes. Orbis Linguarum, 5, 167188. Wallraff, B. (2000, November). What global language? The Atlantic Monthly, 286(5), 5266. Retrieved October 23, 2003, from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues /2000/11/wallraff.htm

Malaysia As a former colony of Great Britain, Malaysia also represents a special case within this survey. In national (Malay) schools, English is introduced at the age of 7. Vernacular (Mandarin and Tamil) schools introduce it 2 years later. In general, students receive 90 minutes of instruction a week in primary school, and 4 hours a week in secondary school. There are no plans to introduce English as a compulsory subject any earlier. The emergence of English as a global language and a perception that English language skills are in decline have caused concern at the national government level. The government has commissioned the University of Malaya to investigate and identify causes of deterioration in English among university students.602 TESOL QUARTERLY The rhetoric in Malaysia is that of the communicative movement. It was one of the rst countries in the world to embrace a task-based approach to instruction. According to one informant, Implementation (of task-based learning) is constrained by formal top-down traditional methods. It is dif cult to assess whether the tasks meet any of the students own purposes. Another informant stated: Anecdotal evidence supported by reactions from the Ministry of Education suggests that practice is far removed from the curriculum rhetoric. At a more fundamental level, a signi cant proportion of teachers, especially in the rural areas, do not have suf cient command of the English language to conduct their classes with con dence. There is considerable consternation in Malaysia at the emergence of English as a global language because of its potential impact on the national language, which is heavily promoted for political reasons. In the

1960s and 1970s, English was abandoned as a medium of instruction, and it was only during the 1990s that the government realized that the loss of English would adversely affect economic development. Deterioration standards of English is seen as a major obstacle to the aspiration that Malaysia be declared a developed nation by 2020. (As one informant said, Global English has caught them *the government+ cold.) The nancial commitment to teaching English is considerable. Prior to independence, standards of English were high. However, success of the national language policy has had an adverse impact on English. English is now considered a foreign rather than an additional language. This is especially so in rural areas. Parents who can afford the tuition are arranging for private English classes for their children. In national schools, the language is exclusively Malay. In the vernacular schools, the languages are Mandarin and Tamil. The Ministry of Education is working on the reintroduction of English as a medium of instruction in science and technical subjects at school and university. (The use of English for teaching math and science was implemented in January 2003.) All university lecturers in public universities who speak Tamil are obliged to use English. In practice, code switching is common, particularly in specialist subject areas such as medicine, architecture, and engineering in the

Challenges in teaching English in Malaysia The challenge facing the teaching of English literacy in Malaysia lies in making our classroom relevant to the current literacy needs. Literacy in the 21 st century necessitates an inclusive pedagogy that looks at learners as co-authors and co-producers in knowledge acquisition (Koo, 2008). Learning is seen as participating and taking part in communities of practice (Wenger, 1998), making literacy learning as meaningful and emergent. Implicit in the concepts of literacy as meaningful and emergent is that literacy is about new learning, about promoting new knowledge and offering opportunities of continuity and discontinuity. As learners participate in a meaningful learning, they acquire new literacy. Current formulations of academic literacies in our educational environment that reflect a heavy emphasis on the commodity value of literacy is disadvantageous to our learners (Naginder, 2006). Students are evaluated based on their performance and ability to obtain good grades in the examination or display good writing skills. The practice of evaluating students based on their skills and competencies silences learners voices, making them feel alienated and separated from meaningful language use. In the same vein, Koo (2008, p. 31) cautions that as long as literacy continues to be viewed in terms of narrow utilitarian, decontextualized skills-based discourses..., Malaysian learners will find themselves seriously disadvantaged in todays global space. She further affirms that a serious discontinuity exists between literacy practices in schools and universities and the expectations, norms values of the new workspaces in present 21 st

century. The new literacies for 21 st century command for the capacity to negotiate diversity, produce new ideas and think out of the box. The new language GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies 45 Volume 12(1), Special Section, January 2012 ISSN: 1675-8021 classroom should encompass learning environments which encourage critical thinking, foster innovative culture, and acknowledge diversity in global spaces. Baker (2009, p. 78) describes literacy in the 21 st century as follows: literacy is variously said to cultivate values, norms of behaviour and codes of conduct, to create benign citizens, develop powers of thinking and reasoning, enculturate, emancipate and empower, provide enjoyment and emotional development, develop critical awareness, foster religious devotion, community development and not the least to be central to academic success across the curriculum. Based on the reviews presented earlier in this paper, it remains unclear how, and how well schools are preparing our students to live and participate in the 21 st century literate ways of behaving and doing things. When young people around the globe are already connecting and enthusiastically using English in an ICT-saturated world, how are the language teachers preparing our young learners to meet the needs of the present and future worlds? Also remains unclear is the nature of the practices that the learners

currently engaged in with regards to learning English both in-school and out-of-school contexts. Some research have suggested that lack of connectivity between home, school and local communities may have significant implications for student learning. Gaps in the literature and suggestions for further research Studies conducted to look for ways to improve English language learning in Malaysia have largely focused on the teaching and learning of English in the language classrooms. It is important now to look beyond the language classrooms in order to understand the position of English literacy to the learners. More studies are needed to examine learners ways of using different linguistics repertoire when they are outside of the classrooms. Studies are also needed to find ways to situate English language among the available linguistics codes our learners have. Most of the studies reviewed in this paper are situated within the structure of autonomous model (Street, 1984). Within this perspective, learning is viewed as concrete, cognitive skills that are transferable to any context. The review here however points towards the need to look at language learning as joining or membership into a discourse community. The studies also mainly use questionnaire or survey methods to examine the problem in hand and the methods used underplay the intricacy and the psychological nature of English language learning in Malaysia. The use of quantitative methods such as survey questions could limit the critical areas that can be examined by qualitative case study researches. This paper therefore suggests that in order to look at English literacy learning as inclusive and relevant to the present needs, more studies that employ qualitative research design are needed to provide empirical evidence of localized, contextualized use of 46 the language. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies

Volume 12(1), Special Section, January 2012 ISSN: 1675-8021

This paper argues that literacy learning in Malaysia should be positioned within the theory of literacy as social practice. Viewing literacy in this perspective, language is seen as a tool for navigating the social world, constructing meaning, displaying identities and accomplishing social goals. The focus of teaching and learning is on processes and practices as they are situated in meaningful activity, not on cognitive capacities that are required for those practices. To situate English literacy learning in a non-native context such as Malaysia, it is necessary to have an ethnographic understanding of how English language is viewed by the local communities (Hazita Azman, 2009). Teachers and curriculum developers need to investigate the extent to which English is positioned in the learners repertoire (ibid) so that they can design a literacy curriculum that will better suit the learners needs. By connecting and situating English literacy learning in the learners social lives, learning English to our learners would no longer perceived as irrelevant and devoid of context. As suggested by Razianna Abdul Rahman (2005, p. 22), unless teachers understand the social and cultural nature of learning, it is not possible for teachers to provide the kind of English learning experiences that can help learners to develop their overall language proficiency. Following the preceding discussion, this paper proposes changes in the theorizing of English literacy learning in Malaysian classrooms. As illustrated in Figure 1, literacy as a social practice should be the overarching paradigm that includes in it the practice of literacy as autonomous skills. Together they would pedagogically position the learning of reading and writing skills as embedded into the learning as participating in meaningful interactions. This way, with literacy viewed in a social practice paradigm, language learning should incorporate elements of doing, experiencing, becoming and belonging to communities of practice as suggested by Wenger (1998). Figure 1: Proposed framework for English language curriculum

Literacy as social practice Language learning as participating in meaningful interactions Language learning as learning a set of language skills Literacy as autonomous 47 skills GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies

Volume 12(1), Special Section, January 2012 ISSN: 1675-8021 Conclusion This paper highlights a number of points that put forward important pedagogical implications in the teaching of English in Malaysia. 1. There is a strong influence of the national language or Bahasa Malaysia over the learning of English among Malaysian learners. 2. The teaching of English in our classrooms that emphasizes rote-learning and the mastery of specific language skills that are then tested via examinations should be revised. 3. A language curriculum that advances on inclusive, learning-by-doing experiences would encourage a more meaningful learning. An improved English language curriculum that operates on reflective learning pedagogy would encourage learners to become independent and critical language learners, in line with the current trends in language learning. 4. Future research needs to continue to investigate the pedagogical practices of teaching English in this country and at the same time, to evaluate and check the development of teachers knowledge in the domain as they are significant agents

that translate policy into action. Literacy and language learning remain central to education domain. Language is used as a medium for learning and to commu European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 627 Linguistics and Environment in English Language Learning: Towards the Development of Quality Human Capital Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Norsimah Mat Awal School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia E-mail: norsimah@ukm.my Kesumawati Abu Bakar School of Language Studies and Linguistics Faculty of Social Sciences & Humanities Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia Abstract One of the aims in the decision to change the language of instruction in teaching Mathematics and Science is to improve the English proficiency of the students because the inability or limited ability to communicate in English has been identified as one of the reasons of the high unemployment rate among Malay university graduates. In the recent

2006 UPSR results, it was reported that 70% students are weak in English (Utusan Malaysia, 16th November 2006 - however, no reasons and elaborations on students profile were given). The same findings were also recorded in a research entitled English as a Second Language: Problems and Solutions where 70% of the respondents were found to be weak in English. Among the reasons that have been identified are linguistics and environment factors. Structural differences between English and Malay have also been identified as another problem faced by the students in learning English. In addition, weaknesses in morphology and syntax, which are part of the main thrusts in language learning, further exacerbate the problem. Environment that is not conducive to language learning further add to the problem. Hence, efforts to improve the pedagogy, linguistic knowledge of teachers and learning strategies should be stepped up in line with the nations aim to build and accelerate the development of quality human capital. Keywords: Linguistics knowledge, Environment factors, English proficiency, Quality human development 1. Introduction Fifty years after independence, the problems educators faced in the domain of teaching and learning of English have continued to be a frequently debated topic. Language policy which is intended to satisfy the needs of the nation continues to be questioned. Failures among college graduates to secure jobs European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 628 after graduating are often linked to their inability to communicate effectively in English. We are often reminded that to successfully compete in todays globalized world, mastery of the English language is a necessity. Globalization appears to promote homogeneity when in fact heterogeneity in acquiring

knowledge should be encouraged. In this context, English is often assumed as part of this homogeniety. In our compelling efforts to introduce the notion of language homogeneity as global language, we have to take stock of the situation and examine our readiness to face the challenges. A statement by the Director-General of the Education Ministry of Malaysia that the overall students performance in English in the recent 2006 UPSR 1 is below average (70% is considered weak in their achievement) should be given due attention. Logically, a weak performance or achievement in English would also influence two other subjects, namely, mathematics and science as these two subjects are taught in English. This paper seeks to examine the link between the reason behind the decline in performance in English with language policy and the ultimate aim of the country to achieve quality human capital. This paper will attempt to provide a glimpse of the present scenario and efforts that could be taken by relevant authorities. 2. English in Malaysia Today A lot of researches have been conducted on the performance of students in English in Malaysia. Most of the research tried to explore the reasons behind students poor command of the English language by looking at factors such as attitude, perception and environment. Noreiny Maarof (2003) found that Malaysian students are embarrassed to use English. The fact that their environment did not promote the

use of English fueled their hesitation to use the language. This problem persists when the medium of communication among students continue to be their mother tongue and not English. However, they do watch English movies and listen to English songs. A few researches that specifically focused on the teaching of Science and Mathematics in English have been carried out. Nor Hashimah (2004) showed that teachers and students are more confident in using Malay language as a medium of instruction for Science and Mathematics. More than 75% students and 90% teachers believed that they can comprehend the two subjects if they are taught in Malay. A research with bigger samples was conducted by Juriah Long et.al (2005) which focused on the issue of teaching and learning Mathematics and Science in English. 8000 samples were taken as respondents proved that the policy is not benefitting the students in general. The urbanites, who are generally rich and non Malays are the ones who gain most from this policy. On the other hand, those who come from rural and mostly poor and Malays are the ones who lose out most in this new policy. The latest research under the leadership of Nor Hashimah Jalaluddin (research code SK01/2006) on Form Two students in urban, semi- urban and rural areas shows that they too, face the same problems. The students agree that English is important; however, their environment does not promote the use of English. In addition, they too, feel that learning English is difficult and structural differences between English and Malay have further added to the constraints in mastering the language. This paper will explore further the link between

language policy, environment, perception and language acquisition in developing quality human capital. 3. Language Policy and Education in Malaysia As an independent country, Malaysia has a well coordinated education system that is frequently debated in the Parliment. There are a few reports that served as the basis for national language policy and in implementing reforms to ensure that students receive the best education possible. This chapter

1 UPSR (Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah; translation: Primary School Evaluation Test) is a national examination taken by all Standard Six (12 year old) studentds in Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 629 will divide further discussion into two, namely, Language Policy during Razaks 2 era and Post-Razak era. 3.1. Education during Razaks Era Education system in the Razaks era is an education system that was based on the Razak Report 3 . Razak Report was endorsed and passed in 1965 and implemented until 1995 4 . The report states that

language is an important vehicle to unite the nation, more so in a multi-racial country like Malaysia. The effort to unite the country through a national language has its own complicated history. The authority felt that unity will be achieved through the implementation of a common policy. The Razak Education Committee was made up of representatives from every race in Malaya (including a few senior officers from the British government who were posted to Malaya then). The committee received 164 memorandoms, suggestions and letters from various associations (including 13 from foreign governments) and individuals. Two important formulas were formed: i. school system in Malaya is to have a common content syllabus ii. education system post-independence must have a common language, that is a national language as the main medium of instruction in the education system The Razak Report continues to emphasize: *Education in Malaya should aim+ to bring together the children of all races under a national education system in which the national language is the main medium of instruction though we realize that progress towards this goal cannot be rushed and must be gradual It continues: it is hoped that this concerted use of the National Language will inculcate in all citizens the habit of using it regularly. It is only in this way that they will feel they belong to this country, and that the National Language is a real living force that binds them together (YM Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, 2007).

The above quotation from the Razak Report shows that the national language policy has a single aim, which is to unite the various races in Malaya under one language banner which is the Malay language. It also aims for a common content syllabus a national syllabus that will lead to a common goal in education; which ultimately and hopefully produce human capital with national image and identity, united and able to live in harmony regardless of ethnic background. The Razak Report (1956) is the brainchild and vision of Tun Abdul Razak (the Education Minister then) that surpassed ethnic boundaries for the sake of national unity. The issues surrounding the notion of nationhood that Tun Razak tried to overcome in a way is quite similar to the United States. America is often labelled as a melting pot nation that has alway attracted people from various parts of the world. With various races living together, America realized the importance of a single language to unite them. In this case, America has chosen English as the language to foster loyalty, identity and national security in nation building as stated by Dennis Baron (1990) in their attempt to formulate a legislature on language policy: Americanism, they argue, loses something in the translation, while English offers the only key to the nations democracy, history and culture. Language thus becomes a literal shibboleth of nationality, a badge of true Americanism, and anything less than fluency in English - a foreign accent, let alone the maintainence of a minority tongue is perceived to threaten national security and subvert the national ideal (Dennis Baron; 1990).

2 Tun Abdul Razak was the second Prime Minister of Malaysia who served from 1970 to 1976. 3 There are a few reports that serve as the basis for the education system in Malaya, for example the Barnes Report. However, this paper will only focus on the Razak Report. 4 1995 was the year the education Ministry granted permission to institutions of higher learning to use English as medium of instruction. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 630 It is therefore, obvious that language is the vehicle to unite various races. If America has chosen English, Malaysia then has chosen Bahasa Melayu. Bahasa Melayu is the native language and as such should be the national language and by the same token, should be the medium of instruction in school, as has been the practice for the past 37 years. 3.2. Education in Post-Razak Era 1995 is the beginning of a new practice in Malaysian education system private institutions of higher learning in Malaysia were given the permission to use English as the medium of instruction. Its aim or purpose is to turn Malaysia into an education hub in Southeast Asia. This act, seen as relaxing the rule, has in turn affected the national education system. In 2003, another radical policy was introduced. This time it involved the medium of instruction for two subjects in primary and secondary schools. Science and mathematics that are beginning to

capture the interest of the Malay students are now being taught in English. 2006 SPM 5 exam takers are the last cohort of students to use Malay as the medium of instruction for science and mathematics. As recent as April 2007 while officiating the International Conference on Smart Schools, Deputy Prime Minister wants efforts to improve the standard of English in Malaysia to continue while not forgetting the national language (New Straits Times, 2007). The government also wants students to be well versed in the field of science and technology. The year 2007 is also the year where the idea of cluster schools is introduced by the Minister of Education. However, only a few schools have been selected for the implementation of cluster schools. These schools have the authority to decide on their specialization whether to be a sports school, music school and etc. The purpose is to produce students who are capable in the area chosen. The school principles are authorized to appoint teachers they have selected. What is obvious in the post-Razak era is various continuous measures `have been taken to improve the national education system. Among these are the implementation of smart schools, vision schools, cluster schools and the move to change the medium of instruction for science and mathematics to English being the highlight a move that was also opposed by Chinese educationist (Dong Jiao Zong

6 ). The most evident difference in the policies between Razak era and post-Razak era is the vision to unite the people through the education system and through language is missing. Vision school is a concept where two or three schools (in areas that have been identified) with different medium of instruction are to share facilities with the aim of fostering integration. These schools could be sharing playing field, laboratories and basic facilities. On the other hand, smart schools are selected schools that are given computer facilities and more advanced teaching facilities. The same can be said of cluster schools. The new education policy not only bypassed the Parliment for approval but also lack the vision and mission to unite all the various races as was done in Razak era. Smart schools, vision and cluster schools only comprise a few select schools in Malaysia. Where is the fairness in these policies? The change in the medium of instruction is only beneficial for those in urban schools and indirectly denying those from rural areas of quality education. All these are against the spirit instilled in the Razak Report. 4. Nation Building Through Language Rahman Embong (2003) says that nationhood is about the society, not institution of power even though both are inter-related. He says, It is about bringing the diverse peoples together with a commitment to

a common or shared destiny, and an identification to that cause, normally within a shared geo-political

5 The Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), or the Malaysian Certificate of Education, is a national examination taken by all fifth form students in Malaysia. Generally, the SPM is taken at the age of 17, though students who attended pre-secondary school class would take it at the age of 18. 6 Dong Jiao Zong is the association that governs Chinese Independent Schools in Malaysia. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 631 space (Rahman Embong 2003: 13). However, there are competing notions on nationhood and he has identified the five competing notions. They are: i. Developmentalist doctrine Bumiputras 7 who give prominence to English as they consider it as the gateway to development, prosperity dan future progress. They are the elites and enjoy the support of non-Bumuputra too. ii. Bumiputras who are convinced that the Malay language as the defining identity. They are the Malay cultural and literary elites. They maintain that Malay serves the link to history iii. This group advocates the promotion of bilingualism and even multilingualism. They want Malay as the national language but at the same time other languages are also allowed to flourish.

iv. The fourth group propagates racial equality in the name of democracy and universal human rights and advocates education in mother tongue but are rather vague on their stand on the Malay language. v. This group is of the opinion that language serves as a vehicle, but Islam is the real real identity of a person. The most appropriate notion is notion 3 and it is obvious because it runs parallel with the notion put forward in Razak Report. Everybody should be encouraged to learn more than one language, however, that pursuit should not be at the expense of the Malay language. Malay should or must remain as the national language; a language that has been able to unite the people. There two important elements language policy and the notion of nationhood - in developing quality human capital. Admittedly, Tun Razak did not specifically mention or use the term human capital explicitly as is the practice now. Nevertheless, the language policies introduced have the same purpose to maintain national harmony in a multi-racial country. 5. Human Capital and the Standard of English Language On March 31, 2006, when the Prime Minister presented the 9th Malaysian Plan to the Dewan Rakyat he outlined five main thrust of the National Missions. One of the missions is enhancing knowledge and innovation to instil a first class mind. The Prime Minister states that it can only be achieved with quality human capital. Quality human capital is not only about intellectual capacity but also individual

character. Therefore the government will implement efforts to improve the overall national system, from pre-school to the the highest level and vocational. At the same time, emphasis will also be given to efforts to nurture a cultured society with strong moral values. The Prime Minister also stresses that the development of human capital should be conducted holistically with the emphasis on knowledge, competence, intellectual knowledge which includes science and technology dan interpreneurship and at the same time possesing a high moral and ethical values human capital with first-class mindset. Three strategies have been identified to nurture a first-class human capital and they are: i. improve the ability and capibility to gain knowledge ii. strengthen the cability in science, R & D and innovation iii. nurture a cultured society with strong moral values One of the steps to be taken is to promote national school as the choice school. Schools are seen as the most appropriate place to sow the spirit of national integration. The racial composition between teacher and students needs to be balanced. The quality of teaching needs to be improved the curriculum and co-curriculum activities need to be re-assessed to ensure a strong foundation for basic competence and in accordance with current needs. Languages such as Mandarin and Tamil will be offered as elective.

Bumiputera or Bumiputra is a Malay term widely used in Malaysia, embracing ethnic Malays, Javanese, Bugis, Minag and other indigenous ethnic groups, such as the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia, and the tribal peoples in Sabah and Sarawak. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 632 The concept of human capital proposed is about quality human capital. What is clear is that education policy has become the focus, however, efforts taken to improve the national education system to nurture quality human capital is still somewhat hazy. The focus is on science and technology and to inculcate noble values. These are noble aspirations indeed. Great emphasis is given to English but not Malay as was the practice during Razaks era. It begs the question will we be able to nurture quality human capital through English when 70% of the population are weak in English. Results of 2006 UPSR indicate that students are weak in English when 70% of them scored C, D or E for English (New Straits Tmes 16 Nov.2006). The real scenario can be seen from the MUET (Malaysian University English Test) results. In 2007, 96% of MUET candidates scored band 1-3 that is, moderate and weak (NST. 17 July 2007). This is not a good indicator for the effort to nurture or train quality human capital. Globalization has always been the reason for the need to give priority to English over Malay. Nevertheless much effort have been given to address the weakness of English language not only among students but also among teachers. The first step taken is to make the teaching of Mathematics and Science compulsory in English.

Teachers must try their best to use the language. Secondly, the ministry has created a buddy system among teachers. The English language teachers will become tutors to Mathematics and Science (MS) teachers. Besides that MS teachers are exposed to many courses that can help them to improve their teaching in English. In addition, incentives are given to teachers who are willing to teach MS in English. The school infrastructures have been upgraded to assist the teachers in teaching MS. Computers and softwares are provided to make the teaching of MA more interesting and interactive. Will all these efforts able to improve the students English proficiency? It must be mentioned that efforts to improve the standard of English should not be through complex subjects such as science and mathematics. Efforts to improve the students competence in English must be geared in the environment and the pedagogy in teaching the language itself. 6. Environment Factor There are a few factors that can be viewed as the cause for the decline in the students competence in English. They are language contiguity between English and Malay, environment and students perception of English and students competence in English as their second language. 6.1. Language Contiguity - English and Malay Asmah Hj Omar (1985) states that if we are to know the geneology of the Malay language, we have to look at the origin of its speakers. There are a few opinions on the origin of the Malays. According to Asmah, the Malay language is categorized under Austronesian languages.

Austronesian languages are divided into four groups namely, Indonesian, Malanesian, Micronesian and Polynesian languages. The biggest language group is Indonesian and its area consists of Farmosa in the north to the Philipines islands and Maluku in the east, Timor Timor in the south and Magdagascar in the west. This language group has the highest number of speakers and the Malay language is in this language group. The Malay language is the most developed language in this group and is the national language in Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore and Brunei. In Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei, Malay is the medium of instruction in education up to tertiary level and this itself served as the catalyst for the development of the language. English, on the other hand, is classified as Germanic language from the Indo-European group. The early history of Germanic languages is based on the reconstruction of Proto-Germanic which has evolved into Jerman, English, Dutch, Afrikaan, Yiddish and Scandinavian languages. English was influenced by two waves, first by Germanic language of the Scandinavian descent which occupied various parts of Britain in the 8 th and 9 th centuries. This was later followed by the Normans in the 11 th century. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009)

633 The Jermanic people occupied native speakers of Celt in Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Ireland. The language of the invaders helped form what is later known as Old English. English was also heavily influenced by Norse, language of the Vikings in the east. Based on the brief geneology description of English and Malay above, it is evident that these two languages are not related and do not come from the same cognate. Therefore, there are a lot of structural differences especially in terms of morphology and syntax. These structural differences in turn, become the constraints in acquiring English among students in Malaysia. This paper will justify the claim based on the findings of a research that has been conducted. 6.2. Environment (Social Surrounding) and Students Perception A research on problems in acquiring English language has been conducted in the southern part of Malaysia. A total of 313 students from urban, sub-urban and rural schools were selected as the respondents. The three schools are: i. Sekolah Tunku Abdul rahman Putra (STARP) urban school ii. Sekolah Menengah Senai (Senai) sub-urban school iii. Sekolah Sultan Alauddin rural school The classification of urban, sub-urban and rural schools is based on the location of the schools. All the respondents are Form Two students which means that they have gone through seven years of formal English education. The breakdown of students gender and racial composition is presented in Table 1 and Chart 1 below:

Chart 1: Gender (%) Gender of Respondents 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Senai STARP SSA Gender Boys Girls Table 1: Gender Composition (%) Senai STARP SSA Boys 53.5 39.1 51.9 Girls 46.5 60.9 48.1 The number of male respondents is larger than female respondents in Senai and SSA, while in STARP the number of girls exceeded the boys. Ethnic composition reveals an interesting pattern. In Senai the numbers of Malay and Chinese students are almost equal ie 41.4% and 43.4% respectively while Indian makes up only 14.1% of the total. In STARP however, 60.9% of the respondents are European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 634

Malays and 39.1% are non-Malays. In SSA, Malays make up 100% of total respondents. This is because SSA is a FELDA 8 -based school whose community comprises Malay FELDA pioneers. Table 2 displays the composition of ethnic groups. Table 2: Composition of Ethnic Groups (%) Senai STARP SSA Malay 41.4 60.9 100.0 Chinese 43.4 30.0 0 Indian 14.1 9.1 0 Others 1.0 0 0 The majority of respondents come from families who are earning below RM1000.00 per month. 83% of SSA students belong to low-income families. This is followed by Senai with 63.3% and STARP with 52.8%. If the level of income is a factor that can influence and contribute to a conducive learning environment, then their UPSR result is a manifestation of this correlation. Their achievements may have been affected by this socio-economic factor. 2004 UPSR results show that 66% of Senai, 50% of STARP and 70% of SSA respondents are weak in English. This is further backed by a low number of students attending tuition ie 25%. A combination of factors ranging from poverty, lack of tuition facility, social surrounding, interest and attitude may have contributed to low-level English proficiency among these students. Apart from background and social surrounding, students perceptions need to be examined.

More than 80% of students think that English is important but unfortunately almost 50% see it as a difficult subject to master. According to the theory of Relevans (1995), information that is difficult to be understood cognitively will result in higher degree of miscomprehension. This will lead to misinterpretation, boredom and ultimately total isolation from the subject. This is what is happening to the majority of respondents. From the questionnaire, 70%-90% students revealed that they do not understand English literature. English literature is a compulsory component in the English syllabus and this apparently is not helping the existing problem. At the same time, 50% of students like their teachers methods of teaching and current English language activities in classes. Howev er, these two factors are not enough to remedy the situation or to improve their proficiency level. Unfortunately, the push factors are stronger than the pull factors. Chart 2 displays students perception towards the target language.

8 Federal Land Development Authority, better known as FELDA is the foremost land development agency in Malaysia. FELDA was established on 1st July 1956 under the Land Development Act recommendation of Government Working 1956 as a result of

Committee. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 635 Chart 2: Students Perception of English To relate the history of language, social surrounding and perception, a linguistic test was

administered to the students. Linguistic, as a scientific subject, is able to measure the level of strength or weakness of English through a validated test. A cloze test was administered to 315 respondents as a way of gauging their level of English competence. Our contention is that structural differences between English and BM could have contributed to the failure in mastering the target language and therefore must be given serious consideration. 6.3. Linguistic Factor Apart from the above factors, the crux of the problem lies in the failure to acquire the target language. When we talk about language acquisition, the topic of grammar will naturally be a part of the discussion. In this research 20 questions related to morphology and syntax were tested on the students. Some of the areas tested include affixes, adverbs, plural form, and superlative. It became clear through the analysis that questions relating to plural inflection posed a problem for the respondents. Nearly 70% of students in all three schools experienced the same difficulty. 68%-74% of respondents failed to correctly answer the question on superlative. It is interesting to note that the majority of students in all three schools, regardless of location, experience the same problem. Table 3 summarises the findings. Table 3 below displays the overall percentages of errors committed in the 4 areas of morphology tested. Students appear to have the greatest difficulty in identifying the correct plural marker for a given word, despite the fact that plural inflection is one of the basic and earliest elements

to be taught in school. Superlative adjectives rank second with percentages of errors commited ranging from 68%-74%. Different structural systems between English and Malay may have contributed to the high frequency of incorrect answers. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 636 Table 3: Percentage of Morphological Errors SCHOOL Grammatical Category SENAI STARP SSA ADVERB 62% 46% 61% AFFIXES 62% 61.5% 70.6% PLURAL FORM 74% 73% 75% SUPERLATIVE 65% 66% 85% In general, percentages of errors in the four tested categories (except for the adverb word class in STARP) exceeded 60%. The numbers demonstrate students failure t o understand and correctly use these grammatical items. What follows is a question taken from cloze test 2: Adam, however, was a very ___________________boy. A. disobedient B. obedient C. unobedient D. inobedient Morphology questions highlighted the respondents failure to understand the target language. Findings are shown in the following chart:

Chart 3: Respondents Morphological Errors Chart 3 above displays the differences in percentages of incorrect answers given by the respondents in 4 different morphological areas. The height of each bar indicates the level of mastery the subjects possess. The high percentages for plural inflection and superlative point to their limited abilities and level of knowledge in the understanding and application of items mentioned above. Note that the differences among the three schools in 3 aspects of morphology i.e. affixes, plurality and superlative are very minimal but become more pronounced with adverb. The fact that majority of students have failed to understand and correctly use these grammatical items that form the foundation for other complex structures is most worrying. This is significant considering the fact that these fundamental areas form the basis for intermediate and advanced level of Examples of grammar.

copious errors committed include changing the singular form of noun into plural form such as ostrich to ostriches, adverb suffix swift to swiftly, comparative and superlative suffixes such as slow to slower and slowest. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 637 Plural suffixes s, -es, and ies are also found to pose problems among the learners. These suffixes are influenced by the phonological environment of a word. Phonology is a system of sounds that recognizes the influence of preceeding and following sounds on a particular sound. For example, ostrich ends with a /h/, therefore the suffix that follows is es, forming ostriches. While the plural

inflection rule for words ending with plosive consonants /t, d, k, g/ require the addition of the suffixs to the stem, words ending with /y/ require the addition of -ies. Therefore, the plural form of accident is accidents, and baby is babies. We now move on to superlative. Superlative in the Malay system comes in the form of an intensifier. In English, superlative is indicated within the adjective itself by the addition of est suffix. For example slow will become slowest. The second form of superlative involved the adding of most to uninflected adjectives, for example expensive, more expensive and most expensive. The third form involves the irregular comparative and superlative forms e.g. good, better, best. In Malay, the concept of superlative is indicated through intensifiers such as amat, sangat (translation: very). dan paling

There is no inflection to the base word. The same can be said of adverbs. The addition of ly to an adjective will normally convert the word into an adverb. For example slow becomes slowly, careful becomes carefully. The following sentences demonstrate the use of these adverbs: i. She walks slowly on the slippery floor. ii. We must drive carefully when it rains heavily. Prefix, more specifically derivational bound morphemes such as im- and dis-, also pose problems among learners. The difference in forms and functions of prefixes between Malay and English is significant. English prefixes can derive a new word with opposite meaning such as embark into disembark and patient into impatient. For example: i. We can embark from this airport to Jakarta.

ii. Please do not switch on your cellular phone until you have disembarked from this plane. iii. She is so patient in facing all the problems lately. iv. She has become impatient with her naughty son. The above prefixes do not exist in the Malay system. This disparity is what is causing students from successfully understanding and using English language. If this is not given due attention, students will contually fail to master the target language. We now move on to the area of syntax. Syntax concerns sentence structure. The areas tested include subject-verb agreement, be copula, article, determiner and possesive pronoun. The questions that received the highest incorrect answers are questions which test subject verb agreement and relative pronouns. Both structures are not present in BM. Therefore, it can be assumed that the errors committed are largely due to structural differences and absence from the first language. Again, the questions tested the students on basic areas of syntax. The following is a question taken from Cloze Test 1. C1 5. Different species ______________ (5) different habits and eat different kinds of food. A. adopt B. adopted C. adopts D. is adopting Cloze, Qs No Correct (C)/Incorrect (I) Senai % STARP % SSA % 1,5 (SVA) S 72.0 75.2 79.6 B 28.0 24.8 20.4

The above question tested the students on the area of subject-verb agreement and the percentages for incorrect answers exceeded 70%. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 638 Table 4: Incorrect Answers - Syntax SCHOOL Grammatical Categories SENAI STARP SSA Copula 65 56.9 80 SVA 72 75.2 79.6 Article 69 60 62 Relative Clause 79 83 85 Table 4 present the percentages of incorrect answers in the areas of syntax. The overall picture of committed errors is very distinct. Again the problem lies in structural differences between Malay and English. Percentage of Syntax Errors 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

90 Copula SVA Article Relative Clause Ptage Senai STARP SSA From the above chart, relative clause, subject verb agreement and copula be are 3 problematic areas with high numbers of incorrect answers. Relative clause recorded the highest number or errors i.e. 80%. Sample of questions testing the areas of copula, SVA, article and relative clause have revealed an apparent weakness among the respondents in mastering the target language. They have failed to recognize the four forms of copula be i.e is, are, was and were. Those who answered correctly were assisted by a clue in the sentence that points to the past. Subject-verb-agreement is always mistaken as plural inflection. SVA emphasizes on the relation between the subject and the verb that follows. Singular subject will be followed by a singular verb marked by the suffix s. Although the form is similar to that of the plural inflection, the function and meaning are entirely different. Linguistic explanation by the teacher may help to resolve this confusion. For example: i. She eats with her hand. ii. There are three books on the table. In the above examples, sentence (i) focuses on SVA. She is a singular subject that dictates the

singular present suffix s. In the second sentence (ii), three indicates plural, the head noun therefore must take the plural inflection s. The similarity in form is the cause of confusion among learners. Although article posed the least problem in the cloze test, nearly half of total subjects failed to answer accurately. Articles such as a, an, and the are not explicitly present in Malay. In the test, the omission of article shows that respondents have failed to understand the importance and function of article within a noun phrase. Articles are compulsory in most noun phrases and mistakes in its usage European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 639 are common among learners. The severity increased when it comes to complex items such as relative clause. Pronouns such as who, whose, whom and which, which are not present in the system of Malay, can be an indicator of problem and high percentages of error committed among respondents. The above discussion has clearly demonstrated how structural differences between the first language ie Malay and the target language ie English can be the cause of misunderstanding and failure to master the language. This problem is further aggravated by negative perception and less than favourable social surroundings. The question is, in light of the facts and findings tabulated from the data, can our government achieve its vision of creating first class human capital who are highly proficient in English? 7. Language Policy, English Competency & Quality Human Capital 7.1. Aspiration and Reality

The information gathered from the above analysis needs to be managed wisely. Starting with our education policy, to social surrounding, proficiency level of students and finally human capital, the solution can be achieved but realistically it is not without its setbacks. It firstly helps to briefly examine the Razak and post Razak Policies. The aim was to establish a common policy that goes across the boundaries of ethinicity, status and location. Malaysians are bound to the same education system. National schools were created and all these were perfected by a committee that represented all ethnic groups including the colonizers. It has to be reminded that the Razak Report was a result of the 13 th May tragedy; a tragedy that was the consequent of economic instability and disparity between the Malays and the non-Malays. After the implementation, there had not been any racial conflict until 2003. In fact, nonMalays are able to be high achievers at the levels of PMR, SPM, STPM and tertiary using the national language. At this point in time, everybody has equal job opportunities (YM Tengku Razaleigh: 2007). And this has given rise to many Bumiputera engineers, doctors, accountants and architects rivalling those of the non-Bumis. We now move on the the aspect of English acquisition. The findings show that many we are still a long way away from the ideal scenario. The solution at the moment is to review and improve on

pedagogical weaknesses. Pedagogy is highly focused on the teaching of English grammar which, as we have seen, is structurally different than Bahasa Melayu. Social surroundings ought to create a conducive and exciting platform for the learning and teaching of English. English teachers need to have linguistic knowledge in order for them to be able to effectively explain to students about the rights and wrongs of their answers. However, the possibility of this happening remains slim as we are lack well-trained linguistic teachers, especially in rural schools. This is the reason why language problems persist. The introduction of the new education policy in 2003 saw the implementation of English as the medium of instruction for certain subjects in schools and tertiary institutions. This has definitely intensified the problem faced by those who are already weak in the target language (English). The backlash effect of teaching of Science and Mathematics in English will be felt in the long run. Table 8 shows that out of a total 100%, only 29% of subjects are still taught in Malay. This is because the science stream is dominated by subjects such as physics, chemistry, biology, modern maths and additional maths. This effect will continue when they enrol in higher education such as secondary 6 and matriculation. The percentage for subjects taught in Malay will continue to decrease to 20%. At this stage, subjects are specialized to suit the programs. Malay which is considered as a language of unity, is assuming a lesser role in our education system. The question to be asked is would students who are

weak in English be able to successfully follow and understand the content of the subjects. The chart below displays the percentage of language which will be used at secondary six and matriculation level. As the list of science subjects increases, the role of Malay declines. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 640 .As we can observe, the usage of Malay as the medium of instruction in higher education decreases to 9 %. This scenario has diverted far from the original aim of the Razak Report in which Malay is meant to be the main medium of instruction in public universities including schools and matriculation centres. Is this a wise step to be taken when the level of proficiency is still low despite early exposure to English via Science and Mathematics. Table 8: Subjects taught in BM and English Subjects Taught In Malay and English 0 20 40 60 80 100 SPM Pre-Uni University Pecentage

BM Engl Source: Kamal Shukri: 2002 After examining the education policy and the proficiency level of students in English, we shall now look at our government aspiration for creating a new generation of citizens who are well-versed in the areas of science and mathematics and highly proficient in English. This is only possible if students are from economically secure and stable families, blessed with a conducive learning environment and tuition facilities. But realistically, for 70% of rural Malaysians where the majority is Malays, those ideal conditions are beyond their reach. Prof. Diraja Ungku Abdul Aziz (Mingguan Malaysia Interview 2006) mentioned that rural folks are marginalized and disadvantaged in many aspects. Language is one of the contributing factors. Failure to master English could also mean failure in the subjects of Science and Mathematics. Logically, the aim of creating a competent first class human capital may not be achievable. 8. Conclusion It can be concluded that the short and long term effects of the implementation of English in schools and tertiary education will not only create problems for the students, but also educators. Consequently, the result will be far from what is expected. We have to review some of the policy changes. Adjustments considerations from people from

all walks of life have to be made. Although it is aiming towards the establishment of SMART and cluster schools, unfortunately the changes will only benefit a small number of schools in Malaysia. It is therefore suggested that there be a re-examination of the teaching of English in schools. If memorisation and rote learning are ineffective, then an innovative way of integrating structure and communication must be developed and implemented. It is certainly disappointing when there is a mismatch between what is taught and what is achieved by the students. Due to the examoriented nature of our education system, schools and teachers are pressured into focusing on the grammatical aspects of the target language, leaving very little time for interaction in English. Ironically, this is the language students are expected to use upon entering the workforce. European Journal of Social Sciences Volume 9, Number 4 (2009) 641 Secondly, teachers need to be equipped with linguistic knowledge for teaching in order to be more effective and explanations are articulated knowledge and clearly. A combination of linguistic

effective pedagogy may be able to make learning English more exciting. If efforts are taken to expose students to a fun learning environment, then maybe English will be a good medium of instruction for the learning of science and mathematics. The combination of three factors i.e. a fair and nondiscriminatory education policy, linguistically adept teachers and conducive learning environment will definitely ensure a generation of competent first class human capital. References

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