Scalein Geogr~_hy aggregate savingdata. (SeeDeatonand Paxson(1997) for an example.

)Until these approachesare reconciled, a firm consensus about the magnitude of demographic effectsis unlikely to emerge.
Kotlikoff L J 1988 Intergenerational transfers and savings. Journal ofEconomic Perspeftives2(2): 41-58 Lee R D 2000 Intergenerational transfers and the economic life cycle: A cross-cultural perspective. In: Mason A, Tapinos G (eds.) Sharing the Wealth: Demographic Change and Economic Transfers Between Generations. Oxford University Press,Oxford, UK Lee R D, Mason A, Miller T 2000 Life cycle saving and the demographic transition: The caseof Taiwan. In: Chu C Y, Lee R D (eds.) Population and Economic Change in East Asia, Population and Development Review.26: 194-219 Mason A 1987National saving rates and population growth: A new model and new evidence. In: Johnson D G, Lee R D (eds.) Population Growth an~ Economic Development: Issues and Evidence. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, pp. 5230-60 Modigiiani F 1988 The role of intergenerational transfers and life cycle saving in the accumulation of wealth. Journal of Economic Perspective.v 2(2): 15-40 Modigliani F, Brumberg R 1954 Utility analysis and the consumption function: An interpretation of cross-sectiondata. In: Kurihara K (ed.) Post-Keynesian Economics. Rutgers University Press,New Brunswick, NJ

4. Unresolved Issues
Thereare a number of important issuesthat have not beenresolvedand require additional work. First, the savingliterature does not yet adequately incorporate the impact of changing institutional arrangements. Studiesof saving in the industrialized countries and recent work on developing countries considersthe impact of state-sponsored pension programs on saving,but the impact of family supportsystems has receivedfar too little emphasis.The erosion of the extendedfamily in developingcountriesis surelyone of the factors that hascontributed to the rise of saving ratesobservedin many developingcountries. Second,the role of mortality has received inadequateattention. The importance of lifecycle saving dependson the expectedduration of retirement. In high mortality societies,few reachold ageand many who do continue to work. Only late in the mortality transition, when there are substantial gains in the years lived late in life, does an important pension motive emerge. Third, the savingmodels currently in useare static models and do not capture important dynamics. Recent simulation work that combines realistic demographicswith lifecycle saving behavior shows that during the demographictransition countriesmay experience savingrates that substantiallyexceed equilibrium values for sustained periods of time (Lee 2000).

A. Mason

Scale in Geography
Scaleis about size,eithe~ relative or absolute,and involves a fundamental set of issuesin geography. Scaleprimarily concernsspacein geography, and this article will focus on spatial scale. However, the domains of temporal and thematic scale are also important to geographers. Temporal scaledealswith the sizeof time units,thematicscalewith the grouping of entities or attributes such as people or weather variables. Whether spatial, temporal, or thematic, scalein fact has several meaningsin geography.

Bibliography
Barro R J 1974 Are government bonds net wealth? Journal of Political Economy 6 (December): 1095-117 Coale C A, Hoover E M 1958Population Growth and Economic Developmentin Low-incomeCountries: A Care Study ofIndia's Prospects. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ Deaton AI989 Saving in developing countries: Theory and review. Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conferenceon Development Economics, Supplement to the World Bank Economic Review and the World Bank Research Observer, pp. 61-96 Deaton A, Paxson C 1997 The effects of economic and population growth on national saving and inequality. Demography 34(1): 97-114 Higgins M, Williamson J G 1997Age structure dynamics in Asia and dependence on foreign capital. Population and Development Review23(2): 261-94 Kelley A C, Schmidt R M 1996 Saving, dependency and development. Journal of Population Economics9(4): 365-86

1.

Three Meanings of Stale

The conceptof scalecanbe confusing,insofaras it has multiple referents.Cartographic scale refers to the depicted sizeof a featureon a maprelativeto its actual sizein the world. Analysis~cale refersto the sizeof the unit at whichsomeproblemis analyzed,suchas at the county or statelevel. Phenomenon scalerefersto the size at which human or physical earth structures or processes exist,regardless of how they are studied or represented.Although the three referents of scale frequentlyare treated independently,they are in fact interrelatedin important ways that are relevantto all geographers, and the focu$of research for some.For example, choicesconcernirtg the scaleat which a map 13501

(2001). In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Oxford: Pergamon Press.

(Eds.), Int~rnational Sciences (pp. 13501-13504). I

Scalein Geography should be madedepend in part on the scaleat which measurements of earthfeaturesaremadeand the scale at which a phenomenon of interest actuallyexists.
'resolution' synonyms geographers earth's grid of surface small screen area has of long earth cells for or the work in a in (pixels). surface recogn 'granulJrity' scale with computer a sat~llite Analysis of dIgital analysis, are often particularly representations by image scale means (rasters) here of a used when of regular or refers on to a the as

1.1 Cartographic Scale Maps are smallerthan the part of the earth's surface theydepict.Cartographicscale expresses this relationship, traditionally in one of threeways. A verbalscale statementexpresses the amount of distance on the mapthat represents a particulardistanceontheearth's surfacein words, e.g., 'one inch equalsa mile.' The representativefraction (RF) expressesscale as a numerical ratio of mapdistanceto earth distance, e.g., '1:63,360.' The RF has the advantage of being a unitlessmeasure.Finally, a graphic scale bar usesa line of particular length drawn on the map and annotated to show how much earth distance it represents. A graphicscalebar hasthe advantagethat it changes sizeappropriatelywhenthe mapis enlarged or reduced. Alternatively, all threeexpressions of scale may refer to areal measurements rather than linear measurements, e.g., a I-inch square may represent 1 squaremile on the earth. Given a map of fixed size, as the size of the representedearth surface gets larger, the RF gets smaller (i.e., the denominator of the RF becomes a larger number). Hence,a 'large-scalemap' shows a relatively smallarea of the earth, suchas a county or city, and a 'small-scalemap' showsa relativelylarge area,suchasa continent or a hemisphere of the earth. This cartographicscaleterminologyis frequently felt to be counterintuitive when applied to analysis or phenomenon scale,where small-scale and large-scale usually referto small and large entities,respectively. An important complexity about cartographicscale is that flat maps invariably distort spatialrelations on the earth's surface:distance,direction, shape,and/or area. How they distort theserelations is part of the topic of map projections. In many projections,especiallysmall-scale maps that showlarge parts of the earth,this distortion is extremeso that linear or areal scaleon one part of the map is very different than on other parts. Even so-called equal area projections maintain equivalent areal scale only for particular global features, and not for all featuresat all placeson the map. Variable scaleis sometimes shownon a map by the use of a specialsymbol or multiple symbolsat differentlocations.

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1.2 AnalysisScale Analysis scaleincludesthe size of the units in which phenomena aremeasured and the sizeof the units into which measurements are aggregated for data analysis and mapping. It is essentiallythe scale of understanding of geographicphenomena.Terms such as 13502

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1.3 Phenomenon Scale Phenomenon scale refers to the size at which geographic structures exist and over which geographic processesoperate in the world. It is the 'true' scale of geographic phenomena. Determining the scale of phenomena is clearly a major research goal in geography. It is a common geographic dictum that scale matters. Numerous concepts in geography reflect the idea that phenomena are scale-dependent or are defined in part by their scale. Vegetation stands are smaller than vegetation regions, and linguistic dialects are distributed over smaller areas than languages. The possibility that some geographic phenomena are scale independent is important, however. Patterns seen at one scale may often be observed at other scales; whether this is a matter of analogy or of the same processes operating at multiple scales is theoretically important. The mathematics of fractals has been applied in geography as a way of understanding and formalizing phenomena such as coastlines that are self-similar at different scales (Lam and Quattrochi 1992). The belief has often been expressed that the discipline of geography, as the study of the earth as the home of humanity, can be defined partially by its focus on phenomena at certain scales, such as cities or continents, and not other scales.The range of scales of interest to geographers are often summarized by the use of terminological continua such as 'local-global' or 'micro-, meso-, macroscale.' The view that geographers must restrict their focus to particular ranges of scales is not shared universally, however, and advances have and will continue to occur when geographers stretch the boundaries of their subject matter. Nonetheless, few would argue that subatomic or interplanetary scales are properly of concern for geography. It is widely recognized that various scales of geographic phenomena interact, or that phenomena at one scale emerge from smaller or larger scale phenomena. This is captured by the notion of a 'hierarchy of scales,' in which smaller phenomena are nested within larger phenomena. Local economies are nested within regional economies, rivers are nested within larger hydrologic systems. Conceptualizing and modeling such scale hierarchies can be quite difficult, and the traditional practice within geography of focusing on a single scale largely continues.

cation, but also includes aspects of selection and enhancement of featuresof particular interest.As one studiesor representssmallerpiecesof the earth, one tendsstronglyto dealwitb more detailed or more finegrainedaspectsof geographicfeatures. For example, large-scale maps almostalways showfeatureson the earth's surface in greater detail than do small-scale maps;rivers appearto meandermore when they are shownon large-scale maps,for instance.Studiedmost extensively by cartograph~rs, generalization is in fact relevant to all threemeaningsof scale, and to all three domains of spatial, tempdral,and thematic scale.

3.

Conclusion

Issues of scalehavealways beencentralto geographic theoryandresearch. Advancesin the understandingof scale and the ability to investigate scale-related problems will continue, particularly with the increasinglycommon representation of geographic phenomena throughthe mediumof digital geographic information (Goodchild and Proctor 1997). Cartographic scaleis becoming 'visualization' scale. How is scale, spatial and temporal, communicated in dynamic, multidimensional, and multimodal representations, including visul\lization in virtual environments? Progress continues on the problem of automated generalization,programming intelligent machinesto make generlllization changes in geographicdata as scalechanges. The ability to perform multiscaleand hierarchicalanalysiswill be developed further. Moreprofound th,n theseadvances, however, the widespreademergence of the 'digital world' will foster newconceptionsof scalein geography.

Bibliography
Buttenfield B P, McMaster R B,(eds.) 1991 Map Generalization: Making Rules for Knowledge Representation. Wiley, New York Goodchild M F, Proctor J 1997 Scale in a digital geographic world. Geographicaland Environmental Modeling 1: 5-23 Hudson J C 1992Scalein spaceand time. In: Abler R F, Marcus M G, Olson J M (eds.) Geography's Inner Worlds: Pervasive Themesin Contemporary American Geography. Rutgers University Press,New Brunswick, NJ Lam N S-N, Quattrochi D A 1992 On the issues of scale, resolution, and fractal analysis in the mapping sciences. The Professional Geographer44: ~8-98 MacEachren AM 1995 How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization,and Design. Guilford Press,New York Meyer W B, Gregory D, Turner B L, McDowell P F 1992 The local-global continuum. In: Abler R F, Marcus M G, Olson J M (cds.) Geography's Inner Worlds: Pervasive Themes in ContemporaryAmerican Geography. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, NJ

2. Generalization
The world can never be studied, modeled,or representedin all of its full detail and complexity. Scaleis important in part because of its consequences for the degree to whichgeographic information is generalized. Generalization refersto the amount of detailincluded in information; it is essentiallyan issue of simplifi-

13503

_Scale

Scale in Geography
MuehrckeP C, MuehrckeJ 0 1992Map Use: Reading,Analysis, Interpretation, 3rd edn. JP Publications, Madison, WI Openshaw S 1983 The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem. Geo Books, Norfolk, UK

D. R. Montello

and practical consequences. For example, if only violent crimes are subjectto classificationas homicides,then 'homicide'is a kind of 'violent crime,' and deathscausedby executive directivesto release deadly pollution could not be homicides.

1.2 Typologies A typology differentiatesentities at a particular level Scalingand Classificationin Social of a taxonomy in terms of one or more of their Measurement properties. The differenti!lting property (sometimes called a feature or attribute) essentiallyacts as a Social measurements translate observedcharacteris- modifier of entities at tbat taxonomic level. For tics of individuals, events, relationships, organiexample, in the USA kinship system siblings are zations,societies, etc.into symbolicclassifications that distinguishedin terms of whether they are male or enablereasoningof a verbal, logical, or mathematical female; in Japan by comparison,siblings are schemnature. Qualitative researchand censusestogether atized in terms of whether they are older as well as define one realm of measurement, concerned with whetherthey are male or female. assignment of entities to classification categories A scientifictypologydifferentiates entitiesinto types embedded within taxonomies and typologies.Another that are exclusiveand exustive: every entity at the topic in measurement involvesscalingdiscrete itemsof relevanttaxonomic levelis of one defined type only, information such as answersto questionsso as to and every entity is of somedefined type. A division producequantitative measurements for mathematical into two types is a dichotomy, into three types a analyses.A third issueis the linkage betweensocial trichotomy, and into more than three types a polymeasurements and socialtheories. tomy. Polytomous typologies are often constructed by crossing multiple properties,forming a table in which 1. Classifications eachcellis a theoreticaltype. (The crossedproperties might be referred to as variables, dimensions, or Classificationassimilatesperceivedphenomenainto factors in the typology.) For example,membersof a symbolically labeledcategories. Anthropologicalstudhavebeen characterized accordingto ies of folk classificationsystems(D' Andrade 1995) multiplex society the society's goalson have advancedunderstandingof scientific classifica- whethertheydo or do not accept theone hand,and whethertheydo or do not accept the tion systems, though scientificusages involve criteria society'smeansof achievinggoals on the other hand; that folk systems may not meetentirely. acceptance of goalsand means produces Two areas of social scienceemploy classification thencrossing a fourfold table defining conformists and three types systems centrally. Qualitative analyses suchas ethnographies,histories,case studies,etc. offer classifica- of deviants. Etic-emicanalysis involvesdefininga typology with tions-sometimes newly invented-for translating properties of scientific interest (the etic system) and experiencesin unfamiliar cultures or minds into then discovering ethnographically which types and familiar terms. Censusesof individuals, of occurrences,or of aggregatesocial units apply classifica- combinationsof typesarerccognizedin folk meanings (the emic system).Latent structure analysis statistitions-usually traditional-in order to count entities cally processes observedproperties of a sample of and their variations. Both types of work depend on entities in order to confirm the existenceof hypothetheoreticalconstructions that link classificationcatsizedtypesand to definethe typesoperationally. egories. 1.1 Taxonomies Every classificationcategoryis located within a taxonomy. Somemore generalcategorization,Y, determines which entities are in the domain for the focal categorization, X; so an X alwaysmust bea kind of Y. 'X is a kind of Y' is the linguistic frame for specifying taxonomies. Concepts constitutinga taxonomyform a logic tree, with subordinateelements implying superordinate items. Taxonomicenclosureof a classificationcategoryis a social construction that may have both theoretical 13504
Copyright @ 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences
1.3 Aggregate Entities

Aggregatesocialentities s\Jch as organizations,communities,and culturesmay bestudiedasunique cases, where measurementsidentify and order internal characteristicsof the entity rather than relate one aggregate entity to another. A seemingenigma in s<?cial measurement is how aggregate socialentitiescanbe describedsatisfactorily on thebasisof the reports of relativelyfew informants, even though statistical theory calls for substantial samplesof respondentstd survey populations. The

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