ORGANIC CARBON STORAGE IN SOME SOILS OF BANGLADESH

Course title: Project thesis Course No: SS-4106

SUBMITTED TO
Soil Science Discipline, Life Science School, Khulna University, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of four years Bachelor (Hons.) in Soil Science

BY
Student ID: 061327 Session: 2005-2006

Soil Science Discipline Life Science School, Khulna University Khulna, Bangladesh
July, 2010

Soil organic carbon storage in some soils of Bangladesh

A Thesis By Munia Akhtar Moni Examination Roll No: 061327 Session: 2006-2007

Supervisor Md. Sadiqul Amin Assistant Professor Soil Science Discipline Khulna University

Chairman of Examination Committee Afroza Begum Associate Professor and Head Soil Science Discipline Khulna University Khulna-9208, Bangladesh

Soil Science Discipline Life Science School, Khulna University Khulna, Bangladesh.
July, 2010

ORGANIC CARBON STORAGE IN SOME SOILS OF BANGLADESH

DECLARATION This project paper is entirely the candidates own investigations and no part of this paper has been accepted for any degree, nor it is being concurrently submitted for any degree

SUPERVISOR

Md. Sadiqul Amin Assistant Professor Soil Science Discipline Khulna University

SOIL SCIENCE DISCIPLINE LIFE SCIENCE SCHOOL, KHULNA UNIVERSITY KHULNA, BANGLADESH. JULY, 2010

DEDICATED TO MY BELOVED PARENTS & BROTHER

Acknowledgement

At first, i would like to express my extreme and humble gratefulness and endless praise to almighty Allah for bestowing me sound health and energy to complete this project thesis paper successfully in due time. It is an excellent opportunity for me to express my deepest sense of gratitude and sincere indebtedness to Md. Sadiqul Amin, Assistant Professor, Soil Science Discipline, Khulna University, for his whole hearted guidance, scholastic supervision, constant encouragement, constructive criticisms and valuable suggestions throughout the tenure of this thesis work and also in preparation of the manuscript. It is an immense pleasure to express sincere respect and heartfelt thanks to all the teachers of Soil Science Discipline, Khulna University, for their constant co-operation and good wishes during the work. I am thankful to Mr. Mahfuzur Rahman, lab technician of Soil Physics Laboratory, Soil Science Discipline; Mr. Abdullah, Lab technician of Soil Chemistry Lab, Soil Science Discipline, Khulna University for continuous assistance during performing several tests. My heartiest thanks go to all of my classmates for their best possible help during the preparation of this thesis. Finally, I respectfully remember my parents and brother for their support for my higher education and without whose blessings this work would not have been possible.

July, 2010

Author Munia Akhtar Moni

CONTENTS
TITLE
Acknowledgement Contents List of Tables List of Figures Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Introduction Literature review 2.1 Soil organic carbon 2.2 Soil organic matter dynamics 2.3 Soil Carbon sequestration and its impacts on global climate change and food security 2.4 Soil Organic Carbon storage 2.5 Long term storage of carbon 2.6 Changes in Soil organic carbon storage 2.7 Stabilization mechanism of soil organic carbon 2.7.1 Protected SOC pool 2.7.1.1 Chemical stabilization 2.7.1.2 Physical protection 2.7.1.3 Biochemical stabilization 2.7.2 Unprotected SOC pool 2.8 Mechanism of carbon emission from soil 2.8.1 Tillage 2.8.2 Erosion

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TITLE
2.8.2.1 Increase of soil degradation 2.8.2.2 Breakdown of macroaggregares into microaggregates 2.8.2.3 Transportation of easily mineralizable fractions 2.8.2.4 Exposition of carbonates 2.8.2.5 Increased rate of mineralization 2.9. Strategies to increase carbon sequestration 2.9.1 Soil management 2.9.1.1 Tillage 2.9.1.2 Mulching and residue management 2.9.1.3 Manuring 2.9.1.4 Compost 2.9.1.5 Fertilizer and nutrients 2.9.1.6 Restoring degraded soils 2.9.1.7 Forest soils 2.9.1.8 Urban soils 2.9.2 Crop management 2.9.2.1 Crop rotations and cover crops 2.9.2.2 Agroforestry 2.9.3 Irrigation 2.9.4 Pasture management 2.10 Carbon management 2.11 Consequences of organic carbon storage in soil 2.11.1 Soil quality and fertility 2.11.2 Environmental impacts

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TITLE
2.11.3 Biodiversity and soil biological functioning 2.11.4 Effect of climate change Chapter 3 Materials and methods 3.1 Collection of Soil Samples 3.2 Processing of Soil Sample 3.3 Short description of soil samples 3.4 Laboratory Analyses 3.4.1 Particle size analysis 3.4.2 Bulk density 3.4.3 Soil reaction (pH) 3.4.4 Electrical conductivity (EC) 3.4.5 Soil organic carbon stock Chapter 4 Results and discussion 4.1 General Analyses of Soil 4.2 Statistical Analyses 4.3 Relationship among soil properties Chapter 5 Summary and conclusion References

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List of Tables
Table No. Title
Global estimates of potential net change in carbon storage through improved management within landuse and change in land-use activities Possible cropland management practices for the maintenance or increase of soil organic carbon Physical properties of the studied soils Organic Carbon Stock, pH and EC of the soils Descriptive Statistics: BD, %Sand, %Silt, %Clay, SOC stock, pH, EC Correlations among bulk density, % sand, % silt, % clay, organic carbon stock

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Table 2.1 Table 2.2 Table 4.1 Table 4.2 Table 4.3 Table 4.4

07 16 29 30 31 32

List of Figures

Fig. No.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

Title
Model of soil carbon dynamics The terrestrial carbon cycle: Soil carbon and the global C budget Hypothetical changes in soil organic C in two treatments(notill and conventional tillage) Conceptual model of SOM (soil organic matter) dynamics with measurable pools Fractionation of soil organic matter based on aggregate hierarchy Organic matter losses after various tillage practices Conceptual model of organic C accumulation and organic C mineralization, including the effects of tillage-induced disturbance

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1. Introduction Storage of soil organic carbon (SOC) refers to the amount of organic carbon stored in the soil, expressed as a percentage by weight (g C/kg soil). It is part of the soil organic matter (SOM), which includes other important elements such as calcium, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Soil OM is a key soil component and plays a critical role in a range of physical, chemical and biological soils processes. Organic material in the soil is essentially derived from residual plant and animal material, synthesised by microbes and decomposed under the influence of temperature, moisture and ambient soil conditions. There are two groups of factors that influence inherent organic matter content- natural factors (climate, soil parent material, land cover and/or vegetation and topography), and human-induced factors (land use, management and degradation). Soil OC, the largest component of the terrestrial carbon pool, plays a vital role in the terrestrial carbon cycle. The approaches used to study and quantify the contribution of terrestrial ecosystems to the global carbon balance can be categorized as top-down and bottom-up (Houghton, 2003). Top-down approaches start from atmospheric concentration measurements and generally use inverse modeling. Bottom-up approaches are based on C fluxmeasurements in the field, e.g., flux tower measurements or soil carbon concentration, which are integrated over space and time, often involving process-based models. Bottom-up and top-down approaches can be considered complementary, but since they are based on different assumptions and measurements, the predicted carbon fluxes may diverge strongly (Janssens et al., 2003). The amount of organic carbon in soil is a balance between the build-up which comes from inputs of new plant and animal material and the constant losses where the carbon is decomposed and the constituents separate to mineral nutrients and gases, or are washed or leached away. In particular, the suitability of soil for sustaining plant growth and biological activity is a function of physical (porosity, water holding capacity, structure and tilth) and chemical properties (nutrient supply capability, pH, salt content), many of which are a function of SOM content (Doran and Safley, 1997). In general, increases in SOM are seen as desirable by many farmers as higher levels are viewed as being directly related to better plant nutrition, ease of cultivation, penetration and seedbed preparation, greater aggregate stability, reduced bulk density, improved water holding capacity, enhanced porosity and earlier warming in spring (Lal, 2002). Soil OC is the 1

most often reported attribute from long-term agricultural studies and is chosen as the most important indicator of soil quality and agronomic sustainability because of its impact on other physical, chemical and biological indicators of soil quality (Reeves, 1997). Total SOC content increased with precipitation and clay content and decreased with temperature. The importance of these controls switched with depth, climate dominating in shallow layers and clay content dominating in deeper layers, possibly due to increasing percentages of slowly cycling SOC fractions at depth. In tropical region like Bangladesh, SOC stock is not high because of the climatic condition (temperature, rainfall etc.), cultural practices, land types, physiology etc. A lot of experimental works have been performed on SOC stock in different countries of the world and vast volume of literature on SOC stock investigation presents much information about the SOC storage under different climatic and environmental condition. However, in Bangladesh, only a few investigations have been made on the storage pattern of SOC with different properties of soil though it is essentially related with fertility status of soil and also global climate change and food security which is an increasing alarm to us. With these views in mind, the present study was initiated with some representative soils of Bangladesh to meet the following objectives: To assess the OC stock in some soils of Bangladesh. To study the relation among SOC stock and bulk density, %sand, %silt and %clay.

2. Literature Review The stupendous roles of soil organic carbon in soil processes, soil productivity and sustainability of agriculture led scientists to study the storage of soil organic carbon in different soils. In connection with this present work, a brief review of literature relating to soil organic carbon storage together with some other related characteristics of soil organic carbon are presented in this chapter. 2.1. Soil organic carbon Soils are undoubtedly important reservoirs for carbon (Watson et al., 2000). Soil OC is closely related to the amount of SOM (soil organic matter). Accurately estimating the SOC stocks in soils is difficult because SOC stocks vary over multiple spatial scales due to the complexity of physical, chemical and biological processes that influence C cycling in the soil (Trumbore et al., 1995). Variations in soil SOC stocks are related to a number of natural factors (e.g. climate, parent material, landscape position) and human-induced factors (e.g. land use type, management intensity) (Von Ltzow et al., 2006). Soil organic C is a complex entity consisting of several fractions of different physical and chemical characteristics and microbial degradability (Collins et al., 1997). Physical separation of soil organic matter into pools with different ages and turnover rates has shown potential to improve the analytical capacity to detect organic C changes induced by land management, and to help understand soil C dynamics (Christensen, 1992; Conant et al., 2003). Changes in the size of microbial C, microbially respired C in short-term laboratory incubations, and associated metabolic quotients have frequently been used to evaluate the influence of landuse and management on the soil organic matter status and consequently soil biological quality (Saggar et al., 2001). Dissolved organic C mostly contains the low molecular weight, microbially available and mobile components of organic C, which could readily be removed from a soil system by microbial respiration and/or by leaching. In contrast, organic matter associated with clay and silt is considered more resistant to effects of management, mainly due to physical protection and chemically recalcitrant nature (Six et al., 2002). Additionally, the soil organic matter and its pools (including living microbial biomass) that respond to management are often used as measures of soil quality. These organic matter pools support plant production and influence many

important physical, chemical and biological parameters of soils (Kumar and Goh, 2000). 2.2. Soil organic matter dynamics Carbon is a key ingredient in soil organic matter (57% by weight). Plants produce organic compounds by using sunlight energy and combining carbon dioxide from the atmosphere with water from the soil. Soil organic matter is created by the cycling of these organic compounds in plants, animals, and microorganisms into the soil. Welldecomposed organic matter forms humus, a dark brown, porous, spongy material that provides a carbon and energy source for soil microbes and plants. When soils are tilled, organic matter previously protected from microbial action is decomposed rapidly because of changes in water, air, and temperature conditions, and the breakdown of soil aggregates accelerates erosion. A soil with high organic matter is more productive than the same soil where much of the organic matter has been burned through tillage and poor management practices and transported by surface runoff and erosion. However, organic matter can be restored to about 60 to 70% of natural levels with best farming practices (Sundermeier et al., 2004). The stock of organic carbon present in natural soils represents a dynamic balance between the input of dead plant material and loss from decomposition (mineralization) (Fig. 2.1). In aerobic soil conditions, most of the carbon entering soil is labile and only a very small fraction (1%) of what enters the soil (55Pg yr-1) accumulates in the stable, humic fraction (0.4Pg yr-1).

Fig. 2.1. Model of soil carbon dynamics (Balesdent et al., 2000).

2.3. Soil Carbon sequestration and its impacts on global climate change and food security Soil carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the soil through crop residues and other organic solids, and in a form that is not immediately reemitted. The quantity of C stored in soils is highly significant; soils contain about three times more C than vegetation and twice as much as that which is present in the atmosphere (Batjes and Sombroek, 1997). The terrestrial carbon cycle is presented in Fig. 2.2. In this cycle, soil organic carbon represents the largest reservoir in interaction with the atmosphere and is estimated at about 1500 Pg C to 1m depth (about 2456 Pg C to 2m depth). Inorganic C represents around 1700 Pg, but it is captured in more stable forms such as caliches. Vegetation (650 Pg) and the atmosphere (750 Pg) store considerably less C than soils do.

Fig. 2.2. The terrestrial carbon cycle: Soil carbon and the global C budget (Robert, 2001).

Emissions corresponding to change in land use (deforestation and increase in pasture and cultivated lands) were around 140 Pg from 1850 to 1990 (from 0.4 Pg yr-1 in 1850 to 1.7 Pg yr-1 in 1990), with a net release to the atmosphere of 25 Pg C (Houghton, 1995). According to IPCC (2000), the historical loss from agricultural soils was 50 Pg C over the last half century, which represents 1/3 of the total loss from soil and vegetation. The increase in atmospheric concentration of CO2 by 31% since 1750 from fossil fuel combustion and land use change necessitates identification of strategies for mitigating the threat of the attendant global warming. Depletion of SOC pool has contributed 7812 Pg of C to the atmosphere. Some cultivated soils have lost one-half to two-thirds of the original SOC pool with a cumulative loss of 30-40 Mg C/ha (Mg=mega gram=10 6 G=1 ton). The depletion of soil C is accentuated by soil 5

degradation and exacerbated by land misuse and soil mismanagement. Thus, adoption of a restorative land use and recommended management practices (RMPs) on agricultural soils can reduce the rate of enrichment of atmospheric CO2 while having positive impacts on food security, agro-industries, water quality and the environment. A considerable part of the depleted SOC pool can be restored through conversion of marginal lands into restorative land uses, adoption of conservation tillage with cover crops and crop residue mulch, nutrient cycling including the use of compost and manure, and other systems of sustainable management of soil and water resources. The cumulative potential of soil C sequestration over 25-50 years is 30-60 Pg (Lal, 2004). 2.4. Soil Organic Carbon storage Newly photosynthesized C is added regularly in the form of plant litter, and existing SOC is gradually decomposed back to CO2 by soil biota. Management or environmental conditions that change the relative rates of inputs and decomposition will effect a change in the amount of SOC stored. Changes in SOC can only be reliably measured over a period of years or even decades (Post et al., 2001). Since the distribution of SOC in space is inherently variable, temporal changes (e.g., attributable to management practices, environmental shifts, successional change) must be distinguished from spatial ones (e.g., attributable to landform, long-term geomorphic processes, non uniform management). Temporal changes in SOC can be defined in two ways as an absolute change in stored C (SOC at t x minus SOC at t 0). Table 2.1, illustrates the potential range for C stock increases through some broadly defined activities. It provides data and information on C stock changes for some candidate activities for the year 2010. The greatest potential for C sequestration occurs when land-use becomes more sustainable, with the largest dividend estimated when arable land is changed to agroforestry.

Table 2.1 Global estimates of potential net change in carbon storage through improved management within land-use and change in land-use activities. Values shown are average rates during this period of accumulation (Haile et al., 2009). Additional Activities Net annual Total Area Estimated net change change (Metric area under in 2010 (106 Metric 6 tons of CO2 (10 activity tons of CO2 yr-1) (%) acre) acre-1 yr-1) Improved management within land use 3212 30 0.4 385 10008 10 0.6 600 8401 988 247 1557 3707 10 20 1 0.4 840 79 5 1432 133

Crop land Forest land Grazing land Agroforestry area Urban land Agroforestry Grassland

5 0.4 Change in land use 20 4.6 3 1.2

2.5. Long term storage of carbon Composting may result in long-term carbon storage in the form of undecomposed carbon compounds. The composting process leads to increased formation of stable carbon compounds (e.g., humic substances, aggregates) that then can be stored in the soil for long (>50 years) periods of time. Humic substances make up 60-80 percent of soil organic matter and are made up of complex compounds that render them resistant to microbial attack. In addition to humic substances, soil organic carbon may be held in aggregates (i.e., stable organo-mineral complexes in which carbon is bonded with clay colloids and metallic elements) and protected against microbial attack. The application of compost produces a multiplier effect by qualitatively changing the dynamics of the carbon cycling system and increasing the retention of carbon from noncompost sources. The carbon increase apparently comes not only from the organic matter directly, but also from retention of a higher proportion of carbon from residues of crops grown on the soil. This multiplier effect could enable compost to increase carbon storage by more than its own direct contribution to carbon mass accumulation (Franklin et al., 1994). 2.6. Changes in Soil organic carbon storage Management or environmental conditions that change the relative rates of inputs and decomposition will effect a change in the amount of SOC stored. Rates of change in SOC (typically less than 0.5 Mg C ha_1 year_1) are quite small, however, compared to the large amounts of SOC often present (as high as 100 Mg C ha_1, or more, in the top 7

30 to 60 cm soil layer). Thus changes in SOC can only be reliably measured over a period of years or even decades (Post et al., 2001). Since the distribution of SOC in space is inherently variable, temporal changes (e.g., attributable to management practices, environmental shifts, successional change) must be distinguished from spatial ones (e.g., attributable to landform, long-term geomorphic processes, non uniform management). Temporal changes in SOC can be defined in two ways, (Fig. 2.3) as an absolute change in stored C (SOC at t x minus SOC at t 0), or as a net change in storage among treatments (SOC in treatment A minus SOC in treatment B, after x years). The former provides an estimate of the actual C exchange between soil and atmosphere; the latter provides an estimate of the C exchange between soil and atmosphere, attributable to treatment A, relative to a control (treatment B). Both expressions of temporal change may be available from manipulative experiments with appropriate samples collected at establishment (assesses spatial variability) and at various intervals (5 to 10 years) thereafter. For measuring the change in C storage, either absolute or net, typically for periods of 5 years or more, the method needs to: measure organic (not total) C, provide estimates of C stock change (expressed in units of C mass per unit area of land to a specified soil depth and mass), be representative of the land area or management treatment under investigation, and provide an indication of confidence in the measurements (Ellert et al., 2008).

Fig. 2.3. Illustration of hypothetical changes in soil organic C in two treatments, A and B. For treatment A, the absolute change is the difference in SOC at timex, compared to that at time0. The net change is the difference between SOC in treatment A and that in treatment B, at timex, assuming that SOC was the same in both treatments at time0. The latter approach is often used to measure the effect on SOC of a proposed treatment (e.g., no-till) compared to a standard control (e.g., conventional tillage) (Ellert et al., 2008).

2.7. Stabilization mechanism of soil organic carbon Whole SOC is commonly separated into labile (active) and stable (passive) pools (Parton et al., 1987). For soils to act as a C sink, organic C needs to be stabilized in stable C pools (Paustian et al., 1997a). Due to different protection mechanisms, the degree and the duration of stabilization of SOC within macroaggregates and microaggregates differ (Tisdall and Oades, 1982). Macroaggregates contain C that (i) functions as transient binding agents holding microaggregates together and (ii) is occluded within microaggregates, which results in greater absolute C contents of macroaggregates than microaggregates (Tisdall and Oades, 1982; Elliott, 1986). Microaggregates have a lower C storage potential, but as they sequester C in the long term (Six et al., 2000); the degree of stabilization is greater. 2.7.1. Protected SOC pool Stabilization means a decrease in the potential for SOM loss by respiration, erosion or leaching. Stabilization may begin before plant tissues reach the ground, or even before they die. Three main mechanisms of SOM stabilization have been proposed: (1) chemical stabilization, (2) physical protection and (3) biochemical stabilization (Christensen, 1996). Soil organic matter can be protected from decomposition through physical protection within soil aggregates, chemical protection through association with mineral particles, and biochemical stabilization through biotic or abiotic creation of decay-resistant compounds. Most SOC models assume a linear increase in C content with C input, and thus C sequestration can continue regardless of the amount of organic C already contained in each SOC pool (Paustian et al., 1997b). These process-oriented models are based on first-order kinetics in which the decomposition rate is defined as a constant. Hassink (1997) assumed that the protective capacity of soil to store organic C is limited and that the rate of additional C sequestration depends on the degree to which the protective capacity of the silt plus clay fraction has been reached. Based on this concept, Six et al. (2002) further developed a conceptual SOM model of C saturation that includes physical, chemical, and biochemical protection mechanisms (Fig. 2.4). They defined functional C pools that are measurable and argued that the C sequestration in each of these pools depends on their saturation deficit (i.e., the difference between saturation level and the actual SOC content).

Fig. 2.4. Conceptual model of SOM (soil organic matter) dynamics with measurable pools. The soil processes of aggregate formation/degradation, SOM adsorption/desorption and SOM

condensation/complexation and the litter quality of the SOM determine the SOM pool dynamics (Six et al., 2002).

2.7.1.1. Chemical stabilization: Silt- and clay-protected SOM Chemical recalcitrance may be important in the slowest turnover `stable' pools (which contribute little to soil dynamics) and possibly at high latitudes, where lignin can incorporate nitrogen to form condensation products leading to the build-up of thick layers of non-peat humus (Stevenson, 1982). 2.7.1.2. Physical protection: Microaggregate-protected SOM Physical protection is one of the important ways to stabilize organic carbon in soils (Fig. 2.5). Aggregates physically protect SOM by forming physical barriers between microbes and enzymes and their substrates and controlling food wed interactions and consequently microbial turnover (Elliot and Coleman, 1998). The physical protection exerted by macro and /or microaggregates on POM (particulate organic matter) C is attributed to 1. the compartmentalization of substrate biomass (Killham et al., 1993) 2. The reduced diffusion of oxygen into macro and especially micraaggregates (Sexton et al.,1985) which leads to a reduced activity within the aggregates (Sollins et al., 1996), and 10

3. the compartmentalization of microbial biomass and microbial grazers (Elliot et al., 1980).

Fig. 2.5. Fractionation of soil organic matter based on aggregate hierarchy (Jastrow et al., 2004).

2.7.1.3. Biochemical stabilization: Biochemically-protected SOM Biochemical stabilization or protection of SOM occurs due to the complex chemical composition of the organic materials. The biochemically protected C pool turns over very slowly. This complex chemical composition can be an inherent property of the plant material (referred to as residue quality) or to be attained during decomposition through the condensation and complexation of decomposition residues, rendering them more resistant to subsequent decomposition. Using 14C dating, it has been found that, in the surface soil layer, the non-hydrolyzable C is approximately 1300 years older than total soil C (Paul et al., 2001). 2.7.2. Unprotected SOC pool Labile SOM pools are characterized by a rapid turnover, mainly consist of young SOM, and are sensitive to land management and environmental conditions (Parton et al., 1987). Due to these characteristics, labile SOM pools play an important role in short-term C and N cycling in terrestrial ecosystems (Schlesinger, 1990). The most commonly isolated labile C pools are the light fraction (LF) and particulate organic matter (POM). The LF appears in soils as free POM (Golchin et al., 1994; Six et al., 1998). When free POM is further decomposed, it can be incorporated into aggregates, where its decomposition is restricted (Puget et al., 1995). In this case, POM becomes part of a less labile pool, but is easily decomposable when it is set free again; hence the degree of protection of labile C is dependent on aggregate turnover. Stabilization 11

of occluded organic matter is greatest when aggregate stability is high and aggregate turnover is slow (Six et al., 1998). 2.8. Mechanism of carbon emission from soil The depletion of the SOC pool upon cultivation is attributed to three processes: 1. oxidation or mineralization due to breakdown of aggregates leading to exposure of carbon, and change in temperature and moisture regimes, 2. leaching and translocation as DOC (dissolved organic carbon) or POC (particulate organic carbon) and 3. accelerated erosion by water runoff or wind (Lal, 2001). 2.8.1. Tillage Crop cultivation generally depletes soil organic C due to accelerated mineralization, leaching, translocation and erosion (Lal, 2002), and reduces aggregate stability as a result of organic matter loss and tillage breakage (Bronick and Lal, 2005). Tilling the soil is disruptive and can promote soil erosion, high moisture loss rates, degradation of soil structure and depletion of soil nutrients and C stocks. Following long-term tillage soil C stocks can be reduced by as much as 20-50% (Haas et al., 1957). Conservation tillage reduces the negative impacts of tillage, preserves soil resources and can lead to accrual of much of the soil C lost during tillage (Paustian et al., 1997a, b). As indicated in Fig. 2.6, moldboard plowing causes the fastest decline of organic matter, no-till the least. The other three types of tillage are intermediate in their ability to foster organic matter decomposition. The moldboard plow increases the soil surface area, allowing more air into the soil and speeding the decomposition rate. The horizontal line on Fig. 2.6 represents the replenishment of organic matter provided by wheat stubble. With the moldboard plow, more than the entire organic matter contribution from the wheat straw is gone within only 19 days following tillage.

12

Fig. 2.6. Organic matter losses after various tillage practices (Reioosky et al., 1995).

2.8.2. Erosion The processes of soil erosion are caused by following mechanisms. 2.8.2.1. Increase of soil degradation Soil erosion increases soil degradation and reduces biomass production on-site. Erosion reduces production through adverse effects on soil structure, aeration, effective rooting depth, available water-holding capacity, and nutrient reserves; the reduced production, in turn, further reduces the soil carbon pool. Erosion decreases net primary productivity (NPP) on eroded sites, increases oxidation of soil organic matter, and reduces net ecosystem productivity (NEP). The gains in the soil carbon pool in depressional sites rarely compensate for losses on eroded sites in view of reduced NEP and increased mineralization (Renwick et al., 2004). 2.8.2.2. Breakdown of macroaggregares into microaggregates Erosion causes the breakdown of macroaggregates into microaggregates and, possibly, complete soil dispersion, exposing hitherto encapsulated organic matter to microbial processes. The outer layer of macroaggregates has more soil organic matter than the inner core; that outer organic matter is progressively peeled off and transported with the sediments, because aggregation and soil structure control decomposition of organic matter in soil. Changes in soil moisture and temperature also increase the rate of decomposition of the remaining organic matter at the eroded site. Eroded soils have different radiative and thermal properties, leading to increased soil temperature, an important factor controlling CO2 emission from soil (Van Oost et al., 2004). 13

2.8.2.3. Transportation of easily mineralizable fractions Sediments are often enriched in SOC, because SOC has low density and is concentrated in the vicinity of the soil surface. Most of C transported with sediment is the labile fraction, which is easily mineralizable; the mineralizable fraction in translocated organic matter may range from 29% to as high as 70%. Thus, assuming that the mineralizable fraction in eroded and redeposited material is close to zero can lead to erroneous conclusions. In most cases, sediment deposited may lead to higher emissions (CO2, CH4, and N2O) from depositional sites. The fate of carbon deposited in burial and depressional sites is governed by complex processes. The deposition may decrease the rate of mineralization by reaggregation of dispersed clay and silt and burial of carbon-rich material and calciferous layer. On the other hand, the rate of mineralization may also be increased in depressional sites because of the high proportion of mineralizable fraction. Depending on soil moisture and temperature regimes, depositional sites may also undergo methanogenesis with release of CH4 and denitrification with release of N2O. The rate of mineralization on erosional phases strongly depends on soil temperature (Lal et al., 2004). 2.8.2.4. Exposition of carbonates In truncated soil profile characterized by carbonaceous subsoil horizons, exposed carbonates may react with acidiferous materials, such as fertilizers, and release CO2in to the atmosphere (Lal et al., 2004). 2.8.2.5. Increased rate of mineralization The fate of carbon deposited in burial and depressional sites is governed by complex processes. The deposition may decrease the rate of mineralization by reaggregation of dispersed clay and silt and burial of carbon-rich material and calciferous layer. On the other hand, the rate of mineralization may also be increased in depressional sites because of the high proportion of mineralizable fraction. Depending on soil moisture and temperature regimes, depositional sites may also undergo methanogenesis with release of CH4 and denitrification with release of N2O. The rate of mineralization on erosional phases strongly depends on soil temperature (Renwick et al., 2004). 2.9. Strategies to increase carbon sequestration Soil organic carbon has been depleted through (1) the long-term use of extractive farming practices and (2) the conversion of natural ecosystems (such as forest lands, 14

prairie lands, and steppes) into croplands and grazing lands. Such a conversion depletes the soil organic carbon pool by increasing the rate of conversion of soil organic matter to CO2, thereby reducing the input of biomass carbon and accentuating losses by erosion. Most agricultural soils have lost 30 to 40 mt of carbon per hectare, and their current reserves of soil organic carbon are much lower than their potential capacity. Soil carbon sequestration involves adding the maximum amount of carbon possible to the soil. The technical potential for this process is higher in degraded/desertified soils and soils that have been managed with extractive farming practices than it is in good-quality soils managed according to recommended management practices (RMPs). Thus, converting degraded/desertified soils into restorative land and adopting RMPs can increase the soil carbon pool. The rate of soil carbon sequestration through the adoption of RMPs on degraded soils ranges from 100 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha) per year in warm and dry regions to 1,500 kg/ha per year in cool and temperate regions. A recent estimates of the technical potential of soil organic carbon sequestration through adoption of RMPs for world cropland soils (1.5 billion hectares) is 0.4 billion to 1.2 billion mt of carbon per year. Examples of soil and crop management technologies that increase soil carbon sequestration include no-till (NT) farming with residue mulch and cover cropping; integrated nutrient management (INM), which balances nutrient application with judicious use of organic manures and inorganic fertilizers; various crop rotations (including agroforestry); use of soil amendments (such as zeolites, biochar, or compost); and improved pastures with recommended stocking rates and controlled fire as a rejuvenate method. Another good strategy for soil carbon sequestration is the restoration of degraded/desertified soils (about 2 billion hectares), which can be achieved through afforestation and reforestation. The technical potential of soil carbon sequestration through restoration of degraded/desertified soils is 0.6 billion to 1 billion mt of carbon per year. The establishment of energy plantations can also improve ecosystem carbon pools. It is estimated that afforestation and establishment of energy plantations can offset 25 billion mt of carbon between 2000 and 2050. The technical potential of carbon sequestration in world soils may be 2 billion to 3 billion mt per year for the 15

next 50 years. Thus, the potential of carbon sequestration in soils and vegetation together is equivalent to a draw-down of about 50 parts per million of atmospheric CO2 by 2100 (Lal, 2009). Management of soils to increase SOC content therefore involves measures that reduce losses and/or measures that increase inputs (Table 2.2).
Table 2.2: Possible cropland management practices for the maintenance or increase of soil organic carbon (Eleanor Milne, 2008). SOC loss reduction Reduced tillage/no-tillage Cover crops Erosion reduction measures (mulching, contour cultivation on sloping land) Reduced fallow periods Reduced burning of crop residues SOC input increase Organic manures, Composts Cover crops Crop residue returns Increase crop productivity through irrigation/chemical fertilizer

2.9.1. Soil management If amounts of C entering the soil exceed that lost to the atmosphere by oxidation, SOC increases. Such an increase can result from practices that include improved: (1) tillage management and cropping systems, (2) management to increase amount of land cover, and (3) efficient use of production inputs, e.g. nutrients and water. Among the most important contributors is conservation tillage (i.e., no-till, ridge-till, and mulchtillage) whereby higher levels of residue cover are maintained than for conventionaltillage (Follett, 2001). 2.9.1.1. Tillage Numerous studies of replicated, long-term field experiments comparing conventional tillage (Fig. 2.7) and no-tillage have demonstrated that most soils, following conversion to no-tillage, show an increase in aggregation and soil carbon content relative to tilled soils, when the measurements are integrated over the full depth of soil affected by tillage (typically the top 20-30 cm) (Paustian et al., 1997, West and Post, 2002). In general, positive soil C responses are obtained first after several years of no-till management (Six et al., 2004) and after 20-30 years, the relative rates of C accumulation tend to decline as soil C levels approach a new equilibrium level under no-till conditions (West and Post, 2002).

16

Fig. 2.7. This conceptual model depicts organic C accumulation and organic C mineralization in conjunction with the formation and turnover of soil aggregates, including the effects of tillage-induced disturbance. At t1, fresh residue is incorporated into macroaggregates and forms coarse intra-aggregate particulate organic matter (iPOM). Subsequently (from t1 to t2), the iPOM is further decomposed and fragmented into fine iPOM within the aggregates, which forms the core of a new microaggregate and is physically protected from decomposition. At t3, carbon is depleted and microbial activity and production of binding agents decrease. This cessation results in a destabilization and potential disaggregation of the macroaggregates. Upon disaggregation, microaggregates, the mineral fraction, and POM are released. These fractions may be reincorporated into new macroaggregates when fresh residue is added. In CT some macroaggregates go through the same sequence. However, the majority of them are disrupted from cultivation or slaking in the field at t2 and go through a shorter cycle resulting in faster turnover. This faster turnover results in fewer macroaggregates reaching t3 and less fine iPOM is formed in CT compared to NT. When iPOM is released from the aggregates, it becomes exposed to microbial decay which leads to a loss of iPOM and an increased CO2 flux in CT compared to NT. This loss precludes re-incorporation of the iPOM in to macroaggregates and thereby accounts for the differences in composition of macroaggregates in NT and CT (Six et al., 1999).

2.9.1.2. Mulching and residue management Carbon sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems has two distinct but related components: sequestration in biomass (primarily trees comprising both the above ground and below ground components) and soil. A fraction of the biomass returned to the soil is converted into stable humic substances and related organo-mineral 17

complexes with a long residence time. The effectiveness of soil C sequestration depends on the quantity and quality of biomass returned to the soil. Crop residues are also a principal source of C, which constitutes about 40% of the total biomass on dry weight basis. Increase in rate of application of biomass C increases the SOC pool. In cropland soils, a principal source of biomass is the crop residues (Lal, 2008).f 2.9.1.3. Manuring Manure is an excellent soil amendment, providing both organic matter and nutrients. The application of manure can increase SOM and used in order to restore soil fertility and obtain a satisfactory yield, because SOM contributes to nutrient supply, improvement of soil physical properties, protection from erosion, and promotion of biological activity (Jimenez et al., 2002). Application of organic manure, either alone or in combination with mineral fertilizers, is more effective in increasing SOM and its fractions than mineral fertilizers alone (Wu et al., 2004). Additionally, lots of carbon would be added to the soil, resulting in no loss of soil organic matter. High crop residues grown from this manure application would also contribute organic matter. 2.9.1.4. Compost Adding compost can raise soil carbon levels by increasing organic matter inputs. Soils degraded by intensive crop production, construction, mining, and other activities lose organic matter when decomposition rates and removals of carbon in harvests exceed the rate of new inputs of organic materials. Adding compost shifts the balance so that soil organic carbon levels are restored to higher levels. Some of the compost carbon is retained by the system (Franklin et al., 1994). 2.9.1.5. Fertilizer and nutrients Fertilization is often recommended to increase SOM level and carbon sequestration in soils of highly managed multiple cropping systems (Yang et al., 2005). Fertilization could promote aggregate formation (Sleutel et al., 2006) and stabilization (Blair et al., 2006), then enhance the spatial inaccessibility for decomposing organisms (KgelKnabner et al., 2008). Fertilization could affect the population, composition, and function of soil microorganisms (Marschner et al., 2003), and soil microbial biomass, but mineral fertilizers had relatively less effect on soil microbial biomass than organic fertilizers (Plaza et al., 2004). Mineral fertilizer could increase crop residue and root exudates which provide organic matter for microorganisms. 18

2.9.1.6. Restoring degraded soils The potential for sequestering C through the rehabilitation of drylands is substantial (FAO, 2001b). The magnitude of the potential for sequestering C in soils in terrestrial ecosystems at 50-75 percent of the historic carbon loss (Lal, 2000). Furthermore, Lal hypothesized that annual increase in atmospheric CO2 concentration could be balanced out by the restoration of 2 000 000 000 ha of degraded lands, to increase their average carbon content by 1.5 tonnes/ha in soils and vegetation. Enhancing CS in degraded agricultural lands could have direct environmental, economic, and social benefits for local people. The effects of soil degradation and desertification affect the global C cycle. A decline in soil quality leads to a reduction in the soil organic C pool, and an increase in the emission of CO2 to the atmosphere. The decline in soil quality and structure leads to a loss in the capacity to retain water, and therefore in plant productivity (Lal, 2000). 2.9.1.7. Forest soils Plantations can sequester significant amounts of carbon and are generally considered to be carbon sinks, unless they replace natural forests, which are usually richer in carbon. The largest potential carbon gains for plantations are on marginal agricultural land and degraded soils (Lal, 2004b). However, in some cases plantations deplete soil carbon stocks and careful management is therefore necessary. By increasing the rotation period for cutting and implementing site improvement strategies, soil carbon stocks can be replenished and more carbon sequestered by the vegetation. 2.9.1.8. Urban soils Urban areas represent one of the single largest sources of C emissions, but such environments can be managed to foster greenhouse gas management to mitigate climate change. Accompanying urbanisation and development is a rapid increase in the area of turfgrass, i.e. home lawns, parks, recreational facilities, and golf courses (Bandaranayake et al., 2003). Some scientists (Quian and Follet, 2002) suggested turfgrass may be making substantial contributions to sequester atmospheric C, due to high productivity and lack of soil disturbance. Others (Bandaranayake et al., 2003) also found that such grasslands may act as C sinks, absorbing more C than they release, resulting in C sequestration.

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2.9.2. Crop management Strategies for SOC restoration by adoption of RMPs (recommended management practices) include conversion from conventional tillage to no-till, increasing cropping intensity by eliminating summer fallows, using highly diverse rotation, introducing forage legumes and grass mixtures in the rotation cycle, increasing crop production, and increasing carbon (C) input into the soil (Desjardins et al., 2001). West and Post (2002) observed that changing plow till to no-till increased SOC pool at the rate of 57 g C m-2 year-1 (or 570 kg ha-1 year-1). Relatively lower rates (14 g C m-2 year_1) of increase in SOC pool were associated with adoption of complex crop rotations. The efficiency of a no-till system for SOC sequestration is enhanced when used in combination with high intensity crop rotations and elimination of summer fallow (Potter et al., 1997). Converting a monoculture to a crop rotation also leads to SOC sequestration, which increases residue inputs to the soil (Robinson et al., 1996; Drury et al., 1998). 2.9.2.1. Crop rotations and cover crops Aggregate dynamics vary among different crops, crop rotations and cover crops (Jarecki and Lal, 2003). Crop rotation is a sequence of crops grown in regularly recurring succession on the same area of land. Varying the type of crops grown can increase the level of soil organic matter. However, effectiveness of crop rotating depends on the type of crops and crop rotation times (Peter, 2004). Many types of plants can be grown as cover crops include: rye, buckwheat, hairy vetch, crimson clover, subterranean clover, red clover, sweet clover, cowpeas, millet, and forage sorghums. 2.9.2.2. Agroforestry One management practice with a high potential for carbon sequestration in tropical areas is agroforestry (Lal, 2002). 2.9.3. Irrigation Irrigation increases C input to soils via increased litter and root production. When assessing the potential of irrigation of arid or semiarid land to increase C storage in soils, one needs to assess C loss from CO2 emitted to the atmosphere as a result of I) fertilizer manufacture, storage, transport and application, 2) fossil- fuel CO2 emitted from pumping irrigation water, 3) farm operations, such as tillage and planting, and 4) 20

CO2 lost via dissolved carbonate in irrigation water (West and Marland, 2001). In addition, C may be lost as CO2 from the irrigation water itself. When water is applied to the soil, CaCO3 can precipitate, releasing CO2 into the atmosphere. 2.9.4. Pasture management On a global basis, grasslands occupy 3400 M ha. Restoring degraded grazing lands and improving forage species is important to SOC pool. In addition to converting marginal croplands to pastures can also sequester C. Similar to cropland; management options for improving pastures include judicious use of fertilizers, controlled grazing, sowing legumes and grasses or other species adapted to the environment, improvement of soil fauna and irrigation (Follett et al., 2001). 2.10. Carbon management Increasing soil C stocks requires increasing C inputs and/or reducing soil heterotrophic respiration. Management options that contribute to reduced soil respiration include reduced tillage practices (especially no-till) and increased cropping intensity. Reconstructions of global landuse change suggest that terrestrial ecosystems have contributed as much as half of the increases in CO2 emissions from human activity in the past two centuries (Post et al., 1990; Houghton and Skole, 1990). Of the past anthropogenic CO2 additions to the atmosphere, about 50 Pg has been contributed by cultivated soils (Paustian et al., 1997a), through the mineralization of soil organic carbon (SOC). Physical disturbance associated with intensive soil tillage increases the turnover of soil aggregates and accelerates the decomposition of aggregate-associated SOM. No-till increases aggregate stability and promote the formation of recalcitrant SOM fractions within stabilized micro- and macroaggregate structures. Experiments using 13C natural abundance show up to a two-fold increase in mean residence time of SOM under no-till vs. intensive tillage. Greater cropping intensity, i.e., by reducing the frequency of bare fallow in crop rotations and increasing the use of perennial vegetation, can increase water and nutrient use efficiency by plants, thereby increasing C inputs to soil and reducing organic matter decomposition rates (Paustian et al., 2000). 2.11. Consequences of organic carbon storage in soil Organic materials are important soil additives to improve soil physical properties. This is important to sustain the productivity of soils particularly in semi-arid regions 21

where there is low input of organic materials. Soil aggregate formation and aggregate stability have an important role in crop production and sustainable agricultural management. Soil aggregate formation has an important role concerning seedsoil relation, hydraulic conductivity and root respiration, the diffusion of gases within the soil and plant growth. Furthermore, water-stable aggregates in soil prevent erosion, which is one of the main factors of soil degradation (Dinel et al., 1991). Structural soil degradation occurs mostly due to the decrease in soil organic matter caused by excessive soil cultivation (Grandy et al., 2002). The slaking of aggregates increased with the rate of wetting. Faster wetting leads to more entrapped air and greater differential movement of particles due to swelling (Emerson, 1954). On the other hand, soil structures under the integrated cropping and organic regime were the most stable (Buciene et al., 2003). A good structure is important for sustaining long-crop production on agricultural soils because it influences water status, workability, resistance to erosion, nutrient availability and plant growth and development. Organic matter is an important agent responsible for binding soil mineral particles together creating an aggregate hierarchy (Oades and Waters, 1991). The organic matter is still considered to provide the flexible links between the external surfaces of clay domains (Emerson et al., 1986). The main bonding polymers in aggregation are considered to be carbohydrates (Emerson and Greenland, 1990). Soil aggregate stability was highly correlated with soil organic matter content but the addition of crop residues and manure were not alone sufficient to restore soil physical quality (Spaccini et al., 2002). 2.11.1. Soil quality and fertility The concentration of SOC is also commonly used as a soil quality index (Sikora and Stott, 1996). Soil organic matter is considered to be the most important factor that contributes to soil quality because of the significant influence it has on soil chemical, physical, and biological properties. Organic matter is of particular interest for tropical soils with low activity clays, i.e. having a very low cation exchange capacity. Cation exchange capacity in function of the increase in organic matter. Bioavailability of other important elements, such as phosphorus will be improved and the toxicity of others can be inhibited by formation of chelate or other bonds, for example, aluminum and OM (Robert, 1996). In agriculture with low plant nutrient inputs, recycling of

22

nutrients (N, P, K, Ca) by gradual decomposition of plant and crop residues is of crucial importance for sustainability (Sanchez and Salinas, 1982). 2.11.2. Environmental impacts Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils counteracts desertification process through the role of increased soil organic matter in structural stability (resistance to both wind and water erosion) and water retention, and the essential role of soil surface cover by plant, plant debris or mulch in preventing erosion and increasing water conservation. Air quality is mainly concerned with the decrease in atmospheric CO2 concentration. Wetland rice culture represents the most complex system in relation to carbon sequestration. The overall effect of increasing OM in soil is an improvement of soils buffer capacity and resilience to different kinds of degradation or stress (FAO, 2001). 2.11.3. Biodiversity and soil biological functioning Soil biota, primarily at a functional group level, is known to regulate vital ecosystem processes such as decomposition (the modification of complex organic compounds into organic nutrients available for plant growth), carbon sequestration, and nutrient cycling. The rate of decomposition is dependent on the interaction of climate, biota and the quality and quantity of organic matter (Swift et al., 1979). Earthworms, termites and ants, which are the main groups composing the macro fauna (>1 cm) increases generally with an increase in OM and with a decrease in soil disturbance (no-tillage). They are good indicator of soil biological quality (Lavelle, 2000; Lobry de Bruyn, 1997). 2.11.4. Effect of climate change A proportion of the SOC present in undisturbed soils has been burned lost through agriculture practices. This has contributed to the global rise of CO2 in the atmosphere. The annual global rate of photosynthesis is generally balanced by decomposition and represents one tenth of the carbon in the atmosphere or one twentieth of the carbon in soils (Lal et al., 1998). Global warming could lead to an increase in heterotrophic respiration and decomposition of organic matter, and consequently to a decline in the sink capacity of terrestrial ecosystems (Schimel, House and Hibbard, 2001). Another important effect of CO2 increase is a decrease in transpiration from the stomata which results in increased water use efficiency, particularly in C4 plants. So far as water is

23

concerned, the net effect of CO2 on the reduction of plant transpiration is favorable (Gregory et al., 1998).

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3. Methods and Materials In order to investigate the stock of organic carbon in soils, the soil samples were collected from different locations and were processed for analyses. 3.1. Collection of Soil Samples Soil samples were collected from different locations of Bangladesh (Batiaghata, Dumuria, Tala, Hogladanga, Pirojpur Sadar and Srimangal). From each sampling spot, soils were collected in bulk from 0-25 cm depth. The collected soils were packed in a polyethylene bag and labeled properly by a marker pen. 3.2. Processing of Soil Sample Each of the collected soil samples was dried in air by spreading on separate sheet of paper after it was transported to the laboratory. After air drying, the larger and massive aggregates and gravel were broken by crushing them gently with a wooden hammer. Dry roots, grasses and scrubs were discarded from the sample. Soil samples were dry sieved by hand to collect aggregate size classes (8-2mm, 2-0.25 mm and 0.25-0.05 mm). Collecting each size class individually allows for each size class to be wet sieved or analyzed individually. 3.3. Short description of soil samples A short description of soil series as well as sampling sites is given below. Bajoa Series: Sample no. 1 and 7 were under this series. Samples were collected from Batiaghata upazila and Pirojpur Sadar, respectively. The Bajoa series comprises seasonally shallowly to moderately deeply flooded, poorly drained soils developed in Ganges tidal deposits. They have a grey to olive grey, calcareous silty clay loam subsoil with moderate to strong blocky structure in the B horizon. Elevation of this soil series is typically basin. Land use pattern is transplanted aman-fallow. Jhalakathi Series: Sample no. 2 was collected from Batiaghata upazila. The Jhalakati series comprises seasonally shallowly flooded, poorly drained soils developed in Ganges tidal deposits. They have a grey silty clay loam subsoil with strong to moderate prismatic and blocky structure with dark grey cutan along ped faces in the horizon. Elevation of this soil series is typically upper slope of nearly level low ridge. Land use pattern is followed by transplanted aus-transplanted aman-fallow.

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Dumuria Series: Sample no. 3 was under Dumuria series collected from Ghutudia, Dumuria. Dumuria series consists of seasonally shallowly to moderately deeply flooded soils developed in tidal clay deposits. They have grey, calcareous silty clays with moderate to strong prismatic and blocky structure with patchy olive grey cutan along ped faces in the B horizon. Land use pattern is transplanted aman-fallow. Garuri Series: Sample no. 4 was under Garuri series collected from Sagda, Tala. The Garuri series comprises seasonally shallowly to moderately deeply flood. Poorly drained soils developed in older Gangetic alluvium. They have dark grey noncalcareous clay subsoil with strong coarse prismatic breaking into strong coarse and medium blocky structure with ped cutan along vertical and horizontal ped faces. They are calcareous below 12-30 inches depth. Land use pattern is jute (bankin)-t.aman (BR-11)-rabi crops (lentil and others). Harta Series: Sample no. 5 was under Harta series collected from Hogladanga, Batiaghata. The Harta series comprises seasonally flooded poorly to very poorly drained soils developed in Ganges tidal floodplain. They have a dark grey to grey, silty clay to clay soil overlying an organic layer at 10-20 inches depth. The series consists of Broad basin. Land use pattern is followed by Mixed aus and broadcast aman-fallow. Sara Series: Sample no. 6 was under Sara series collected from Kulbaria, Dumuria. Sara series comprises intermittently and shallowly flooded, imperfectly to poorly drained soils developed in Gangetic alluvium. They have olive-brown to light olive brown color, calcareous silt loams with weak prismatic and blocky structure in the B horizon. Elevation of this soil series is typically upper slope of high ridge. Land use pattern is followed by aus-rabi crops. Srimangal Series: Sample no. 8 and 9 were under Srimangal series collected from Srimangal, Sylhet. The Srimangal series consists of well drained soils developed in old Holocene or late Pleistocene piedmont terrace deposits. They occur on deeply dissected, nearly level (normal phase) to steep (strongly dissected phase) terrace remnants in association with small patches of Lakhaichara series; with Itkhola, These soils have a brown to yellowish brown, very friable to friable fine sandy loam to sandy clay loam topsoil with subangular blocky to granular worm cast structure (no crumbs), very strongly acid, overlying a yellowish brown to brown faintly mottled

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yellowish red to dark brown, friable silty clay loam to sandy clay subsoil with subangular blocky and granular worm cast structure, very strongly acid. 3.4. Laboratory Analyses In the laboratory chemical and physical properties of the soils were determined according to the conventional methods. The methods that were used in the experiment are as follows: 3.4.1. Particle size analysis: The particle size analysis of the soils was done by combination of sieving and hydrometer method as described by Gee and Bauder (1986). Textural classes were determined using Marshalls Triangular Coordinates as devised by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA, 1951). 3.4.2. Bulk density: Bulk density was determined by obtaining an undisturbed soil sample of known volume and dividing the oven-dry soil mass by the volume of the sample. A Daiki core sampler was used for obtaining cylindrical core samples. Precautions were taken to avoid compaction. The soil was trimmed to the exact volume of the cylinder and oven-dried at 105C (Black, 1965). 3.4.3. Soil reaction (pH): The pH of the soil was measured electrochemically by using a pH Meter. The ratio of soil to water was 1:2.5 as suggested by Jackson (1973). 3.4.4. Electrical conductivity (EC): Electrical conductivity of the soil was measured at soil to water ratio of 1:5 using EC meter as described by USSL STAFF (1954). 3.4.5. Soil organic carbon (SOC) stock: Percent soil organic carbon was determined by wet oxidation of Walkley and Blacks method as described by Piper (1950) and Jackson (1973). Percent soil organic carbon then converted to SOC content. Stock of soil organic carbon (SOC) can be evaluated by the following equation: SOC Stocks (Fixed Depth):

where SOCFD is the SOC stock to a fixed depth (Mg C ha-1 to the specified depth), Dcs is the density of core segment (g cm_3), Ccs is the organic C concentration of core segment (mg C g_1 dry soil), and Lcs is the length of core segment (cm) (Ellert et al., 2008). 27

4. Results and Discussion 4.1. General Analyses of Soil Particle size distribution: Soil texture refers to the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay. Soil texture detects the physical, chemical and biological properties of soils. SOC storage is largely influenced by soil texture. Soil texture of studied soil samples varied between silt loam and clay. The variation of textural classes of the studied soils is presented in Table 4.1. In most of soil sample, silt was dominant fraction, followed by clay and sand. The percentage of silt in soil samples was higher than sand and clay percentage. Soil sample no. 1, 2, and 4 were found to be silty clay loam. The texture of 3 and 7 no. sample was found to be silty clay. Textural class of Srimangal series is sandy clay loam. This may be due to high percentage of sand (60%) as because of high content of iron and aluminum and high BSP. The standard deviation of sand, silt and clay data indicates sand of the soil samples varied from 4% to 60%, silt of the soil samples was ranges from 18% (lowest) to 84% (highest) and the Clay of the soil samples varied from 12% (lowest) to 52% (highest) (Table 4.3). It showed different percent of sand present in same series at different location. Highest percent of sand, silt and clay were found in Srimangal, Harta and Dumuria series, respectively and the lowest percent of sand was found in Jhalakathi (Sample no. 2), Harta (Sample no. 5) and Bajoa (Sample no. 7) series. Lowest percent of silt and clay were found in Srimangal (Sample no. 8) and Harta (Sample no. 5) series, respectively. Bulk density: Bulk density is defined as the mass per unit volume of dry soil. Bulk density of soils is, therefore, influenced by texture, structure, cultivation, cultural practices etc. Bulk densities of the soils are presented in Table 4.1. The bulk density varied between 0.68 to1.65 g cm-3. Bulk density of the soil samples were measured at 0-25cm depth. Soils of sample no. 9 had highest bulk density (1.65 g cm-3). Sample no. 5 showed the lowest bulk density (0.68 g cm-3).

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The results of the physical and chemical analyses of soil samples are represented in Table 4.1 and 4.2.
Table 4.1 Physical properties of the studied soils Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Bulk Density (g cm-3) 1.16 1.18 1.54 1.61 0.68 1.49 1.41 1.61 1.65 Particle size distribution %Sand 9.00 4.00 5.00 5.00 4.00 30.00 4.00 60.00 60.00 %Silt 55.00 58.00 43.00 61.00 84.00 31.00 47.00 18.00 19.00 %Clay 36.00 38.00 52.00 34.00 12.00 39.00 49.00 22.00 21.00 Silty Clay Loam Silty Clay Loam Silty Clay Silty Clay Loam Silt Loam Clay Loam Silty Clay Sandy Clay Loam Sandy Clay Loam

Soil Series

Location

Texture

Bajoa Jhalakathi Dumuria Garuri Harta Sara Bajoa Srimangal Srimangal

Batiaghata Batiaghata Ghutudia, Dumuria Sagda, Tala Hogladanga, Batiaghata Kulbaria, Dumuria Guamaria, Pirojpur Sadar Srimangal, Sylhet Srimangal, Sylhet

Soil Reaction (pH): The pH of studied soil samples were shown in Table 4.2. Some soil samples exhibit alkaline pH and some exhibit nearly neutral between 6.6 to 7.6 and Srimangal soil series exhibit pH in acidic ranges (5.1 to 5.8). Electrical Conductivity (EC): The EC values of the soils varied from 0.78 to 17.11 dS m-1(Table 4.2). The highest EC value found for the soil sample 5 was 17.11 dS m1

. The EC value in Srimangal series was in the range of non- saline (0.78 to 1.45).

Most soils shows slightly saline to moderately saline behavior.

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Table 4.2 Organic Carbon Stock, pH and EC of the soils Sample no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Soil Series Bajoa Jhalakathi Dumuria Garuri Harta Sara Bajoa Srimangal Srimangal pH 7.64 7.89 7.97 7.77 5.18 8.04 6.79 5.19 5.72 EC (dS m-1) 5.57 4.75 7.40 5.50 4.50 4.75 4.24 0.78 0.80 Organic Carbon Stock (Kg C m-2) 0.48 0.42 0.81 0.49 0.91 0.35 0.49 0.35 0.43

Soil organic carbon (SOC) stock: Results of organic carbon percent in the collected soil samples are presented in Table 4.2. The highest organic carbon percent was observed in soil sample 3 and 5 (2.11 and 5.37, respectively) and lowest value observed in sample 8 and sample 9 that is Srimangal series (0.88 and 1.03, respectively). SOC stock in the soils is shown in Table 4.2. The SOC stocks of the soil samples of 1 and 7 of Bajoa series were 0.48 and 0.49 Kg C m-2 respectively. It showed nearly same pattern of SOC stock in same series. In sample 2, the soil organic carbon stock of the Jhalakathi series was 0.42 Kg C m-2. In sample 3, the SOC stock of the Dumuria series was 0.81 KgCm-2. In sample 4, the SOC stock of the Garuri series was 0.49 Kg C m-2. In sample 5, the SOC stock of the Harta series was 0.91Kg C m-2. Highest amount of SOC stock was found in this soil. In sample 6, the SOC stock of the Sara series was 0.35Kg C m-2. Lowest amount of SOC stock was found in this soil. In sample 8, the SOC stock of the Srimangal series was 0.35Kg C m-2. Lowest amount of SOC stock was found in this soil. In sample 9, the SOC stock of the Srimangal series was 0.43Kg C m-2.

4.2. Statistical Analyses

Statistical analysis is performed by MINITAB (Release 13.20).

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Table 4.3 Descriptive Statistics: BD, %Sand, %Silt, %Clay, SOC stock, pH, EC Variable Bulk Density %Sand %Silt %Clay SOC stock pH EC Mean 1.370 20.11 46.22 33.67 0.52 7.02 4.25 Median 1.49 5.00 47.0 36.0 0.48 7.64 4.75 St. Dev. 0.31 24.08 21.34 13.18 0.19 1.09 2.17 Minimum 0.68 4.00 18.0 12.0 0.35 5.18 0.78 Maximum 1.65 60.0 84.0 52.0 0.91 8.04 7.40

*St. Dev. = Standard Deviation

4.3. Relationship among soil properties SOC stock was negatively correlated with % sand and % clay but SOC stock and % silt were positively correlated. SOC stock was also negatively correlated with bulk density (Table 4.4). The SOC stock of studied soils varied from 0.35 to 0.91 Kg C m-2 in different soil series. SOC stock is higher in silt loam soil, lower in clay loam and sandy clay loam soils. In many soils, most of the C is stored in the clay-size fraction (Christensen, 1996) and consequently the concept of an inverse functional relationship between particle size and C storage capacity was developed. Further size separation in coarse (0.22 m) and fine (<0.2 m) clay fractions may give a better insight into the C storage than investigations on the whole clay fractions. It is reported that with at least 20% clay particles can bind the coarser soil constituents and organic matter (Hayes, 1991). This may be responsible for collapse of aggregates containing high silt percentage. Soil organic matter, especially microbial metabolites, comprises a wide range of sizes and chemical compositions that are available for associations with clay minerals. Baldock and Skjemstad (2000) describe the stabilization of organic materials by the soil matrix as a function of, among other factors, the chemical nature of the mineral fraction and its surfaces capable of adsorbing organic materials. However, the coarse clay fraction frequently contains a higher C content than the fine clay fraction (Laird et al., 2001). Stabilization on clay surfaces has long been

31

recognized as a mechanism for storing organic matter in soils on long timescales. However, clay content alone is not a good predictor of the total amount of organic matter; other factors, such as clay mineralogy (Torn et al., 1997). In 1970, Jeffrey suggested that the relationship between SOM and bulk density might be universal.

Table 4.4. Correlations: Bulk density, %Sand, %Silt, %Clay, SOC stock

%Sand P-Value %Silt

BD 0.520 0.151

%Sand

%Silt

%Clay

-0.806 -0.838 0.009 0.005 0.353 0.351 -0.470 0.202 -0.516 0.155 -0.087 0.823 0.639 0.064 -0.091 0.815

%Clay

Soc stock -0.574 0.106

Cell Contents: Pearson correlation P-Value Bulk density tends to decrease as SOM concentration increases. In Harta series, SOC stock has a tendency to increase as bulk density decreases. In this soil SOC shows the highest value which is 0.91 Kg C m-2 and bulk density was 0.68 g cm-3 which is the lowest value. In Srimangal soil series (sample no. 9) the highest value of bulk density was found when SOC stock was 0.43 Kg C m-2.

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5. Summary and Conclusion Laboratory investigations were conducted in Soil Science discipline, Khulna University to study the amount of SOC in some soils of Bangladesh. Nine representative soil samples from different locations of Bangladesh differing in physical, chemical and other properties were collected for this purpose. The soils belong to Bajoa, Jhalakathi, Dumuria, Garuri, Harta, Sara, Srimangal series. Most of the representative soils were Silty Clay Loam to clayey in texture which influenced the SOC stock. The percentage of silt in soil samples was higher than sand and clay percentage. Highest percent of sand, silt and clay were found in Srimangal, Harta and Dumuria series, respectively and the lowest percent of sand was found in Jhalakathi (Sample no. 2), Harta (Sample no. 5) and Bajoa (Sample no. 7) series. Lowest percent of silt and clay were found in Srimangal (Sample no. 8) and Harta series, respectively. The SOC stock varied between 0.42 and 0.49 Kg C m-2 in silty clay loam soils, 0.49 and 0.81 Kg C m-2 in silty clay soils and 0.35 and 0.43 Kg C m-2 in sandy clay loam soils. The highest value of SOC stock in studied soils was 0.91 Kg C m-2 and the lowest value was 0.35 Kg C m-2. The highest bulk density was1.65 g cm-3 in Srimangal soil series (sample no 9) and the lowest bulk density was 0.68 g cm-3 in Harta soil series (Sample no 5).

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