Fundamentals of Telecommunication

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Lecture at VGU

Summer Term 2014

Thomas Eichelmann (email: eichelmann@e-technik.org)

Research Group for Telecommunication Networks

FH Frankfurt a. M. University of Applied Sciences, Germany

Fundamentals of Telecommunication
Fachhochschule Frankfurt/M. University of Applied Sciences
Forschungsgruppe fr
Tele-
kommunikationsnetze
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1 Telecommunication networks

2 Fundamentals of switching technology

3 Communication models and protocols

4 IP network with Ethernet LANs

Recommended reading

References and literature
Fundamentals of Telecommunication
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Population:
- 92.477.857 million (July 2013 est.)

Telephones - main lines in use:
- 10.18 million (2011) (2010: 16.4 million; 2009: 17.43 million)
- Statistically ~ 9 people share one (fixed) telephone main line

Telephones - mobile cellular:
- 127.318 million (2011) (2009: 98.22 million)
- If every person owns at least 1 mobile phone, more than 1/3 of all
people statistically own 2 mobile phones

Some facts about telecommunications in Vietnam 1
[CIA World Factbook - Vietnam]
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Internet hosts:
- 189,553 (2012) (2010: 129,318)
- Number of hosts increased by more than 46 percent within 2 years

Internet users:
- 23.382 million (2009) (potentially out-dated information)
- Statistically ~ every 4th person is an Internet user

Telephone system:
- General assessment: Vietnam is putting considerable effort into
modernization and expansion of its telecommunication system
- Domestic: all provincial exchanges are digitalized and connected to Hanoi,
Da Nang, and Ho Chi Minh City by fiber-optic cable or microwave radio
relay networks; main lines have been increased, and the use of mobile
telephones is growing rapidly
- International: country code +84; a landing point for the SEA-ME-WE-3, the
C2C, and Thailand-Vietnam-Hong Kong submarine cable systems; the
Asia-America Gateway submarine cable system, completed in 2009,
provided new access links to Asia and the US; satellite earth stations - 2
Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region)

Some facts about telecommunications in Vietnam 2
[CIA World Factbook - Vietnam]
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1 Telecommunication networks
Terms and definitions

Analogue und digital signals

Telecommunication networks

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

Internet
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Communication
- Originated in latin language
- Message, conversation

Technical Communication = Telecommunication
- Comprises all forms of message (information) forwarding by the use of
communication systems

- Term information describes message substance / meaning of a
message. In practice: message / information often used
synonymically
Message forwarding / Telecommunication

Message transmission + Message routing/switching
Functions:
- Transport of messages over
transmission paths
Transmission systems
- Routing of messages through
telecommunication network
Switching / exchange
systems
Terms and definitions
[Broc; Haa; Sieg]
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- s(t): continuous in time and value
(analog)

- s
q
(t): discrete in value,
continuous in time
- s
a
(t): continuous in value, discrete
in time

- discrete in time and value (digital)

- binary in value and discrete in
time
Analogue and digital signals 1
[Lke]
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In digital technology messages are physically represented by digital signals
(i.e. discrete in both, time and amplitude)

Routing / switching / exchange systems: nowadays digital

Transmission technology digital, with some analogue portions left
Analogue and digital signals 2
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Prof. Dr.-Ing. U. Trick
Grundlagen der Telekommunikation/Informationsbertragung 2
Telecommunication networks 1
A telecommunication network consists of
- Transmission systems and paths / transmission media
- Exchange systems
- Terminal equipments
X = eXchange system
T = Transmission system component
TE = Terminal Equipment
= Transmission path

T
X
TE
X
TE T
X X
T
T T
T
T
T
T T TE
TE
TE
TE
[Tric]
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Examples for Transmission system components (T)
- Sender and receiver of radio point-to-point link system
- Sender and receiver of optical fibre glass transmission system
- Sender and receiver for communication over twisted pair copper line

Examples for eXchange systems (X)
- ISDN Switch
- IP Router (Internet Protocol)

Examples for Terminal Equipments (TE)
- Telephone (for phone service)
- PC for packet-oriented data communication
- enables access to services

Examples for transmission paths and transmission media
- 2-wire copper line
- Coaxial cable
- Fibre optic cable
- Terrestrial or satellite radio link
[Tric]
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Public ISDN Switch environment
[siemens.cz; ebay]
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IP network environment including IP Routers
[ftd.de; jihoy.com; storagenetworks.com]
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Telecommunication network
- supports via switching/routing (a dynamic process) and/or configuration
(a static process) the transfer of messages/information between sources
and sinks

- provides one or more services

- Services are distinguished in

+ bearer services (for example 64 kbit/s, 8 kHz structured)

+ teleservices (for example telephony or telefax)

+ supplementary services (for example Calling Line Identification
Presentation or Call Forwarding or Conference Calling), which represent
special features of the teleservices

+ Value Added Services (such as Televoting) arranged as combinations of
several different services
See Ch. 1.2; [Khn; Stal2]
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Type of
communication
Teleservice Features,
supplementary services

Telecommunication
network (examples)
Voice
communication
Telephony service Advice of charge etc. Telephone network
(PSTN = Public Switched
Telephone Network)

Voice
communication
Telephony service Call forwarding, calling
line identification
presentation, conference
calling etc.

ISDN (Integrated Services
Digital Network)
Text
communication

Telefax service Telephone network, ISDN

Data
communication

Packet data
transmission
Data network, Internet

Video
communication

Video
broadcasting
service
Video broadcasting
network

Examples for basic and supplementary services
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Supports voice, data and video services service integration

64 kbit/s, n x 64 kbit/s (n s 31) per subscriber/user

Architecture: see following slides

Circuit switching

Choosing of a route/routing via the phone number and signalling protocols
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)
See Ch. 2.1; [Stal2]
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ISDN 2
Siehe Kap. 2.1
ATM = Asynchronous Transfer
Mode
Class 4 switch = transit exchange
Class 5 switch = local exchange
Cu = Copper line
DSL = Digital Subscriber Line
DSLAM = Digital Subscriber Line
Access Multiplexer
IP = Internet Protocol
ISUP = ISDN User Part
NT = Network Termination
OLT = Optical Line Termination
ONU = Optical Network Unit
ONU ONU
Concen-
trator
Cu
V5
fiber
Core
network
Access
network
Class 5
switch
NT
DSLAM
Cu Cu
Class 5
switch
Class 4
switch
Class 4
switch
Transport network
(fiber optics)
Private
network
Cu Cu
xDSL
V
ISUP
ISUP
To packet data network
ATM/IP
To data networks
ATM/IP ,
Tie line
LWL
Cu OLT
[Tric]
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Ex = Exchange
DLC = Digital Loop Carrier System
OLT = Optical Line Termination
ONU = Optical Network Unit
OLT
Transit
Ex
Transit
Ex
Transit
Ex
Transit
Ex
Local
Ex
Local
Ex
DLC
ONU ONU
DLC
TE TE TE TE TE
TE
TE
Cu Cu Cu Cu Cu
Cu fiber
fiber
fiber
fiber
fiber
radio
radio
fiber
fiber
fiber
fiber
fiber
core
network

- national

- regional
access
network
data network etc.
See Ch. 2.1; [Stal2]
ISDN 3
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f
u
r
t
:

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e

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s

o
f

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.

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s

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d
.

Supports data services, but also service integration on the basis of IP

14,4 kbit/s up to 1 Gbit/s per subscriber/user

Architecture
- Client = host with special application SW. User/network interface
- Server = host with special SW. Provider/network interface
- Servent = Client + Server
- IP router = switching/routing system
- Networks or sub networks between the IP routers only offer transport
capacity. This includes ISDN with dial-in connections, the transport
network with leased lines or an ATM network (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)
with virtual leased lines and dial-in connections
Internet 1
See Ch. 2.3; [Tane]
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,

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:

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.

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.

Transport Network
ISDN ATM Network
IP Network IP Network
POP
64 kbit/s
Switch
POTS
ISDN
Leased
Line
POP = Point Of Presence
IP = Internet Protocol
ADSL = Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
ADSL
Client
IP Router
ATM
Switch
POTS = Plain Old Telephone Service
ATM = Asynchronous Transfer Mode
LAN = Local Area Network
ATM
IP
Router
IP
Router
LAN LAN
IP
Router
IP
Router
IP
Router
Server
Server
Server
Client
General Architecture of the Internet
See Ch. 2.3
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,

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:

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.

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.

Internet access of the clients via
- leased line or
- POP (Point Of Presence)/Remote Access Concentrator
Internet Access
See Ch. 2.3; [Tane]
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,

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:

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.

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.

Server
64 kbit/s
Exchange
POP Internet
Data
Network
Interface
PPP
Terminations
ISDN
Terminations
IP Router
POTS
Terminations,
Modems
POTS = Plain Old Telephone Service
ADSL = Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
PPP = Point to Point Protocol
ADSL
Terminations
ADSL
POTS
ISDN
POP (Point of Presence)/Remote Access Concentrator 1
See Ch. 2.3
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,

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.

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.

Internet
ATM-Net
Prov. 1
BRAS
Prov. 2
IP-Net
Prov. 2
DSLAM
IAD
Ethernet-Net
Prov. 3
BRAS
Prov. 4
IP-Net
Prov. 4
DSLAM
IAD
AAA-Server Prov. 2
AAA-Server Prov. 4
xDSL
xDSL
IP-
Router
IP-
Router
AAA = Authentication, Authorization and Accounting
BRAS = Broadband Remote Access Server
DSLAM = Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer
IAD = Integrated Access Device
POP (Point of Presence)/Remote Access Concentrator 2
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:

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.

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.

The Internet is an IP-based packet switched network, which consists of sub
networks. It uses switching networks (for example ISDN, ATM) and pure
transport networks for the transmission of the IP packets

Packet switching

Choosing of a route/routing via the IP address and the IP protocol as well as
routing protocols
Internet - Summary
See Ch. 2.3; [Tane]
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.

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s

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.

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a
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p

f
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m
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a
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n
,

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f
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:

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.

A
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s

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d
.
2 Fundamentals of switching technology
Multiplexing mechanisms

Connection concepts

Switching and routing principles
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.

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.

Switching/Routing
Switching/Routing of information: Finding a message path through a
telecommunication network

Switch / Router / Network
[Sieg]
Switch /
Router /
Network
Out-path 1
In-path N Out-path M
In-path 1
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.

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.

Multiplexing/demultiplexing

- Multiplexer combines (multiplexes) data from N inputs

- Demultiplexer receives multiplexed data stream, separates (demultiplexes)
the data and delivers them to N outputs
Multiplexing mechanisms 1
[Haa; Khn; Sieg; Stal1]
N in
1 in
.
.
.
1 out
N out
.
.
.
1 path
Multiplexer Demultiplexer
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.

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.

Multiplexing mechanisms
- Time Division Multiplex (TDM): N digital signals are carried on a single
transmission path by interleaving portions of each signal in time. The
interleaving can be at bit level or in blocks of bits or Bytes

- Synchronous Time Division (STD)
+ On the path one digital signal is represented by an exactly defined
time slot
+ N time slots together constitute a frame
+ The signal structure of a PCM signal (Pulse Code Modulation) is an
example of STD multiplexing
+ Another application of STD is a time division switching matrix of a 64
kbit/s ISDN switching system
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.

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N 1 2 N 1
time slot
frame
frames will be repeated periodically
fixed bit rate
signal
Synchronous Time Division (STD)
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,

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f
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:

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.

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.

2 16 0 1 0 1
time slot (64 kbit/s, 3,9 s)
frame (125 s)
2.048 Mbit/s
signal
signalling channel bearer channels
sychronization/
control channel
17 15 31
2.048 Mbit/s PCM 30 signal structure
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,

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.

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- Asynchronous Time Division (ATD)
+ Each of the N digital signals will be divided into blocks of variable or
constant length. Each block is provided with a control field, a so
called header
+ The N digital signals will be carried on a single path by interleaving
these blocks
+ Block with variable length = packet
+ Block with constant length = cell
+ Each packet or cell contains a header and the payload
+ The signal structure of an IP signal (an IP packet) is an example of ATD
multiplexing
+ Another example of ATD is an ATM cell
+ 53 Byte ATM cell = 5 Byte Header + 48 Byte Payload

- Space Division Multiplex (SDM)
+ The N input signals will be combined to a bundle (multiplexing), and
then separated again into N physical output channels
+ N physical inputs and outputs
+ An example of SDM is a space division matrix of a 64 kbit/s ISDN
switching system
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.

header payload
signal 1 1 2 empty N
variable bit rate
packet or cell
Asynchronous Time Division (ATD)
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.

1
N
N
1
i
.
.
.
.
.
.
Space Division Multiplex (SDM)
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- Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM)
+ N signals are carried on a single transmission path by interleaving the
signals in the frequency domain by modulation
+ Example of FDM: radio broadcasting

- Wavelength Division Multiplex (WDM)
+ N signals with N different wavelength
k
are carried on a single optical
fiber
+ = c / f ; f = frequency, c = velocity of light WDM FDM
+ An example of WDM is the signal structure of high-speed optical fiber
transmission systems using N wavelength per fiber
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.

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.

S(f)
f
signal 1 2 N
0
S()

1 2
N
signal 1 2 N
0
Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM)
Wavelength Division Multiplex (WDM)
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.

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.

- Code Division Multiplex (CDM), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
+ N signals will be coded with N different code words, which are not or
only weakly correlated, and then carried on a common single physical
path
+ All signals use the same time slot and frequency domain
+ The effect of CDM is the spreading of the frequency spectrum (spread
spectrum technique)
+ Decoding/demultiplexing in the case of CDM
+ This looks like a conversation between persons with different
nationalities and languages
+ An example of CDMA is the radio access at UMTS (Universal Mobile
Telecommunication System)
[Lesc; Stal1]
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.

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.

Binary data 0 1
NRZ (Non Return to Zero) bipolar
Code sequence 0111001
CDM signal
d
t
s
t
t
d
.
s
Coding in the case of Code Division Multiplex (CDM)
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m
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i
c
a
t
i
o
n
,

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F
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k
f
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:

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F
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s

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a
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o
n
.

A
l
l

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i
g
h
t
s

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e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.

CDM signal
d
t
t
c = d
.
s
D(f)
f
C(f)
f
T
d
T
c
1/T
c
1/T
d
Spreading of the frequency spectrum by CDM
R
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a
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,

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.

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.

Binary data 0 1

0111001
CDM signal 1
d
.
s
.
s
t
s
t
t
d
.
s
1101001
CDM signal 1
r
t
t
d
.
s
d
.
s
.
r
t
Decoding/demultiplexing in the case of CDM
Code sequence 1
Code sequence 2
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.

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.

Example for multiplexing
Code sequence for User 1A

Code sequence for User 2A
s
1
t
+1
-1
t
s
2
+1
-1
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.

A
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s

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v
e
d
.

Example for demultiplexing at user 2B
Code sequence for User 1B

Code sequence for User 2B
s
1
t
+1
-1
t
s
2
+1
-1
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,

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:

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.

A
l
l

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t
s

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v
e
d
.

Multiplexing mechanisms examples

I Channel multiplex
I I Synchronous Time Division (STD) ISDN, PCM
I I Space Division Multiplex (SDM) ISDN, IP, ATM
I I Wavelength Division Multiplex (WDM)
I I Highspeed optical fiber transmission
I I Frequency Division Multiplex (FDM)
I I Radio/Broadcasting, ADSL
I I Code Division Multiplex (CDM) UMTS

I Message multiplex
I Asynchronous Time Division (ATD) with variable block
length IP
I Asynchronous Time Division (ATD) with constant block
length ATM
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,

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.

A
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s

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e
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e
d
.

user A user B
connection
establishment

connection
disconnect
information transfer
lift
network
off-hook
dial tone
dialing
ringing
ringing tone
off-hook
no tone
on-hook
on-hook

hang up

release tone
Connection concepts 1
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.

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.

Example of message transfer with switching/routing:
- Connection establishment
- Information transfer
- Connection disconnect

Connection in general
[Sieg; Stal2; Stal1; Khn]
connection
establishment
information transfer
connection
connection
disconnect
time
t
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,

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.

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s

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e
d
.

Connection concepts
- Connection-oriented communication
+ Connection establishment information transfer connection
disconnect take place one after the other
+ During the connection establishment phase the destination
communication partner will be chosen and informed. Before the
information transfer, he can decide whether he will accept or reject
the call

- Connection with physically established circuit
+ During the time after the connection establishment and before the
connection disconnect, the communication partners have a physically
fixed switched circuit for their information transfer
+ ISDN for example
[Khn; Tane; Stal1; Stal2]
connection
establishment (ce)
information transfer (it)
connection
disconnect (cd)
time
t
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a
r
c
h

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u
p

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o
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i
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o
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,

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:

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e

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o
n
.

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s

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d
.

- Connection with virtual circuit
+ The communication partners will get the circuit only if it is necessary
for the information transfer
+ During the time, when the circuit is not required for communication,
others can use the capacity of this circuit
+ The messages have to be transmitted as blocks, for example as cells.
See Asynchronous Time Division (ATD)
+ Examples: ATM, TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
ce cd
time
t
it it it it
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a
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,

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:

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o
n
.

A
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s

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d
.

- Connectionless communication
+ Information transfer and connection establishment/disconnect take
place simultaneously
+ A transmitted data block contains not only the payload, but also the
source and destination address
+ The information has to be transmitted in the form of blocks, for
example as packets. See Asynchronous Time Division (ATD)
+ Such a message is called datagram
+ An example is the Internet with IP datagrams, UDP (User Datagram
Protocol)
+ Connectionless communication looks like the well known old-
fashioned mail
time
t
ce+it+cd
datagram
ce+it+cd ce+it+cd
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a
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.

A
l
l

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i
g
h
t
s

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e
s
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r
v
e
d
.

Connection concepts examples

I Connection-oriented communication
I I with physically established circuit ISDN
I I with virtual circuit ATM, TCP

I Connectionless communication
I with datagrams IP, UDP
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,

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.

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s

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d
.

Switching and routing principles
- Circuit switching
+ Connection-oriented communication with physically established
circuit
+ In the switching system (exchange) a circuit is established by
synchronous time division multiplex and/or space division multiplex
+ Per connection, the delay and bandwidth regarding the payload is
always equal
+ ISDN for example

- Packet switching or store and forward switching
+ The information will be transmitted in the form of blocks, with a
header for the address and control information, and the payload
+ Normally, the blocks have to be stored in the switching/routing nodes
+ The blocks may have variable length (IP) or constant length (ATM)
+ The delay and bandwidth regarding the payload is variable
+ Advantages are the optimised usage of the transmission capacity by
different sources, and the flexibility regarding different services with
different bandwidth requirements
Switching and routing principles 1
[Haa; Khn; Sieg; Stal1; Stal2]
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,

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.

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.

- Packet switching variant 1: with connection-oriented communication and
virtual circuit
+ The connection will get a virtual circuit, not a physically fixed
switched circuit
+ During the connection establishment phase, resources (for example
bandwidth) can be reserved
+ During a connection the cells or the packets always take the same
way through the network
+ ATM with switching/routing nodes for example

- Packet switching variant 2: with connectionless communication
+ It could be that each packet takes another way through the network
+ Internet with IP routers for example
[Haa; Khn; Sieg; Stal1; Stal2]
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o
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,

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:

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.

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s

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.

= memory,
queues
user B
user B
Circuit switching
Packet switching
TE
TE
User A
Ex
Ex
Ex
transmission media
circuit for s
TE TE
switch/router
switch/router
switch/router
Ex = Exchange
s = signal
H = Header
Pk = Payload at time k
= switching contact
User A
transmission media
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a
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o
n
,

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f
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t
:

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.

A
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l

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i
g
h
t
s

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e
s
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r
v
e
d
.

Switching and routing principles examples

I Circuit switching ISDN
I Packet switching
I with connection-oriented communication
(virtual circuit packet switching) ATM

I with connectionless communication (datagram packet
switching) IP
[Stal1]
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.

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s

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v
e
d
.

Switching/routing technology

64 kbit/s IP ATM
Multiplexing
mechanisms

Connection
concepts

Switching/
routing
principles

Fundamentals of switching/routing 1
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,

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.

A
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g
h
t
s

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s
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v
e
d
.

Switching/routing technology

64 kbit/s IP ATM
Multiplexing
mechanisms
- Synchronous Time
Division (STD)

- Space Division
Multiplex (SDM)

- Asynchronous Time
Division (ATD) with
variable block length

- Space Division
Multiplex (SDM)
- Asynchronous Time
Division (ATD) with
constant block length

- Space Division
Multiplex (SDM)

Connection
concepts
- Connection-oriented,
physically
established circuit

- Connectionless,
datagrams
- Connection-oriented,
virtual circuit

Switching/
routing
principles
- Circuit switching

- Datagram packet
switching
- Virtual circuit packet
switching

Fundamentals of switching/routing 2
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,

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.

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.
3 Communication models and protocols
OSI reference model (Open Systems
Interconnection)

Protocols

Description of protocols
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.

Communication model: Model for message transfer between communication
systems

OSI reference model (Open Systems Interconnection). Developed by the ISO
(International Standardization Organization)

Goal: open communication systems
- Interoperability among different vendor equipment by the use of
standardised procedures for the message transfer (protocols)
- Protocols define the behaviour at the external interfaces of systems, not
the internal structure or implementation

An application, for example telephony service or file transfer, running on
terminal equipment, for example a phone or PC, communicates directly or via
transit systems, for example via switching/routing systems. See figure
OSI reference model 1
[Sieg; Haa; Klu; Stal1]
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.

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.

Transmission Medium Transmission Medium

Application Application
Terminal Equipment A Terminal Equipment B
Transit System
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Principles used in defining the OSI reference model
- Layering of the communication functions
- Each layer performs a well-defined function
- A lower layer provides a special service for the upper layer
- Two corresponding instances/entities in the same layer communicate by
using a protocol
[Sieg; Haa; Klu; Stal1]
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transmission medium transmission medium
1 1
2 2
3
physical layer 1
data link layer 2
network layer 3
transport layer 4
session layer 5
presentation layer 6
application layer 7
physical layer 1
data link layer 2
network layer 3
transport layer 4
session layer 5
presentation layer 6

application layer 7
end user end user
network
[Stal1]
- 7 layers

- User and application: on top of layer 7
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- Layer 1 (physical layer):
+ Provides the transmission of messages over a physical transmission
medium
+ Functions: line coding, modulation, synchronisation,
activation/deactivation, terminating resistor, cable, connector, etc.
+ For example: U
k0
-link in the case of an ISDN basic access (transmission
sector between the local exchange or a concentrator and the network
termination NTBA); 100Base-TX in the case of Fast Ethernet LAN

- Layer 2 (data link layer):
+ Provides reliable message transfer via a transmission sector
+ Functions: layer 2 connection establishment and disconnect, flow
control, segmentation of layer 3 data into blocks, error control,
repetition of blocks after an error, etc.
+ For example: LAPD protocol (Link Access Procedure on D-channel) in
the case of an ISDN basic access, HDLC (High level Data Link Control);
MAC and LLC protocol (Medium Access Control, Logical Link Control) in
the case of Ethernet LAN
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- Layer 3 (network layer):
+ Provides choosing of routes in a network regarding the
communication of terminals/hosts
+ Functions: choosing of routes (routing in the network, connects
transmission sectors between terminals/hosts and transit systems or
between transit systems), provision of Quality of Service,
establishment, disconnect and maintenance of connections, etc.
+ For example: layer 3 protocol of DSS1 (Digital Subscriber Signalling
system no. 1) in the case of an ISDN basic access, IP (Internet Protocol)

- Layer 4 (transport layer):
+ Provides reliable message transfer between end systems,
terminals/hosts
+ Functions: adaptation of different network segments in heterogenous
networks, end to end error control, flow control, data segmentation,
etc.
+ For example: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) in the Internet

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.

- Layer 5 (session layer):
+ Provides the control of the synchronised communication between
cooperating end systems
+ Functions: establishes and terminates logical connections, for
example for sessions on a remote system, dialogue control between
applications in end systems, etc.
+ For example: control procedures for fax group 4 service, SIP (Session
Initiation Protocol)

- Layer 6 (presentation layer):
+ Defines the format (syntax) of data to be transmitted
+ Functions: selection of the application-specific syntax, format
transformation (for example ASCII, Unicode), data
compression/decompression, encryption/decryption, etc.
+ For example: data specification language ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax
Notation 1) for the description of managed objects, JPEG (Joint
Photographic Experts Group) for the compression of single pictures,
MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group) for the compression of audio and
video streams
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.

- Layer 7 (application layer):
+ Defines components and tasks of the application
+ Functions: mechanisms to support the application, identification und
authentication of users, etc.
+ For example: FTP (File Transfer Protocol) for file transfer,
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) und POP3 (Post Office Protocol
version 3) or IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) for e-mail,
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) for the WWW (World Wide Web) in
the Internet, SIP for Multimedia over IP
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Non-technical example: Philosophy discussion in OSI reference model
Brasilian Philosopher Chinese Philosopher
L7 Philosophy A
(Philosopher)

L6 Brasilian/English
translation
(Interpreter)

L5 Agreement for the
exchange of
translations
(Interpreter)

L4 Registered letter with
delivery confirmation
(Secretary)

L3 Post mail (Secretary)

L2 Letter hand-in
(Secretary)

L1 Letter out-box
(Secretary)

L7 Philosophy B
(Philosopher)

L6 Chinese/English
translation
(Interpreter)

L5 Agreement for the
exchange of
translations
(Interpreter)

L4 Registered letter with
delivery confirmation
(Secretary)

L3 Post mail (Secretary)

L2 Mail delivery
(Post man)

L1 Post box
(Post man)

Post mail (Post office clerk)

Letter hand-in Mail delivery

Post box Post sorting

Walking
By car
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Not every layer is used in every application (i.e. one or more layers might
remain empty)

Example: basic voice telephony service: L4L7 are represented by the users
themselves, i.e. L4L7 remain empty from a technical point of view (see call
example between a Maroccan and a Croatian)
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.

Protocol [Knig; Tanenbaum]
- A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed

- It defines the chronological sequence of the communication between the
partner instances/entities in the same layer

- It defines the format, which includes the syntax and the semantics of the
transferred Protocol Data Units (PDU)

- Protocol are typically standardised

- Imagine the protocol of a state visit
Protocol 1
[Kni; Tane]
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.

- Protocol stack
+ A list of protocols used by a considered system

+ These protocols are harmonised and interact well

+ The protocols of the layers 1 to 7 at the Fast Ethernet interface of a
LAN for providing the WWW service are another example:
L1 100 Base-TX,
L2 MAC (Medium Access Control),
L3 IP,
L4 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol),
L7 HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

+ The protocols of the layers 1 to 3 at the S
0
interface of an ISDN basic
access for providing the telephony service are an example (DSS1 =
Digital Subscriber Signalling system no. 1):
L1 S
0
(D),
L2 LAPD (Link Access Procedure on D-channel),
L3 L3-DSS1
[Kni; Tane]
Protocol 2
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.

- Each layer is represented by an instance/entity, for example a SW process

- Each instance/entity provides a service to the next higher layer

- Each higher layer N+1 uses the sum of all services, which are provided by
the lower layers N, N-1

- For providing the service, an instance/entity communicates with its
remote partner instance/entity in the same layer by a protocol, exchanging
PDUs (Protocol Data Unit)

- For the communication between 2 adjacent layers, primitives and
accompanying parameters are used. The access takes place via a SAP
(Service Access Point). The port number in the case of TCP is an example of
a SAP

- The communication between the layers is typically not standardised,
because it takes place inside of a system
Communication between adjacent layers 1
[Sieg; Stal1]
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(N+1) layer
(N) layer
(N-1) layer
Primitives
Primitives

Service Access Point (N-1)
service
provision
Service Access Point (N)
service
request
[Sieg; Stal1]
PDUs, layer protocol
Communication between adjacent layers 2
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(N+1) layer
(N) layer
(N-1) layer
Composition of data units 1
[Sieg; Stal1]
PDU = Protocol Data Unit
SDU = Service Data Unit
PCI = Protocol Control Information
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- (N)-PDU = N-PCI + (N)-SDU, where (N)-SDU = (N+1)-PDU

- In each layer N, specific protocol information N-PCI (header (+trailer)) are
added to the information (N)-SDU, which is the payload regarding this
layer N

- Each layer N on the transmitter side adds a specific envelope N to the
original data and the envelopes of the higher layers

- At the remote receiver side these envelopes have to be opened layer by
layer, starting at layer 1
[Sieg; Stal1]
Composition of data units 2
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.

bit stream
1
physical layer
2
data link layer
3
network layer
4
transport layer
5
session layer
6
presentation layer
7
application layer
1
physical layer
2
data link layer
3
network layer
4
transport layer
5
session layer
6
presentation layer
7
application layer
PCI
PCI
PCI
PCI
PCI
PCI SDU
SDU
SDU
SDU
SDU
SDU
logical connection
application to application
PCI SDU
Layer by layer principle
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.

RESPonse
CONFirm
REQuest
INDication
layer N+1
service user
layer N
service provider
layer N
service provider
layer N+1
service user
PDUs
a) Confirmed service
Primitives for the interaction between adjacent layers 1
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.

REQuest
INDication
layer N+1
service user
layer N
service provider
layer N
service provider
layer N+1
service user
PDUs
b) Nonconfirmed service
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.

Normally 4 types of primitives are used to define the interaction between
adjacent layers

- REQuest: an instance/entity of layer N+1 initiates a service of the layer N.
As a consequence, the instance/entity N sends a PDU to its remote partner
instance/entity N

- INDication: The destination in layer N delivers the received information to
the service user in layer N+1

- RESPonse: If an acknowledgement is called for, the destination N+1 issues
a response primitive. As a consequence, the remote instance/entity N
sends a corresponding PDU

- CONFirm: The acknowledgement is delivered to the instance/entity N+1,
which originally asked for the service

- Necessary data are transmitted as parameters of the primitives
[Stal2]
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Signalling: protocol message flows for connection control

L3-DSS1 as an example of a signalling protocol

- Layer 3 of the D-channel in the case of ISDN user interfaces

- Presentation by a MSC (Message Sequence Chart)

- Connection establishment information transfer connection disconnect
[Stal2]
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Examples
for actions and
corresponding
PDU messages
in the case of
DSS1
user A picks up
the handset
user A dials 5
call initiated
user B picks up
user hangs up
the handset
user B is called
call delivered
action PDU
SETUP
INFORMATION (5)
SETUP
SETUP
ALERTING
CONNECT
DISCONNECT
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INFO
Vst
INF
CALL PRO
Vst Vst
CONN AC
REL COM
ALERTING
CONNECT
DISC
REL
RELEASE
REL COM
REL COM
DISCONNECT
SETUP
SETUP ACK
INFO
INFO
CALL PROC
LE LE
ALERTING
SETUP
CONNECT
CONN ACK
RELEASE
REL COM
User A User B
Terminal 1 Terminal 2
Terminal
ringing
connection established, information transfer between user A and B2
CONN ACK
ringing
pick up (off hook)
hang up (on hook)
hang up (on hook)
lift (off hook)
ringing tone
end of ringing tone
dial tone
end of dial tone
ALERTING
Simple layer 3
DSS1 call
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For specification, design, implementation, and verification of protocols

Models and methods are necessary, which illustrate the different aspects of a
protocol. A graphic representation would be helpful

The focal point is the description of the message flows

MSC (Message Sequence Chart)
State diagram and state table
SDL (Specification and Description Language)

These 3 often used description methods will be explained by the example L3-
DSS1, connection establishment at the TE side (restrictions: block dialling,
straightforward cases only, no error treatment)
Description of protocols 1
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MSC (Message Sequence Chart)
- Vertical lines represent instances / entities
- Horizontal lines represent PDUs and primitives
- Arrows indicate the direction of information transfer
- Timeline from top to bottom

PDUs used in given example
- SETUP
- CALL PROCEEDING
- ALERTING
- CONNECT
- CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE

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.

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Outgoing call, initiated by the TE
Terminal Network
en bloc,
pick up D3 SETUP REQ SETUP D3 SETUP IND
(off hook)
D3 PROCEEDING IND CALL PROCEEDING D3 PROCEEDING REQ

ringing D3 ALERTING IND ALERTING D3 ALERTING REQ
tone
end of D3 SETUP CONF CONNECT D3 SETUP RESP
ringing tone
connection CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE

Incoming call, initiated by the network
D3 SETUP IND SETUP D3 SETUP REQ

ringing D3 ALERTING REQ ALERTING D3 ALERTING IND

pick up D3 SETUP RESP CONNECT D3 SETUP CONF
(off hook)
D3 SETUP
connection COMPLETE IND CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE
[ETS 300102]
0
0
1
3
4
10
6
7
8
10
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MSCs are especially suited for

- an overview of time-oriented message flows and the communication
between different instances/entities

- the requirement specification of interfaces and use cases

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.

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.

State diagram / table

An FSM (Finite State Machine) is the basis of the description of
instances/entities

State diagram
- Ellipses or circles represent the states
- Arrows indicate the state transitions. Events (input signals) causing
transitions are specified
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CALL PROCEEDING PDU
SETUP PDU
0
6 1
7 3
8 4
10
D3 SETUP REQ
D3 ALERTING REQ
ALERTING PDU
CONNECT PDU
D3 SETUP RESP
CONNECT PDU
CONNECT ACK PDU
[ETS 300102]
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State table

- Columns represent states

- Rows represent events (input signals)

- Corresponding cells contain output signals and the following state

- A state table provides a more precise description than a state diagram
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State
Event/input
0 1 3 4 6 7 8
SETUP
PDU
D3
SETUP
IND / 6

D3
SETUP
REQ
SETUP
PDU / 1

CALL
PROCEEDING
PDU
D3
PROCEEDING
IND / 3

ALERTING
PDU
D3
ALERTING
IND / 4

CONNECT
PDU
D3
SETUP
CONF,
CONNECT
ACK PDU /
10
D3
SETUP
CONF,
CONNECT
ACK PDU /
10

D3
ALERTING
REQ
ALERTING
PDU / 7

D3
SETUP
RESP
CONNECT
PDU / 8

CONNECT
ACK PDU
D3
SETUP
COMPLETE
IND / 10

[ETS 300102]
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.

State diagrams and tables are especially suited for

- an overview of states and dependencies

- the specification and design of instances/entities, as the basis of the SW
implementation for example

- relative low complexity
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.

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.

SDL (Specification and Description Language)

- For the description of telecommunication systems, especially of protocols

- SDL delivers a graphic representation (compare with a state diagram) and a
text form (compare with a programming language)

- Graphical basic elements

[Kanb; Sieg]
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[ETS 300102]
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.

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.

[ETS 300102]
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.

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.

D3 SETUP IND
0
ZERO
6 CALL
PRESENT
SETUP PDU
D3
SETUP REQ
SETUP PDU
1 CALL
INITIATED
4 CALL
DELIVERED
3 OUTGOING
CALL
PROCEEDING
ALERTING
PDU
D3 ALERTING
IND
10 ACTIVE
CONNECT
ACK PDU
D3 SETUP
CONF
CONNECT
PDU
3 OUTGOING
CALL
PROCEEDING
1 CALL
INITIATED
CALL
PROCEEDING
PDU
D3
PROCEEDING
IND
Incoming call
present
Outgoing call
initiated
Outgoing call
proceeding
Call
delivered
Connection
established
PDU includes
the phone
number:
digits en bloc
[ETS 300102]
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.

4 CALL
DELIVERED
10 ACTIVE
D3 SETUP
CONF
CONNECT
ACK PDU
CONNECT
PDU
6 CALL
PRESENT
7 CALL
RECEIVED
D3 ALERTING
REQ
ALERTING
PDU
7 CALL
RECEIVED
8 CONNECT
REQUEST
D3 SETUP
RESP
CONNECT
PDU
8 CONNECT
REQUEST
10 ACTIVE
CONNECT
ACK PDU
D3 SETUP
COMPLETE
IND
Call received Call accepted
Connection
established
Connection
established
[ETS 300102]
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o
n
.

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d
.

SDL is especially suited for

- the specification and design of instances/entities

- the verification, for example by simulation

- the implementation, with automatic code generation for the target system

- for medium and high complexity

[Kanb; Sieg]
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o
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i
o
n
.

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.

UML (Unified Modeling Language)

- For modeling, documentation, specification and visualisation of complex
software systems

- Different diagram types, also for protocol description
+ Activity diagram
+ State machine
+ Sequence diagram
+ Communication diagram
+ Timing diagram
+ Interaction overview diagram

Often combining different types of description is the best solution for protocol
or system specification and development
[Rupp]
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i
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n
,

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.

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.
4 IP network with Ethernet LANs
Layer 1

Layer 2 MAC, LLC

Layer 3 IP

Hub, Switch, Router

Layer 4 TCP

Layer 7 HTTP
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.

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.

Client
IP
Router
Server
IP
Router
IP
Router
10BaseT 100Base-TX
LAN 1 LAN 2 WAN
L2
L3
L4
L7
L1
Appli-
cation
LLC/
MAC
IP
TCP
HTTP
10BaseT
Browser-
SW
LLC/
MAC
IP
TCP
HTTP
100Base-
TX
Server-
SW
IP
LLC/
MAC
100Base-
TX
ATM
SDH
STM-16
IP
ATM
SDH
STM-16
LLC/
MAC
10BaseT
Cu Cu Fiber
ATM = Asynchronous Transfer Mode
HTTP = HyperText Transfer Protocol
LLC = Logical Link Control
MAC = Media Access Control
SDH = Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
STM-16 = Synchronous Transport Module 2,5 Gbit/s
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
WAN = Wide Area Network

Exemplary network and protocol stacks
[Tric]
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.

Layer 1 1
10BaseT for Ethernet LAN
- Layer 1

- IEEE 802.3 Clause 14 Standard, formerly IEEE 802.3i (Institute of Electrical
and Electronical Engineers)

- Function of layer 1 at 10BaseT: see following slide (see also slide OSI
reference model 5)
[Rech; Tric]
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- 10 Mbit/s
- Star topology
- Copper wire
+ Two Twisted Pairs
+ At least Cat 3
+ Attenuation s 11,5 dB at f = 10 MHz 100 m operating distance
- 100 O impedance termination
- RJ-45 plugs und sockets (Western)
- Direct connection of two hosts via crossover cable
- Manchester line code:

- 5,6 V amplitude
- Link integrity tests in periods without data transmissions
Binary data 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
Manchester line code
s
t
d
100 ns
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 1 2
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.

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.

100Base-TX for Fast Ethernet LAN
- Layer 1

- IEEE 802.3 Clause 25 Standard, formerly IEEE 802.3u

- Functions of layer 1 at 100Base-TX: see following slides (see also slide OSI
reference model 5)
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 1 3
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- 100 Mbit/s
- Star topology
- Copper wire
+ Two Twisted Pairs
+ At least Cat 5
+ Attenuation s 10,7 dB at f = 10 MHz 100 m operating distance
- 100 O impedance termination
- 8P8C plugs/sockets (RJ-45, Western)
- Direct connection of two hosts via crossover cable
- Coding
+ 4B5B (4 Binary/5 Binary) max. 3 x 0 consecutive, 125 Mbit/s
+ MLT-3 (Multi Level Transmit 3 levels) because of possible
1-sequences
+ Scrambling for spectral shaping and encryption
- Frame identification
+ Start: 11000 10001 = Start of Stream Delimiter
+ Stop: 01101 00111 = End of Stream Delimiter
- Link integrity tests in periods without data transmissions
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 1 4
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.

Layer 1 5
Meaning
Binary
Code
The 10 remaining codes are invalid. If
they appear at the receiver side, a
transmission error has occured.
Receiving error
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.

- MLT-3 Coding (Multi Level Transmission)
+ Ternary code: +1, 0, -1
+ Binary 1 Change of ternary value
+ Binr 0 Ternary value remains unchanged
+ Start with 0, +1 or -1
+1

0

-1
Layer 1 6
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.

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.

1000Base-T for Gigabit Ethernet
- Layer 1

- IEEE 802.3 Clause 40 Standard, formerly IEEE 802.3ab

- Functions of layer 1 at 1000Base-T: see following slide (see also slide OSI
reference model 5)

[Rech]
Layer 1 7
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- 1000 Mbit/s = 1 Gbit/s
- Star topology
- Copper wire
+ 4 Twisted Pairs , 250 Mbit/s per wire pair
+ At least Cat 5 with additional limits (Cat 5e)
+ 100 m operating distance
- Full duplex transmission with echo cancellation
- Trellis channel coding
- PAM5 line coding (5-valent Pulse Amplitude Modulation)
- No crossover cable required for direct host-to-host connection due to
startup protocol
[Rech]
Layer 1 8
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.

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.

Layer 2 MAC, LLC 1
MAC (Medium Access Control) for Ethernet
- Layer 2

- IEEE 802.3 or Ethernet II standard

- MAC functions: see following slides (see also slide OSI reference model 5)
[Rech; Tric]
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- Multiple access mode CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection), because originally designed for coax cable-based bus
transmission (10Base2 or 10Base5), but also with hub

- Modes of transmission

+ Half duplex: alternate sending and receiving (originally only one coax
cable for both transmission directions)

+ Full duplex: sending and receiving at the same time (nowadays typical
mode due to utilisation of Twisted Pair copper wire and fiber optics instead of
coax cable)
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 2
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.

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- MAC addresses

+ Physical address for each Ethernet component

+ For layer 2 addressing

+ Globally unique addresses

+ 6 Byte

+ Canonical presentation (lowest-order bit is sent first)

+ Example: hexadecimal: 00-00-CB-80-80-A4,
binary: 00000000-00000000-11010011-00000001-00000001-00100101
(canonical!)

+ MAC addresses managed by IEEE, assigned address blocks for
manufacturers

+ Example: 00-00-0C-xx-xx-xx for CISCO, 00-00-C6-xx-xx-xx for HP
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 3
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Preamble
8 Byte 6 Byte 6 Byte 2 Byte 46 1500 Byte 4 Byte
Destination
Address
Source
Address
Length Data CRC
Preamble
Destination
Address
Source
Address
Type Data CRC
Ethernet II-Frame
IEEE 802.3-Frame
e.g. 0800 for IP
Length of the data field: 002E (46 Byte, if necessary 0 as pads) 05DC (1500 Byte)
Cyclic Redundancy Check for error detection
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 4
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.

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.

- Ethernet II frame Protocol trace
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 5
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.

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LLC (Logical Link Control) for Ethernet
- Layer 2

- IEEE 802.2 or Ethernet SNAP standard

- LLC functions: see following slides (see also slide OSI reference model 5)
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 6
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.

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- Multiple higher-layer protocols in parallel over MAC frames

- Multiplex mechanism required
Type field for determination of higher-layer protocols in Ethernet II
LLC protocol (Logical Link Control) for Ethernet 802.3
+ Multiple higher protocols can share one physical transmission
path (e.g. one network interface card)

- 3 LLC protocol types
+ Type 1: unconfirmed and connectionless service, in LANs
typically used
+ Type 2: confirmed and connection-oriented service
+ Type 3: confirmed but connectionless service

- LSAP (Link Service Access Point)
+ LSAPs = SAP (Service Access Point Identifier), represent interface
between layer 2b and layer 3 protocols
+ 1 x MAC address with n x LSAP
+ LSAP = DSAP (Destination Service Access Point) + SSAP (Source
Service Access Point) + Control Field
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 7
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- SNAP (Sub Net Access Protocol)
+ SNAP Header: in addition to LSAP if no IEEE protocols are used in
higher layers
+ OUI (Organizational Unit Identifier): identifies encoding used in
Ethernet Type field
+ Ethernet Type: example: identifies IP as layer 3 protocol
- Ethernet frame formats
Preamble
Dest. Addr. Source Addr. Type Data CRC
Ethernet II frame
Preamble
Dest. Addr. Source Addr. Length Data CRC
IEEE 802.3 frame
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 8
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1 Byte 1 Byte 1 Byte 43 1497 Byte
Preamble
IEEE 802.2 frame
DSAP Data Control SSAP
LLC-Header
Preamble
Ethernet SNAP frame
DSAP Data Control SSAP OUI Eth. Type
1 Byte 1 Byte 1 Byte 3 Byte 2 Byte 38 1492 Byte
LLC-Header SNAP-Header
[Rech; Tric]
Layer 2 MAC, LLC 9
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Layer 3 IP 1
IP (Internet Protocol)
- Layer 3 (see slide OSI reference model 6)

- RFC 791 (Request For Comments) from IETF (Internet Engineering Task
Force), amongst others

- Signal structures based on Asynchronous Time Division with variable
block length

- Connectionless communication with datagrams: see following slide
[Tric]
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Data
Payload (data) Header Datagram
IP Data packets
- Connectionless communication
+ Message exchange and connection establishment / disconnect
occur semi-parallel
+ Data packets do not only contain payload but also (within the
header) source and destination address
[Tric]
Layer 3 IP 2
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Version IHL
Time to Live Protocol
Type of Service/
Differentiated Services
Identification
Total Length
Header Checksum
Source Address
Destination Address
Options (0 or more words)
Data
D
F
M
F
Fragment Offset
32 Bit
20 Byte
0 to
40 Byte
< 64 KByte
typ. 1500 Byte
H
e
a
d
e
r
Layer 4 protocol used
(such as TCP)
Header length
Datagram Length
Paket life time,
max. 255
Dont Fragment
More Fragments
1. Bit
Padding
- IP datagram
[Tric]
Layer 3 IP 3
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- IP Packet protocol trace
Layer 3 IP 4
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- Versions: today still IPv4, in future IPv6

- Type of Service (ToS)/Differentiated Services (DiffServ)
+ For prioritisation
+ Identifies types of data (such as network management information or
normal data) and desired QoS (Quality of Service), delay, throughput,
reliability (ToS)
+ DiffServ method: classification of data regarding QoS. IP packets
marked with different priorities are prioritised in different ways by IP
routers. Examples: real-time applications such as Voice over IP (VoIP)
and Virtual Private Networks (VPN)

- Fragmentation
+ IP packet size < 64 KByte = 65535 Byte
+ Typically smaller packet sizes in subjacent layer 2 protocols. Example:
MAC: 1500 Byte (L2 Ethernet)
+ Acceptable value = Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU)
IP fragments data packet to be transmitted: see following slide
+ Defragmentation in final destination host
[Tric]
Layer 3 IP 5
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[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 6
SN = Sub Network
R = Router
FO = Fragment Offset; indicates offset related to first payload byte
ID = Identification; identifies fragments as part of a specific packet
MF = More Fragments
MTU = Maximum Transmission Unit
M=1 further fragments
M=0 last fragment
Remaining header part of original packet
Octets
Octets
Octets
Octets
Octets
Octets
Octets
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- Time To Live (TTL)
+ Life time of a packet, max. 255
+ Decremented by every traversed router
+ Packet is dropped if TTL = 0, failure report is sent to source
+ Avoids circulating of undeliverable IP packets within the network

- Protocol
+ Identifies (higher layer) protocol using IP service
+ Examples:
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): 0x6,
UDP (User Datagram Protocol):0x11,
Routing Protocol OSPF (Open Shortest Path First): 0x89
[Tric]
Layer 3 IP 7
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11101010
IP Addresses
- IPv4: 4 Byte address space (4 decimal number blocks, each 0255)
- Example: 192.109.234.9

- In theory more than 4 billion addresses
- Globally unique within public Internet
- Classes of addresses for structuring reasons:

- Meanwhile also classless IP Addressing (CIDR = Classless InterDomain
Routing) flexibly manageable Class C IP address blocks
[Bada; Tane]
Large networks, 127:
1.0.0.0 127.255.255.255
Medium networks, 16383:
128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
Small networks, > 2 Mio.:
192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
Multicast Groups:
224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255
240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
Layer 3 IP 8
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class D
Class E
Netw. ID
Network ID
Network ID
Address
Reserved
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IP Addresses assigned fixed or dynamically (by DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol) or PPP)

Address spaces for private IP networks
- Not used in public Internet
- 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 (Class A), 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 (Class B),
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 (Class C)
Network Address Translation (NAT) or Network Address Port Translation
(NAPT) for inter-communication with public Internet

In future: IPv6: 16 Byte Address space > 3
.
10
38
Addresses

[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 9
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LAN
(e.g. company network)
192.168.0.1 192.168.0.254
NAPT Gateway
192.168.0.1 88.88.88.88
Internet
Server in Internet
Clients in private network
LAN = Local Area Network
Layer 3 IP 10
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NAPT Gateway
Internet LAN
(1) HTTP Request

LAN
Web Client
IP Address:
192.168.0.2
IP Header:
Source Addr: 192.168.0.2
Destination Addr: 90.90.90.90

TCP Header:
Source Port: 1234
Destination Port: 80

IP Address
(LAN):
192.168.0.1
IP Address
(Internet):
88.88.88.88
Web Server
IP Address:
90.90.90.90
(2) HTTP Request
IP Header:

TCP Header:
Source Port: 5000

IP Header:

TCP Header:
Source Port: 80

(4) HTTP Response from Web Server
IP Header:

TCP Header:
Source Port: 80

Layer 3 IP 11
(3) HTTP Response from Web Server
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IP Subnetworks
- Subnetwork = physical network standard subnetwork mask
[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 12
Class A
Class B
Class C
11111111 00000000 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
11111111 11111111 11111111 00000000
255 . 0 . 0 . 0
255 . 255 . 0 . 0
255 . 255 . 255 . 0
Address
class Binary notation Decimal notation
Standard subnetwork mask
10011101 11110000 00001011 10000011
Bit-by-bit AND
11111111 11111111 00000000 00000000
10011101 11110000 00000000 00000000
IP address
Subnetwork mask
Network ID
(Subnetwork ID)
Result
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- Identifying network ID from IP address via subnetwork mask
IP Router only has to manage foreign networks and local hosts
- Also user-defined subnetwork masks

IP Routing
- Choosing a network path for IP data packets on the basis of specific
criteria
- Criteria: e.g. number of routers to be traversed, general costs etc.
- Performed by IP router (sometimes missleadingly called gateway)
+ Exchange system
+ Asynchronous Time Division with variable block length and Space
Division Multiplex
+ Packet switching
+ IP routers exchange routing information to determine optimised
routes routing protocols such as OSPF
+ IP router is a coupling element between 2 or more subnetworks.
It forwards IP data packets from one subnetwork to another based on
the IP destination address.

[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 13
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Per network interface of an IP router
- IP address
- Physical address: e.g. MAC Address for LAN, phone number for ISDN
WAN
- Addressing with both, physical address and IP address
[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 14
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Routing table contains one line per possible route with
- Network destination: subnetwork ID or host IP address
- Network mask: for determination of subnetwork ID or host IP address
- Next hop IP router: IP address of the next router to be traversed on the
way to the network destination
- Output interface: IP address
- Metric: e.g. number of hops on the route to destination. Determiniation of
the best route based on metric

- Exemplary IP network and routing table: see following slides
[Bada]
Layer 3 IP 15
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Stipan
Switch/-
Router
Frank
Michael
Enterasys
Host
Host
Host
Lee
Host
TK-Server
IP Router
Valeria
IP Router
Network: 192.168.0.0
Network: 192.168.2.0
Network: 192.168.1.0
192.168.1.2
192.168.1.1
192.168.2.2
192.168.2.1
192.168.0.2
192.168.0.1
192.168.0.6
192.168.0.5
192.168.0.4
192.168.0.3
Exemplary IP network
Layer 3 IP 16
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Exemplary routing table
- With routing protocol RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
- Full functionality
Layer 3 IP 17
Destination Protocol Network mask Interface Metric
LAN-Verbindung mit = LAN connection with
Lokal = Local
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Specific IP addresses
- 127.0.0.0 127.255.255.255: Loopback addresses fr local IP traffic on
host
- 224.0.0.0 239.255.255.255: Multicast addresses. For addressing multiple
hosts (must be multicast-enabled) within one subnetwork in parallel
- x.255.255.255, x.y.255.255, x.y.z.255 and all bits of host part 1: Broadcast
addresses. For addressing all hosts within one subnetwork in parallel
- 0.0.0.0: default route
[Tane; Bada]
Layer 3 IP 18
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.

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.

Exemplary routing table
- mit RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
- after network failure in direction to Enterasys Router
Layer 3 IP 19
Destination Protocol Network mask Interface Metric
LAN-Verbindung mit = LAN connection with
Lokal = Local
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.

HTTP = Hypertext Transfer Protocol
LLC = Logical Link Control
MAC = Medium Access Control
TCP = Transmission Control Protocol
L2
L3
L4
L7
L1
Appli-
cation
MAC
IP
TCP
HTTP
10BaseT
Browser-
SW
MAC
IP
TCP
HTTP
100Base-
FX
Server-
SW
Cu
Client
Server
IP-
Router
10BaseT 100Base-FX
LAN 1
LAN 2
Switch Hub
Client Client Client
Fiber Cu
Cu Cu Fiber
IP
MAC
100Base-
TX
MAC
100Base-
FX
MAC
10BaseT
MAC
100Base-
TX
10BaseT 10BaseT
Hub, Switch, Router 1
[Tric]
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Hub
- Layer 1
- Works as repeater in broadcast mode
- A hub receiving an Ethernet frame distributes it to any of its interfaces
any host connected to this hub receives any Ethernet frame sent by
any connected host.
- Only one host is allowed to send data within any considered moment in
time. Access control via MAC protocol
- Physically star topology, logically bus

Switch
- Layers 1 and 2
- A switch receiving an Ethernet frame buffers the frame and forwards it
directly to the destination host via the associated interface.
- Route information is determined from the L2 MAC addresses and the
content of the address table of the switch (backward learning algorithm).
[Tric]
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Router
- Layers 1 to 3
- A router receiving an IP packet out of a subnetwork first buffers the
packet. Subsequently the packet is forwarded to the next subnetwork on
the way to its destination host via the associated network interface of
the router, depending on the routing table content.
- A router determines the best route from IP addresses and routing table
content (learned by routing protocols).
[Tric]
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Layer 4 TCP 1
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
- RFC 793 (Request For Comments) from IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
- Connection-oriented communication

TCP-functions
- Connection establishment with 3-way-handshake
- Sequence numbering
- Flow control
- After timeouts repetition of a TCP-message by transmitter
- Multiplexing of TCP-connections by ports und sockets
- Check sum with header and data
See Ch. 4.2.4
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Padding
Source Port Destination Port
Acknowledgement Number
Sequence Number
Options (0 or more words)
Data
Offset Window Size
32 Bit
20 Byte
< (64 KByte -
20 Byte
H
e
a
d
e
r
Header length
Segment
number
Checksum Urgent Pointer

Bits for
connection control
For flow control
Number of the following
expected segment
Control Flags
TCP-segment/packet
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 2
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- TCP packet with SYN flag = 1
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 3
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- TCP packet with HTTP data
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 4
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TCP segment/packet
- Port numbers: are fixed or dynamically allocated to the applications. They
represent the Service Access Point (SAP) between L4 TCP and higher OSI
layers. E.g. Port 80 for HTTP (Well known Port, only Server-sided)
- Socket = combination of IP address and port number.
E.g. 192.168.1.11:1040 or 194.25.2.129:53
- Sequence Number (Seq): Transmitter informs receiver of how many TCP
data Bytes have been sent since the TCP connection was established.
- Acknowledgement Number (Ack): Receiver informs transmitter of how
many TCP data Bytes have been received succesfully and which Seq value
is expected next.
- Offset = TCP header length in 32 bit words
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 5
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- Control-Flags: among others
+ ACK = 1: Acknowledgement of a received TCP packet. If the
acknowledgement is missing after the so called retransmission time
the source sends the TCP segment again
+ SYN = 1: initiates TCP connection establishment. For the Ack value a
TCP packet with SYN = 1 will be considered as 1 Byte data.
+ FIN = 1: initiates TCP connection release. 1 Byte data

- Window: for flow control with window management. Receiver informs the
transmitter how many data Byte are left to be received regarding the actual
Ack-value. Window size specifies the maximum number of data Byte
which can be sent without waiting for an acknowledgement.

- Checksum = checksum of the TCP packet and part of the IP header

- TCP connection: see following slides
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 6
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A
SYN, Seq=x-1, Ack=0
SYN, ACK, Seq=y-1, Ack=x
ACK, Seq=x, Ack=y
B
IP A
Port a
data transfer
IP B
Port b
- TCP connection establishment: 3-way-handshake
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 7
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- Data transfer with TCP
A
ACK, Seq=x, Ack=y, Win=3072, Data=2048
B
IP A
Port a
IP B
Port b
ACK, Seq=y, Ack=x+2048, Win=2048
ACK, Seq=x+2048, Ack=y, Win=3072, Data=2048
ACK, Seq=x+4096, Ack=y, Win=3072, Data=1024
4096 Byte
2048

0

2048

1024

receive
queue
3072 Byte

3072

3072

3072

transmit
queue
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 8
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A
FIN, ACK, Seq=y, Ack=x+5120, Win=1024
B
IP A
Port a
IP B
Port b
ACK, Seq=x+5120, Ack=y+1, Win=3072
FIN, ACK, Seq=x+5120, Ack=y+1, Win=3072
ACK, Seq=y+1, Ack=x+5121, Win=1024
- TCP connection release
See Ch. 4.2.4
Layer 4 TCP 9
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[Tric]
Layer 4 TCP 10
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- Options: e.g. for Maximum Segment Size (MSS) = Size of sending buffer

- Optimal bandwidth utilisation within network by TCP
+ Dynamic adaptation of MSS and window size
+ Sender increases MMS until a packet remains unacknowledged too
much traffic sender decreases MSS acknowledgement sender
increases MSS etc.

[Tric]
Layer 4 TCP 11
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HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
- RFC 1945 (HTTP/1.0) and RFC 2616 (HTTP/1.1)

HTTP functions
- Supports the application, e.g. WWW
- Methods (Request), among others GET (reading a Web page)
- Status (Response), among others
+ 200 OK = positive acknowledgement (+ data)
+ 404 File not found
- Text format
- Content encoded e.g. in HTML (HyperText Markup Language)
[Tane]
Layer 7 HTTP 1
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- 200 OK response protocol trace
Layer 7 HTTP 2
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Web page request
- Web page available at URL (Uniform Resource Locator)
http://www.vgu.edu.vn/university/
- URL is entered into the Browser, e.g. Mozilla Firefox.
- Browser asks DNS (Domain Name System) for the IP address of
www.vgu.edu.vn.
- DNS answers 210.86.239.6
- Browser establishes a TCP connection to Port 80 of 210.86.239.6.
- Browser sends a HTTP GET request for the page available under
/university/
- Server www.vgu.edu.vn sends HTML file within a 200 OK response.
- Browser displays the text of the HTML file
- Browser reads and displays style sheets and linked images. Additional
TCP connections!
- TCP connections are released.

[Tane]
Layer 7 HTTP 3
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.

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h
t
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r
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d
.

Stallings, William: ISDN and Broadband ISDN with Frame Relay and ATM. Pearson
Education, 1999

Stallings, William: Data and Computer Communications. Pearson Education, 2009

Tanenbaum, Andrew S.: Computer Networks. Pearson Education, 2003

Trick, Ulrich; Weber, Frank: SIP, TCP/IP und Telekommunikationsnetze. 4. Auflage.
Oldenbourg, 2009 (German)

Recommended reading
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,

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e

F
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s

o
f

T
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a
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o
n
.

A
l
l

r
i
g
h
t
s

r
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.

[ETS 300102] ETS 300102-1: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN);
User-network interface layer 3 - Specifications for basic call
control. ETSI, 1990

ETS 300102-2: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN);
User-network interface layer 3 - Specifications for basic call
control - Specification Description Language (SDL) diagrams.
ETSI, 1990

[Bada] Badach, Anatol; Hoffmann, Erwin: Technik der IP-Netze. Hanser, 2007
(German)

[Haa] Haa, Wolf-Dieter: Handbuch der Kommunikationsnetze. Springer, 1997
(German)

[Kanb] Kanbach, Andreas; Krber, Andreas: ISDN - Die Technik. Hthig, 1999
(German)

[Klu] Klumann, Niels: Lexikon der Kommunikations- und
Informationstechnik. Hthig, 2007 (German)

[Kni] Knig, Hartmut: Kommunikationsprotokolle. Akademie-Verlag, 1990
(German)
References and literature 1
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o
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n
.

A
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d
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[Khn] Khn, Paul: Vorlesungsskript Nachrichtenvermittlung I und II.
Universitt Stuttgart, Institut fr Nachrichtenvermittlung und
Datenverarbeitung, 1991 (German)

[Lesc] Lescuyer, Pierre: UMTS. dpunkt, 2002 (German)

[Lke] Lke, Hans Dieter: Signalbertragung. Springer, 2007 (German)

[Rech] Rech, Jrg: Ethernet. Heise, 2007 (German)

[Rupp] Rupp, Chris; Queins, Stefan; Zengler, Barbara: UML 2. Hanser, 2007
(German)

[Sieg] Siegmund, Gerd: Technik der Netze. Hthig, 2007 (German)

[Stal1] Stallings, William: Data and Computer Communications. Pearson
Education, 2003

[Stal2] Stallings, William: ISDN and Broadband ISDN with Frame Relay and
ATM. Pearson Education, 1999

R
e
s
e
a
r
c
h

G
r
o
u
p

f
o
r

T
e
l
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
,

F
H

F
r
a
n
k
f
u
r
t
:

L
e
c
t
u
r
e

F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
s

o
f

T
e
l
e
c
o
m
m
u
n
i
c
a
t
i
o
n
.

A
l
l

r
i
g
h
t
s

r
e
s
e
r
v
e
d
.

[Tane] Tanenbaum, Andrew S.: Computer Networks. Pearson Education, 2003

[Tric] Trick, Ulrich; Weber, Frank: SIP, TCP/IP und Telekommunikationsnetze.
Oldenbourg, 2009 (German)

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