Central Receiver System Solar Power Plant Using Molten Salt as Heat Transfer Fluid

J. Ignacio Ortega
SENER, Severo Ochoa 4, P.T.M., Tres Cantos, 28760 Madrid, Spain e-mail: ignacio.obasagoiti@sener.es

turing, and construction of Solar TWO lasted from 1992 to 1995, with initial startup and testing beginning in 1996. Solar TWO operated from April 1996 to April 1999. Despite its many successes, the operation of Solar TWO was not without problems, mainly related to component startup issues, including heat tracing, piping, and the steam generator, which delayed routine operation of the plant for more than a year. At the end, all of the issues were essentially overcome with some combination of redesign and/or rework, improved operating procedures, or work-arounds for xes that could not be implemented at Solar TWO 13. Some of the key results of Solar TWO that constitute the starting point for Solar TRES 14 were as follows: Receiver efciency was measured at 88% in low-wind conditions and 86% in allowable operating winds, matching design specications. Storage system efciency was measured at over 97%, also meeting design goals. Gross Rankine-turbine cycle efciency was at 34%, matching performance projections. Measured plant peak-conversion efciency was 13.5%. The plant successfully demonstrated its ability to dispatch electricity independent of collection. On one occasion, the plant operated around-the-clock for 154 h straight. Plant reliability was also demonstrated. During one stretch in the summer of 1998, the plant operated for 32 days out of 39 days 4 days down because of weather, 1 day because of loss of off-site power, but only 2 days down for maintenance. Despite its short test and evaluation phase, which did not allow annual performance to be determined or operating and maintenance procedures to be dened, the project identied several areas for simplifying the technology and improving its reliability.

J. Ignacio Burgaleta
SENER, Avenida Zugazarte 56, Las Arenas, 48930 Vizcaya, Spain e-mail: ignacio.burgaleta@sener.es

Flix M. Tllez
CIEMAT, Avenida Complutense 22, 28040 Madrid, Spain e-mail: felix.tellez@ciemat.es

Of all the technologies being developed for solar thermal power generation, central receiver systems (CRSs) are able to work at the highest temperatures and to achieve higher efciencies in electricity production. The combination of this concept and the choice of molten salts as the heat transfer uid, in both the receiver and heat storage, enables solar collection to be decoupled from electricity generation better than water/steam systems, yielding high capacity factors with solar-only or low hybridization ratios. These advantages, along with the benets of Spanish legislation on solar energy, moved SENER to promote the 17 MWe Solar TRES plant. It will be the rst commercial CRS plant with molten-salt storage and will help consolidate this technology for future higher-capacity plants. This paper describes the basic concept developed in this demonstration project, reviewing the experience accumulated in the previous Solar TWO project, and present design innovations, as a consequence of the development work performed by SENER and CIEMAT and of the technical conditions imposed by Spanish legislation on solar thermal power generation. DOI: 10.1115/1.2807210 Keywords: solar power plant, CRS, central tower, molten salt, tube receiver, solar TRES

Introduction
The Solar TRES demonstration project based on central receiver system CRS technology inherited the lessons learned from the previous Solar TWO experimental project and takes advantage of the experience in molten-salt experiments and testings carried out in the U.S. and Spain in the late 1980s and early 1990s 110. The Solar TWO project 11,12 was a collaborative venture for the design, construction, testing, and short term operation of a 10 MWe CRS power tower solar plant using molten salt as its heat transfer and storage medium Fig. 1. The engineering, manufacContributed by the Solar Energy Engineering Division for publication in the JOURSOLAR ENERGY ENGINEERING. Manuscript received October 31, 2006; nal manuscript received September 12, 2007; published online February 12, 2008. Review conducted by Manuel Romero Alvarez. Paper presented at the Solar PACES 2006, Seville, Spain.

NAL OF

Besides the technological background in the U.S., both SENER and CIEMAT have had a long experience in developing systems for solar power plants, in the heliostat design, construction, and operation, since the 1980s. CIEMAT has well-known and reputed capabilities in CRS design and operation and in operation with molten-salt systems. In addition to validating the design and technical characteristics of molten-salt receiver and storage technology, Solar TWO has also been successful in promoting commercial interest in power towers. Two of the projects key industrial partners, the Boeing Company and Bechtel Corporation, agreed with a Spanish company called GHERSA to pursue the commercial deployment of molten-salt technology taking advantage of Spanish prices for renewable power premiums and incentives. The initial project, called Solar TRES, was predesigned according to the Spanish incentive framework applicable at that time, which did not allow hybridization to obtain high-capacity factors. The project was proposed to the EC Fifth R&D Framework Program for partial nancing and was approved. Nevertheless, during project development, some legal issues changes in Spanish renewable legislation along with other issues related to the partners themselves led to some reorientation of the project and the promoters consortium. This process came to an end in the year 2005 and concluded with an entirely European development team Spanish, French, and German companies and is now working under the leadership of SENER. The nal absence of contributions from the U.S. companies, participating in Solar TWO, multiplied the challenges for designing and building a new feasible molten-salt plant. The most delicate development components were identied as a reliable and durable receiver and a low-cost heliostat. To overcome these challenges, SENER and CIEMAT signed a parallel agreement for developing and testing a prototype receiver module about 4 MWth as a component acceptance milestone in MAY 2008, Vol. 130 / 024501-1

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Further changes in legislation forced plant construction to be postponed, as it posed some fundamental technical and economic uncertainties for the promoters. These issues were nally resolved in the Spring of 2004 Royal Decree 436/2004 and, hence, STP plants became a real alternative for renewable energy in Spain, provided they qualify as a renewable energy producer and receive an adequate price for the electricity produced by meeting the following conditions:
Fig. 1 Solar TWO molten-salt power tower system schematic diagram

Solar TRES construction, which also includes the interaction involved in developing a 120 m2 low-cost heliostat with their own technology. Heliostats remain to be one of the crucial economic aspects of this technology, since they are the most signicant cost component of a CRS plant, accounting for 3040% of capital investment, of which 4050% is tied to the cost of the drive system gears, motors, etc.. However, there was a rather limited experience in developing industrial programs for manufacturing these components at a large scale. For that reason, SENER decided to make a signicant effort to evaluate current technologies and develop an innovative low-cost heliostat design solution. During the past years, SENER has designed and tested a new 120 m2 lowcost heliostat and drive system, shown in Fig. 2, at its location in Plataforma Solar de Almera PSA, and thoroughly described in Ref. 15. CIEMATs contribution to receiver development was based on its expertise in both development and testing of several tube 1621 and salt receivers 2224 and in materials technology 2226. Furthermore, the test facilities at PSA, which are well known for their expertise in the concentrating solar community, constitute the natural place for receiver panel acceptance testing and heliostat evaluation and performance diagnostics.

Maximum installed power of 50 MW. No hybrid plants. A small percentage of natural gas 1215% on primary energy basis may be used in plants involving heat storage systems only to maintain the thermal storage temperature during nongeneration periods. By Royal Decree 2531/2004, natural gas can also be used for power production during none or low-irradiation periods. Solar thermal electricity generators that deliver their production to a distributor may receive a xed tariff of 300% of the reference price for the rst 25 years after startup and 240% afterward. Solar thermal electricity generators that sell their electricity on the free market may receive a premium of 250% of the reference price for the rst 25 years after startup and 200% afterward, plus a 10% incentive. The average electric tariff or reference for the year 2004 was 7.2072 c / kW h.

Following this regulation, the project design had to be reviewed.

Molten-Salt Central Receiver Systems Compared to Competing Technologies

According to SENER estimates, CRS power plants with molten-salt storage are, even at the design stage, the winning choice for STP plants in terms of energy efciency, cost per unit produced, and surface required for power production. Moreover, high-capacity molten-salt storage makes it possible for the plant to provide dispatchable power, which, from the utilities point of view, is crucial for the deployment of these plants as capable of secure, predictable, and programmable power supply, avoiding the problems for the national grid caused by other renewable sources of power, such as wind or photovoltaic. According to the European Concentrated Solar Thermal Road Mapping study entitled ECOSTAR 27,28, cofunded by the EC, the U.S. 10 MW pilot plant experience has made the molten-salt technology the best developed CRS today. Based on cost estimates provided by U.S. colleagues and the ECOSTAR evaluation, even small-scale 17 MWe costs leverized electricy cost LEC of 18 19 cents / kW h look relatively attractive. This is mainly due to very low thermal energy storage costs, which benet from a three times larger temperature rise in the CRS compared to the parabolic trough systems. Furthermore, a higher annual capacity factor than in parabolic trough systems is possible due to the smaller difference between summer and winter performances. The highest risk is associated with expected plant availability, which could not be proven in the Solar TWO demonstration due to a variety of problems linked to the molten salt and the age of the heliostat eld. However, technical solutions have been identied addressing these issues. To further reduce molten-salt power tower costs, they must take advantage of economies of scale. The plant availability risk can only be resolved in a demonstration plant such as the Solar TRES now being designed. In the end, this risk could lead to additional costs not previously considered. Published data from Refs. 27,28 and SENER studies lead to the gures shown in Table 1.

Spanish Legal Framework for Solar Electricity

Demonstration projects in Europe are conceived as semicommercial units, involving new technologies that are not yet fully commercial but that must operate under commercial conditions lifetime and annual availability in order to show the commercial readiness of the technology. In the renewable energy eld, these requirements imply that the plant must show its capability for uninterrupted, commercial-scale megawatt-size power generation that could be fed into the grid for a period equivalent to the usual lifetime of a power plant. For that reason, before any demonstration project in the solar thermal power STP sector could be developed, the Spanish Energy Authorities had to dene the legal and economic framework for STP plants as part of a national renewable energy plan, since this technology, still regarded as being in the research and development stage, was not initially included in the legislation regulating power generation in Spain since 1997 Law 54/97, although there was a full section for power generation with renewable energy and combined heat and power CHP units. In the year 2002, this was nally changed to include STP in the feed-in tariff scheme supporting renewable power plants.

Solar TRES Project Description

Fig. 2 SENER heliostat and drive mechanism detail

A schematic ow diagram of the plant is shown in Fig. 3. Transactions of the ASME

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Table 1 Technology assessment for 50 MWe plants Technology Mean gross efciency as percentage of direct radiation, without parasitics Mean net efciency Specic power generation kw h / m2 yr Capacity factor % Unitary investment /kw h yr Operation and maintenance c/kW h Levelized electricity cost / kW he Parabolic trough+ oil 15.4 14 308 2350 1.54 3.2 0.160.19 CRS+ steam 14.2 13.6 258 24 1.43 4.1 0.170.23 CRS+ molten salts 18.1 14 375 Up to 75 1.29 3.7 0.140.17

The Solar TRES project will take advantage of several advancements in the molten-salt technology since Solar TWO was designed and built. These include the following: A larger plant with 2480 heliostat eld, approximately three times the size of Solar TWO 120 m2 large-area glass-metal heliostats developed by SENER based on economic criteria. Use of a large-area heliostat in the collector eld greatly reduces plant costs, mainly because fewer drive mechanisms are necessary for the same mirror area. A 120 MWth high-thermal-efciency cylindrical receiver system, able to work at high ux and lower heat losses. The receiver has been designed to minimize thermal stress and to resist intergranular stress corrosion cracking. High nickel alloy materials and an innovative integral header and nozzle design developed by SENER, achieving the objectives of high thermal efciency, improved reliability, and reduced cost, will be used.

An improved physical plant layout with a molten-salt ow loop Fig. 4 that reduces the number of valves, eliminates dead legs, and allows fail-safe draining that keeps salt from freezing. A larger thermal storage system 15 h, 647 MWh, 6250 t salts with insulated tank immersion heaters. This highcapacity liquid nitrate-salt storage system is efcient and low risk, and high-temperature liquid salt at 565 C in stationary storage drops only by 1 2 C / day. The cold salt is stored at 45 C above its melting point 240 C, providing a substantial margin for design. Advanced pump designs that will pump salt directly from the storage tanks, eliminating the need for pump sumps, and high temperature multistage vertical turbine pumps to be mounted on top of the thermal storage tanks, using a longshafted pump with salt-lubricated bearings. This pump ar-

Fig. 3 Solar TRES ow schematic

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18th of August. The gure shows the solar intensity power on receiver, energy stored in the hot tank, and power output as a function of the time of day.

Solar TRES Sensitivity Analysis

Several plant conguration studies 29 taking into consideration economic protability and plant investment cost were performed using the SENSOL code, developed by SENER for solar plant optimization 30. The following factors were analyzed: Number of heliostats: different heliostat eld congurations, ranging from 1800 to 3500. Optimum heliostat mirror-surface, reectivity, and cleaningfactor performance. Tower height: from 90 m to 150 m. Receiver dimensions: diameter 8 10 m, height 9 11 m, number of panels. Storage size: from 10 h to 20 h. Turbine power: from 10 MWe to 20 MWe. Annual use of natural gas, ranging from 10% to 15%, with different applications for maintaining the hot-salt temperature. Storage during electricity generation and nongeneration, supporting solar energy during startup. For each of these factors, several plant congurations have been evaluated with SENSOL, predicting the global investment and the economic protability of each particular design. Global plant production and consumption were calculated, as well as other operating costs maintenance, cleaning, etc. for each conguration. As an example of the different plant congurations studied, Fig. 6 shows the SENSOL output for the number of heliostats, turbine power, and cost per kW h produced. The analysis concluded that, based on RD 436/2004 and RD 2531/2004, the best combination of protability and minimum investment leads to the basic Solar TRES plant conguration dened in Table 2.

Fig. 4 Solar TRES 3D view SENSOL output

rangement eliminates the sump, level control valve, and potential overow of the pump sump vessels. A 43 MW steam generator system that will have a forced recirculation steam drum. This innovative design places components in the receiver tower structure at a height above the salt storage tanks that allows the molten-salt system to drain back into the tanks, providing a passive fail-safe design. This simplied design improves plant availability and reduces operation and maintenance costs. The new design will use a forced recirculation evaporator conguration to move molten salt through the shell side of all heat exchangers, reducing risk of nitrate-salt freezing. A more efcient 39.4% at design point and 38% annual average, higher-pressure reheat turbine and very high steam pressure and temperature conditions for relatively low size compared to conventional power plants. A can be started up and stopped daily, and responds well to load changes, assuring a 30 yr lifetime with good efciency. Improved instrumentation and control systems for heliostat eld and high temperature nitrate-salt process. Improved electric heat tracing system for protection against freezing of salt circuits, storage tanks, pumps, valves, etc.

These advancements improve the peak and annual conversion efciency over the Solar TWO design. Although the turbine will be only slightly larger than Solar TWOs, the larger heliostat eld and thermal storage system will enable the plant to operate 24 h / day during the summer and have an annual solar capacity factor of approximately 64% up to 71%, including 15% production from fossil backup. An example of Solar TRES dispatchability is illustrated in Fig. 5, which shows the load-dispatch capacity from the 14th to the

Present Status of Central Receiver System Molten-Salt Technology

The Solar TRES project is now in the last stages of technical verication testing of receiver modules, heliostats, molten-salt pilot plant, and control system and sitting nal denition, licensing and permitting, and nal cost estimation. Regarding the technical development, testing at PSA on a prototype receiver module, now under development, will allow SENER to determine the safety limits and the life of the receiver

Fig. 5 Solar TRES power dispatch capacity

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Acknowledgment
The engineering and testing activities of the Solar TRES power plant are being partly funded by the European Commission EC Contract No. NNE5-2001-369.

Nomenclature
Acronyms CHP combined heat and power CIEMAT center for Energy, Environment and Technological Research Spain CRS central receiver system CSP concentrating solar thermal power DNI direct normal insolation EC European Commission E.U. DOE Department of Energy NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory U.S. SENER Engineering, Consulting and Integration Company Spain SNL Sanda National Laboratory U.S. STP solar thermal power RD Royal Decree

Fig. 6 Solar TRES sensitivity analysis heliostat/turbine power/energy cost

under critical conditions, as well as to conrm relevant parameters e.g., receiver efciency to minimize risks and to increase operational experience with molten-salt system. Project schedule is also pending on the administrative issues of the project, already mentioned. Construction and assembling is expected to last for 24 months after having all those issues solved and properly dened. The Solar TRES project represents the demonstration step for CRS molten-salt technology, since this technology has not yet shown its real potential in a long term and continuous operation. For that reason, this project involves some technical risk, regarding mainly the operation, on real conditions of a large molten-salt system, including receiver, pumps, valves, long pipes, and tanks. Further development of the technology should led to bigger plants, in the 50 100 MW range, that must reduce technology costs. Feasibility studies being performed by SENER for some utilities show the cost reduction potential for a 100 MWe moltensalt central receiver solar power plant under different congurations.

References
1 Chavez, J. M., 1987, A Final Report on the Phase 1 Testing of a Molten-Salt Cavity Receiver, Sandia National Laboratories report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 431. 2 Bohn, M. S., and Green, H. J., 1989, Heat Transfer in Molten Salt Direct Absorption Receivers, Sol. Energy, 421, pp. 5766. 3 Barth, D. L., Pacheco, J. E., Kolb, W. J., and Rush, E. E., 2002, Development of a High Temperature, Long-Shafted, Molten-Salt Pump for Power Tower Applications, ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng., 1242, pp. 170175. 4 Chavez, J. M. R., Rush, E. E., Matthews, C. W., Stomp, J. M., Imboden, J., and Dunkin, S., 1990, An Overview of Advanced Central Receiver Concepts, Sandia National Laboratories report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 11. 5 Kolb, G. J., 1990, Reliability Analysis of a Salt-in-Tube Central Receiver Power Plant, Sandia National Laboratories report Albuquerque, NM, p. 19. 6 Smith, D. C., Rush, E. E., Matthews, C. W., Chavez, J. M., Bator, P. A., and Barberton, O. H, 1991, Report on the Test of the Molten-Salt Pump and Valve Loops, Sandia National Laboratories report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 60. 7 Pacheco, J. E., 1992, Flow Stability in Molten-Salt Tube Receivers, Sandia National Laboratories report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 6. 8 Pacheco, J. E. R., Ralph, M. E., and Chavez, J. M., 1994, Investigation of Cold Filling Receiver Panels and Piping in Molten Nitrate-Salt CentralReceiver Solar Power Plants, Sandia National Laboratories report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 9. 9 Andujar, J. M., Rosa, F., and Geyer, M., 1991, CESA-1 Thermal Storage System Evaluation, Sol. Energy, 465, pp. 305312. 10 Bradshaw, R. W., and Meeker, D. E., 1990, High-Temperature Stability of Ternary Nitrate Molten Salts for Solar Thermal Energy Systems, Sol. Energy Mater., 211, pp. 5160. 11 Chavez, J. M., Reilly, H. E., Kolb, G. J., Gould, B., Zavoico, A., and Sutherland, P., 1995, The Solar Two Power Tower Project, A 10 MWe Power Plant, pp. 469475. 12 Tyner, C. E., Sutherland, J. P., and Gould, W. R. J., 1995, Solar Two, A Molten Salt Power Tower Demonstration, Sandia National Laborator report, Albuquerque, NM, p. 20. 13 Pacheco, J. E., Reilly, H. E., Kolb, G. J., and Tyner, C. E., 2000, Summary of the Solar Two Test and Evaluation Program. 14 Pacheco, J. E. E, Kolb, G. J., Reilly, H. E., Showalter, S. H., Goods, R. W., Bradshaw, D. B., Dawson, S. A., Jones, M. J., Hale, R. L., Gilbert, M. R. P., and Jacobs, P. E., 2002, Final Test and Evaluation Results From the Solar Two Project, Sandia National Laboratories, Report No. SAND2002-0120, Albuquerque, NM, p. 40. 15 Vzquez, J., Relloso, S., Domingo, M., Valverde, A., Monterreal, R., and PSA, G. G., 2006, SENER Heliostat Design and Testing, 13th International Symposium on Concentrated Solar Power and Chemical Energy Technologies, Solar PACES, Sevilla, Spain. 16 Becker, M., and Boehmer, M., 1989, GAST: The Gas Cooled Solar Tower Technology Program, Springer, Berlin. 17 Schiel, W. J. C., and Geyer, M. A., 1988, Testing an External Sodium Receiver up to Heat Fluxes of 2.5 MW / m2: Results and Conclusions From the IEA-SSPS High Flux Experiment Conducted at the Central Receiver System of the Plataforma Solar de Almeria Spain, Sol. Energy, 413, pp. 255265. 18 Carmona, R., Rosa, F., Jacobs, H., and Snchez, M., 1989, Evaluation of Advanced Sodium Receiver Losses During Operation of the IEA/SSPS Central Receiver System, ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng., 111, pp. 2431. 19 Castro, M., Presa, J. L., Diaz, J., Peire, J., Baker, A. F., Faas, S. E., Radosevich, L. G., and Skinrood, A. C., 1991, C. R. S. Receiver and Storage

Conclusions
The CRS technology and molten-salt storage proven experimentally in Solar TWO offers the following advantages over other solar technologies: high-capacity thermal storage, good availability for dispatchable power, and least-cost kW h produced. These advantages, along with the benets of Spanish legislation on solar energy, were the reasons that SENER decided to promote the construction of a 17 MWe solar plant, named Solar TRES. It will be the rst commercial CRS solar power plant with molten-salt storage and will help consolidate this technology for future plants with higher power.

Table 2 Solar TRES key gures Number of heliostats Surface covered by heliostats Surface covered by heliostats Tower height Receiver power Turbine power Storage size Natural gas boiler capacity Annual electric production min. CO2 mitigation best available technology CO2 mitigation coal power plant 2480 285,200 m2 142.31 ha 120 m 120 MWth 17 MWe 15 h 16 MWth 96,400 MWhe 23,000 tons / yr 85,000 tons / yr

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Systems Evaluation, Sol. Energy, 473, pp. 197207. 20 Almanza, R. E. A., 1997, Receiver Behavior in Direct Steam Generation With Parabolic Troughs, Sol. Energy, 614, pp. 275278. 21 Romero, M., Buck, R., and Pacheco, J. E., 2002, An Update on Solar Central Receiver Systems, Projects, and Technologies, ASME J. Sol. Energy Eng., 1242, pp. 98108. 22 Len, J., Sanchez-Gonzalez, M., Romero, M., Sanchez-Jimenez, M., and Barrera, G., 1994, Design and First Tests of an Advanced Salt Receiver Based on the Internal Film Concept, Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Solar Thermal Concentrating Technologies. 23 Denk, T., 1996, Falling Particle Receiver Tests in the Solar Furnance of PSA, Proceedings of the Seventh Task III Meeting Within the IEA Solar PACES on Solar Technology and Applications. Almera, Spain, Annex 8. 24 Snchez-Gonzlez, M., Len, M., Aranda, J., and Monterreal, R., 1997, Receptor Avanzado de Sales RAS. Setup, Test Campaign and Operational Experiences. Final Report of a 0.5 MWth Molten Salt Receiver at Plataforma Solar de Almera, Coleccin Documentos Ciemat. 90, Madrid. 25 Lancha, A. M., lvarez De Lara, M., Gmez-Briceo, D., and Coca, P., 2003, ELCOGAS IGCC Power Plant in Spain, Effect of the Gasier Environment on the High Alloy Steel Performance, Mater. High. Temp., 201, pp. 7583.

26 Lara, M. . D., Perosanz, F., and Gmez-Briceo, L., 2004, Corrosion Behaviour of Steels and CRA in Sour Gas Environments, EUROCORR 2004, Long Term Prediction and Modelling of Corrosion. Nice-Acropolis, France. 27 Pitz-Paal, R., Dersch, J., Milow, B., Tllez, F., Ferriere, A., Langnickel, U., Steinfeld, A., Karni, J., Zarza, E., and Popel, O., 2005, Development Steps for Concentrating Solar Power Technologies With Maximum Impact on Cost Reduction, Proceedings of the International Solar Energy Conference. (ISEC), Orlando, FL. 28 Pitz-Paal, R., Dersch, J., Milow, B., Romero, M., Tllez, F., Ferriere, A., Langnickel, U., Steinfeld, A., Karni, J., Zarza, E., and Popel, O., 2005, European Concentrated Solar Thermal Road-Mapping-Executive Summary, CEECOSTAR Contract: SES6-CT-2003-502578.p. 144. 29 Lata, J. M., Rodrguez, M., and lvarez de Lara, M., 2006, High Flux Central Receivers of Molten Salts for the New Generation of Commercial Stand-Alone Solar Power Plants, Proceedings of 13th International Symposium on Concentrated Solar Power and Chemical Energy Technologies (Solar PACES), Sevilla, Spain. 30 Relloso, S., and Domingo, M., 2006, Solar Project Analysis Using SENSOL, Proceedings of the 13th International Symposium on Concentrated Solar Power and Chemical Energy Technologies (Solar PACES), Sevilla, Spain.

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