S

geostrophic currents, wave oscillations, and excess-weight forces (density-induced ow) (Myrow and Southard, 1996). The relative importance of these three processes may change during individual events and between events both within and between basins. Thus considerable variability is possible in the character of individual beds, although most beds display graded bedding and evidence for ow deceleration. Geostrophic ows are near-shore-parallel ows that result from Coriolis deection of water masses that are driven offshore in response to pressure gradients associated with coastal setup. Combined ows result from the superposition of storm-generated waves with these ows. Because these ows are oriented slightly obliquely offshore, instantaneous bed shear stresses in the combined-ow boundary layer show asymmetry in the offshore direction (Duke, 1990). Sediment transport results from the nonlinear addition of the two components of ow in the boundary layer, with the net result that wave oscillations are stronger in the offshore direction and thus preferentially move sediment in that direction. Whether this asymmetry in transport can account for signicant cross-shelf transport is unclear. Regardless of transport mechanisms, most tempestite successions show patterns of decreased bed thickness and evidence for less powerful currents from onshore to offshore. An exception to this rule occurs in areas of nearshore sediment bypass (Myrow, 1992). In many cases, ancient deposits contain evidence for powerful offshore-directed ow, which is at odds with deposition under combined ows. Such ow is possibly driven, at least in part, by excess-weight forces. These forces result from high suspended sediment concentrations (SSCs) near the bed. High SSCs can result from resuspension of shoreline sand by storm processes. A number of studies indicate that very high SSCs (up to 4 g/L) are produced on shorefaces and inner shelves and that this leads to powerful seaward-directed sediment-laden ows (e.g., Wright et al., 1994). Plumes associated with uvial discharge events may also produce hyperpycnal (bottom-hugging) ows, and such ows are termed oceanic oods (Wheatcroft, 2000). These could be pre-ignited with regard to autosuspension, but this is unnecessary for signicant cross-shelf transport because storm

STORM DEPOSITS

Large storms have wide-ranging affects in a spectrum of environments from outer shelves to coastal plains. The most common deposits of storms in the rock record are sandstone beds deposited under powerful near-bottom water motions produced by waves and currents. Early studies of the effects of storms on modern shelves (e.g., Hayes, 1967) sparked interest in nding analogues in the rock record. This resulted in the development of storm facies models, with particular emphasis on hummocky cross-stratication (HCS) (Walker, 1984). The origin and dynamics of the depositing ows were considered controversial (see Swift et al., 1983; Walker, 1984) and initial models relied on cross-shelf transport by turbidity currents (Hamblin and Walker, 1979). Actualistic models of storm dynamics subsequently constructed by oceanographers and marine geologists largely focussed on nearly shore-parallel geostrophic currents. Duke (1990) suggested that ancient shallow-marine storm deposits (tempestites) were deposited by geostrophic combined ows and subsequent work indicates that combined ows are in fact recorded in ancient sandy tempestites (e.g., Midtgaard, 1996). However, many ancient storm-deposited sandstone beds show greater thickness and cross-shelf distribution than their modern counterparts (Leckie and Krystinik, 1989; Myrow and Southard, 1996). In addition, the time between successive beds in many deposits in the rock record may be many orders of magnitude too large to explain as a simple series of storm events. The stratication preserved in tempestites, particularly HCS, has been studied experimentally (Arnott and Southard, 1990) and through the analysis of grain fabric (Cheel, 1991). Such studies, and those of modern shelves (e.g., Amos et al., 1996), conrm that HCS forms as a result of complex oscillatory ow or combined ow (waves and currents). A wide range of vertical stratication sequences is possible within individual storm-deposited beds (Myrow and Southard, 1991). Three processes operate during storms to produce the wide range of tempestites encountered in the sedimentary record:

STORM DEPOSITS Einsele, G., 1996. Event deposits: the role of sediment supply and relative sea-level changesoverview. Sedimentary Geology, 104: 1137. Hamblin, A.P., and Walker, R.G., 1979. Storm-dominated shallow marine deposits: the Fernie-Kootenay (Jurassic) transition, southern rocky mountains. Canadian Journalof Earth Sciences, 16: 1673 1690. Leckie, D.A., and Krystinik, L.F., 1989. Is there evidence for geostrophic currents preserved in the sedimentary record of inner to middle-shelf deposits? Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 59: 862870. McKie, T., 1994. Geostrophic versus friction-dominated storm ow: paleocurrent evidence from the Late Permian Brotherton formation, England. Sedimentary Geology, 93: 7384. Midtgaard, H., 1996. Inner-shelf to lower shoreface Hummocky sandstone bodies with evidence for geostrophic-inuenced combined ow, lower Cretaceous, west Greenland. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66: 343353. Myrow, P.M., 1992. Bypass-zone tempestite facies model and proximality trends for an ancient muddy shoreline and shelf. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 62: 99115. Myrow, P.M., and Southard, J.B., 1991. Combined-ow model for vertical stratication sequences in shallow marine storm-deposited beds. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 61: 202210. Myrow, P.M., and Southard, J.B., 1996. Tempestite deposition. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 66: 875887. Swift, D.J.P., Figueiredo, A.G. Jr, Freeland, G.L., and Oertel, G.F., 1983. Hummocky cross-stratication and megaripples: a geological double standard? Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 47: 12421260. Walker, R.G., 1984. Shelf and shallow marine sands. In Walker, R.G. (ed.), Facies Models, 2nd edn. Toronto: Geoscience Canada, Reprint Series 1, pp. 141170. Wheatcroft, R.A., 2000. Oceanic ood sedimentation: a new perspective. Continental Shelf Research, 20: 20592066. Wright, L.D., Xu, J.P., and Madsen, O.S., 1994. Across-shelf benthic transports on the inner shelf of the Middle Atlantic Bight during the ``Halloween storm'' of 1991. Marine Geology, 118: 6177.

waves can provide the extra turbulence needed to maintain ow. Results of both oceanographic (e.g., Cacchione et al., 1999) and modeling experiments of the northern California coast indicate that gravity driven underows associated with ocean oods are an important factor for cross-shelf transport of ne-grained sediment. Such ows have high SSCs (up to 2.5 g/L) even at mid-shelf depths (50 m to 70 m). The sequence-stratigraphic context of tempestites may have a strong control on their abundance, nature, and stratigraphic distribution. Transgressive to early highstand conditions may have higher accommodation space and thus greater potential for Coriolis effect to produce geostrophic ow, whereas late highstand conditions promote greater bottom friction and more offshore-directed ow (McKie, 1994). Late highstand to early lowstand systems tracts of third- or higher order sequences tend to have abundant tempestites due to mobilization of coastal sand during relative sea level fall (Einsele, 1996). Sediment supply by rivers, or in situ carbonate production, has a rst-order control on tempestite thickness and abundance. More work is needed to better constrain the recurrence intervals of ancient deposits. Comparison of these data to those from the Modern will help to establish the degree to which actualistic models apply to the ancient. Paul Myrow

Bibliography
Amos, C.L., Li, M.Z., and Choung, K.-S., 1996. Storm-generated, hummocky stratication on the outer-Scotian shelf. Geo-Marine Letters, 16: 8594. Arnott, R.W., and Southard, J.B., 1990. Exploratory ow-duct experiments on combined-ow bed congurations, and some implications for interpreting storm-event stratication. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60: 211219. Cacchione, D.A., Wiberg, P.L., Lynch, J., Irish, J., and Traykovski, P., 1999. Estimates of suspended-sediment ux and bedform activity on the inner portion of the Eel continental shelf. Marine Geology, 154: 8397. Cheel, R.J., 1991. Grain fabric in hummocky cross-stratied storm beds: genetic implications. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 61: 102110. Duke, W.L., 1990. Geostrophic circulation or shallow marine turbidity currents? the dilemma of paleoow patterns in storm-inuenced prograding shoreline systems. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 60: 870883.

Cross-references
Bedding and Internal Structures Coastal and Shallow Wave-Dominated Marine Environments Facies Models Gutter and Gutter Casts Hummocky and Swaley Cross-Stratication Paleocurrent Analysis Sands and Sandstones