ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

CHAPTER 15 ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS THE MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER The moving coil galvanometer is a basic electrical instrument. It is used for the detection or measurement of small currents. Principle When current flows in a rectangular coil placed in a magnetic field it experience a magnetic torque due to which it rotates through an angle proportional to the current flowing through it. Construction: The essential parts of a moving coil galvanometer are 1. A !shaped permanent magnet with c"lindrical concave pole! pieces. #. A flat coil of thin enamel Insulated wire $usuall" rectangular% &. A soft iron c"linder '. A scalar lamp and scale arrangement. In suspended t"pe or ( Arsonvals galvanometer the flat rectangular coil of thin enamel insulated wire of suitable number of terms wound on a light non!metallic or non!magnetic $brass or aluminum% frame is suspected between the c"lindrical concave pole pieces of the permanent !shaped magnet b" a thin phosphor!bron)e strip. *ne end of the wire of the soil is

soldered to strip. The other end of the strip is fixed to the frame of the galvanometer and connected to an external terminal. It serves as one current lead. The other end of the wire of the coil is soldered to a loose and soft spiral of wire connected to another external terminal. The soft spiral of wire serves as the other current lead. A soft iron c"linder+ coaxial with the pole! pieces is placed within the frame of the coil but quite detached from it and is fixed to the bod" of the galvanometer. In the space between it and the pole pieces+ where the coil moves freel"+ the soft iron c"linder ma,es the field stronger and radial so that the magnetic field is alwa"s parallel to the plane of the coil. To note the deflection a concave mirror along with lamp and scale arrangement is used. Working When a current passes through the galvanometer coil+ it experiences a magnetic deflecting torque+ which tends to rotate it from its rest position. As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the suspension strip. The coil rotate until the elastic restoring torque due to which the strip does not equali)e and cancel the deflecting magnetic torque and then it attains equilibrium and stops rotating further. i.e. (eflecting torque - .estoring torque /ut deflecting torque - /I0A Cos 1 /I0A Cos 1 - c2 Where / - strength of the magnetic field I - current in the coil A - Area of the coil 0 - 0umber of turns in the coil 3 - Angle of twist of the suspension strip c - torque per unit twist of the suspension strip for the

equilibrium As c4/0A is constant. In pivoted t"pe or Weston galvanometer the coil instead or being suspended b" a strip is pivoted between two 5eweled bearings. The restoring torque is provided two hair springs one on either side of the coil and curling on the opposite sense are connected one to each spring. The hairspring thus also serve as current leads to the coil. A light aluminum pointer is fixed to the coil+ which moves over a calibrated circular scale with equal divisions+ which measures the deflection directl". C rren! Sen"i!i#i!$ o% & G&l#&no'e!er A galvanometer is said to be sensitive if for a small current the deflection 637 is sufficientl" large. A galvanometer can be made more sensitive if c4/0A is made small. Thus to increase sensitivit" 6c7 ma" be decreased or /+ 0 and A ma" be increased 6C7 can be decreased b" increasing the length of suspension wire or b" decreasing its can be decreased b" increasing the length of suspension wire or b" decreasing its diameter+ but this process cannot be ta,en too far 8 as the suspension must be strong enough to carr" the coil. 607 or 6A7 cannot be increased because it ma,es the coil heav". The loss of sensitivit" due to the use of fewer turns is however made us b" the ver" high value of the magnetic field emplo"ed. The current sensitivit" of a galvanometer is usuall" defined as the current in microampere required to cause one!millimeter deflection on a scale place 1.2 meter from the mirror of the galvanometer. THE AMMETER

Ammeter is an instrument+ which is used for measuring electric current. A galvanometer can measure small current if its scale is calibrated for the current. 9or the measurement of large current a b"pass resistance called a shunt+ of appropriate small value is connected in parallel with the galvanometer coil. This resistance allows the large excess current through itself while a fraction of the current passes through the galvanometer coil. The scale of the instrument is so calibrated that it can measure the main current directl". Consider a galvanometer 6:7 whose resistance is 6.g7 and which gives full scale deflection when current 6Ig7 flows through it to convert the galvanometer into an ammeter which can measure a maximum current 6I7 a shunt 6.s7 of appropriate small resistance should be connected in parallel with the galvanometer such that the current 6Ig7 must flow through the galvanometer coil. The potential difference 6;g7 across the galvanometer is given b" ;g - Ig .g The potential difference 6;s7 across the shunt is given b" ;s - Is .s - $I < Ig% .s Where Is - I < Ig - current through the shunt. As 6.g7 and 6.s7 are connected in parallel to each other therefore potential difference across them will be equal i.e. ;s - ;g $I < Ig% .s - Ig .g .s - Ig .g 4 I < Ig Ammeter is alwa"s connected in series with the circuit. M l!i R&nge A''e!er =ometimes an ammeter has more than one range+ which means

that it has as man" different shunts as the ranges. The desired range is selected b" insertion the proper shunt in position. In one t"pe+ one end of each shunt is permanentl" connected to a common terminal while the other end of each is connected through a range to a second common terminal. THE VOLTMETER ;oltmeter is an instrument which is used for measuring potential difference between an" two points of a current carr"ing $or between the two terminals of a source of emf%. A galvanometer can be used for measuring a ver" small >otential (ifference. If its scale is calibrated for voltage. 9or the measurement of large potential difference. A high resistance of the order of ?ilo!ohms is connected in series with it. This resistance is commonl" ,nown as 6@ultiplier .esistance7. Consider a galvanometer 6:7 where resistance is 6.g7 and which deflects full scale for the current 6Ig7 to convert this galvanometer into a voltmeter measuring a >otential difference upto 6;7 volts. An appropriate high resistance 6.n7 must be connected in series with it such that for the potential difference 6;7 applied between the ends of the above combination. The current 6Ig7 must flow through the galvanometer. Aowever the total resistance between the terminal a B b is .n C .g. $.n C .gC Ig - ; .n C .g - ; 4 Ig .n - ; 4 Ig < .g ;oltmeter is alwa"s connected in parallel with the circuit. @ultirange ;oltmeter =ometimes a voltmeter has more than one range+ which means it has as man" different resistance as the ranges. The desired

range is selected b" inserting the proper resistance in position. We have a common terminal mar,ed $C% and as man" other terminals as the ranges. In the other t"pe one terminal is common mar,ed $C% while the different range terminals can be connected b" a range switch to the other common terminals. WHEAT STONE (RI)GE Wheat stone bridge is an electrical circuit . In wheat!stone bridge four resistance .1+ .#+ .& and .' are connected end to end with each other to form a closed loop. A sensitive galvanometer D:D is connected between their 5unctions as shown.The circuit is provided with two ,e"s E?1F and E?#F.:enerall" wheat!stone bridge is used to determine un,nown resistances. (ALANCE) WHEAT*STONE (RI)GE When E?1F is connected+ no current passes through the galvanometer because ?# is disconnected. When E?1F and E?#F are connected and no current flows through the galvanometer+ the condition of bridge is called D/alanced conditionD. It is possible onl" when the potential difference between the terminals of galvanometer is )ero *r potential of point E/F - potential of point E(F i.e. ;/ < ;( - 2 or ;/ - ;(

RELATION AMONG RESISTANCES IN (ALANCE) CON)ITION

.14.# - .&4.' E+PRESSION ,OR (ALANCE) (RI)GE ,ROM ,IGURE.1 B .# are connected in series. .& B .' are connected in series. Re&"on- $onl" one path for the flow of current%

.1 B .& are connected in parallel. .# B .' are connected in parallel. Re&"on- $two paths for the flow of current% Get current I1 flows through .1 B .# and I# through .& B .'. When bridge is balanced+ potential of point E/F - potential of point E(F Therefore+

;A/ - ;A(

butH; - I.I

I.1 - I#.&!!!!!!!!!!!!!!$I% =imilarl"+ ;/C - ;C( or I1.# - I#.'!!!!!!!!!!!!$II% (ividing equation $i% b" equation $ii% We get+ .14.# - .&4.' nder balanced condition if an" three resistances are ,nown then the fourth can be found easil" $i.e. wheat stone principle%. The whetstone principle is used in @eter /ridge+ the >.*. box Care" 9osterFs /ridge+ Calendar and :raffitiFs /ridge etc. METER (RI)GE The @eter /ridge also called slide < Wire /ridge is an instrument based on wheat stone principle. It consists of a long thic, copper strip bent twice at right angles. Two small portions are cut off from it near the bends to provide the gaps across which two resistances are ,nown one and an un,nown ma" be connected. Jach of the three pieces of the strip is provided with binding screws. A uniform wire $of magnetic or other% one meter long and of fairl" high resistance is stretched+ along the side a meter scale is connected to the ends of the strip.

9or measuring an un,nown resistance 6K7 it is connected in one gap of the @eter /ridge and a standard resistance box 6.7 is connected in the other gap. A cell and a galvanometer are connected. The 5oc,e" 6L7 is moved along the wire to obtain the balance point (. nder balanced condition if the length of the wire segment. A ( toward K is Gx and the length of the wire segment C( towards . is G$.% then their resistances are MG$.% respectivel". Where M - resistance per unit length of the wire. POST O,,ICE (O+ .P/O (O+0 >ost *ffice /ox is an instrument+ which is based on wheatstone principle. It was first introduced for finding resistance of telegraph wires and for fault < findings wor, in the post and telegraph office thatFs wh" it is called 6>ost *ffice /ox7. It is more compact and easier to use. It consists of three sets of resistances >+ N and .. The arms > and N called the ratio arms+ usuall" consists of three resistances each vi). 12+ 122 and 1222 ohms so that an" decimal ratio from 1:122 to 122:1 ma" be used. The third arm 6.7 is an ordinar" set of resistances. The un,nown resistances 6K7 to be measured forms the fourth arm. Introducing the ratios 1:1+ 12:1+ 122:1 in turn the balance or null position is traced b" ad5usting 6.7. /alance is usuall" obtained at the ratio 122:1 for some value of 6.7. With this value of 6.7 the value of K can be easil" be calculated using relation of Wheatstone bridge i.e. >4N - .4K K - . N4> THE OHMMETER

The ohmmeter is a device used for the measurement of resistance. It consists of a sensitive galvanometer 6:7+ ad5ustable resister 6.7 and a torch cell 6J7 connected in series between two terminals A and /. The un,nown resistance 6K7 to be measured is connected between the terminals A and /. The resistance . is so chosen that when the terminals A and / are short circuited $i.e. K - 2%. The galvanometer gives full!scale deflection when no connection is between A and / $i.e. K - O%. The galvanometer shows )ero deflection for the value of K between - and O. The deflection is small or large depending on the value of K. The scale of the galvanometer is calibrated with different ,nown values of K and there the circuit serves as an ohmmeter to measure an" un,nown resistance approx. The scale of the ohmmeter however is not linear. sing different conditions of . is series and different shunts across the galvanometer wor,ed b" range switches+ the ohmmeter can be adopted for different accessories for e.g. 1 P accurac" in tens of ohms+ in hundreds of ohms+ in thousands of ohms+ in mega ohms etc. *hmmeter is not a ver" accurate instrument. POTENTIOMETER >otentiometer is device for measuring the p.d $voltage% between two points of a circuit or the e.m.f of a current source. It consists of a uniform wire stretched on a wooden board along a meter scale. Consider a uniform resistance wire A/ of length G and .esistance .+ across which is connected to a source of constant J@9 $e.g. an accumulator% through a ,e" and a rheostat to ad5ust and maintain a constant current 1 through it.

As the current flows+ the >.d. between A and / - ;$A/% - I. If one terminal of a wire is connected to A while other is moved on the wire A/ then instrument acts as a >otential (ivider. To find an un,nown J@9 of a cell or some other potential difference or the ratio of the emf of two cells consider the circuit. The positive terminals of a cell of un,nown J@9 6J$0%7 and a standard cell of Jmf J$0% are connected to the terminal A. The negative terminals of both the cells are 5oint to the 5oc,e" through a two wa" ,e" and a sensitive galvanometer. sing the two!wa" ,e" first cell J$0% onl" is introduced into the galvanometer branch and balanced point C and length G are found for it. THE AVO*METER An Avo!meter is an apparatus which is used to measure current+ voltage and resistance in other words it is an ampere+ volts and ohms. It can measure direct as well as alternative voltage and currents. It consists of a galvanometer with different scales graduated in such a wa" that all the three quantities can be measured. A selector!cum!range switch is provided. Its has its own batter". A rectifier is also included in the instrument to convert A.C. into (.C. before the" pass through the :alvanometer.