Spark plug

A spark plug (sometimes in British English a sparking plug,colloquially a plug) is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mi ture by an electric spark, !hile containing combustion pressure !ithin the engine" A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a porcelain insulator" #he central electrode, !hich may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated !ire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto" #he spark plug$s metal shell is scre!ed into the engine$s cylinder head and thus electrically grounded" #he central electrode protrudes through the porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps bet!een the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the %side%, %earth%, or %ground% electrode(s)" &park plugs may also be used for other purposes' in &aab (irect )gnition !hen they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ioni*ation in the cylinders - this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase sensor, knock sensor and misfire measurement function" &park plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces !herein a combustible fuel/air mi ture must be ignited" )n this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters"

History
)n +,-. /tienne 0enoir used an electric spark plug in his gas engine, the first internal combustion piston engine and is generally credited !ith the invention of the spark plug" Early patents for spark plugs included those by 1ikola #esla (in 2"&" 3atent -.4,56. for an ignition timing system, +,4,), 7rederick 8ichard &imms (9B 5:,64/+,4,, +,4,) and 8obert Bosch (9B 5-4.;/+,4,)" But only the invention of the first commercially viable high-voltage spark plug as part of a magneto-based ignition system by 8obert Bosch$s engineer 9ottlob <onold in +4.5 made possible the development of the spark-ignition engine" &ubsequent manufacturing improvements can also be credited to Albert =hampion,the 0odge brothers, sons of &ir >liver 0odge, !ho developed and manufactured their father$s idea and also

?enelm 0ee 9uinness, of the 9uinness bre!ing family, !ho developed the ?09 brand" <elen Blair Bartlett also played a vital role in making the insulator, in +4@., though is often forgotten from the recordsA

Operation

Components of a typical, four stroke cycle, DOHC piston engine. (E) Exhaust camshaft, (I) Intake camshaft, (S) Spark plug, (V) Val es, (!) !iston, (") Connecting ro#, (C) Crankshaft, ($) $ater %acket for coolant flo&.

#he plug is connected to the high voltage generated by an ignition coil or magneto" As the electrons flo! from the coil, a voltage difference develops bet!een the central electrode and side electrode" 1o current can flo! because the fuel and air in the gap is an insulator, but as the voltage rises further, it begins to change the structure of the gases bet!een the electrodes" >nce the voltage e ceeds the dielectric strength of the gases, the gases become ioni*ed" #he ioni*ed gas becomes a conductor and allo!s electrons to flo! across the gap" &park plugs usually require voltage of +5,...B56,... volts or more to $fire$ properly, although it can go up to :6,... volts" #hey supply higher current during the discharge process resulting in a hotter and longer-duration spark" As the current of electrons surges across the gap, it raises the temperature of the spark channel to -.,... ?" #he intense heat in the spark channel causes the ioni*ed gas to e pand very quickly, like a small e plosion" #his is the $click$ heard !hen observing a spark, similar to lightning and thunder"

#he heat and pressure force the gases to react !ith each other, and at the end of the spark event there should be a small ball of fire in the spark gap as the gases burn on their o!n" #he si*e of this fireball or kernel depends on the e act composition of the mi ture bet!een the electrodes and the level of combustion chamber turbulence at the time of the spark" A small kernel !ill make the engine run as though the ignition timing !as retarded, and a large one as though the timing !as advanced"

Spark plug construction

A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor" )t passes through the !all of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures !ithout deteriorating over long periods of time and e tended use"
Parts of the plug Terminal

#he top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system" #he e act terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug" Cost passenger car spark plug !ires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some !ires have spade connectors !hich are fastened onto the plug under a nut" 3lugs !hich are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type of connection"
Insulator

#he main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina, a very hard ceramic material !ith high dielectric strength, printed !ith the manufacturer$s name and identifying marks, then gla*ed to improve resistance to surface spark tracking" )ts maDor function is to provide mechanical support and electrical insulation for the central electrode, !hile also providing an e tended spark path for flashover protection" #his e tended portion, particularly in engines !ith deeply recessed plugs, helps e tend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it more readily accessible"

Dissecte# mo#ern spark plug sho&ing the one'piece sintere# alumina insulator. (he lo&er portion is ungla)e# Ribs

By lengthening the surface bet!een the high voltage terminal and the grounded metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the terminal to the metal case" #he disrupted and longer path makes the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture" &ome spark plugs are manufactured !ithout ribs' improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important"E
Insulator tip

>n modern (post +4@.$s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminium o ide (alumina) ceramic as the upper portion, merely ungla*ed" )t is designed to !ithstand -6. F= (+,5.. F7) and -.,... volts" #he dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the heat range of the plug" &hort insulators are usually %cooler% plugs, !hile %hotter% plugs are made !ith a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core" >lder spark plugs, particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the centre electrode" Gith the development of leaded petrol in the +4@.s, lead deposits on the mica became a problem and reduced the interval bet!een needing to clean the spark plug" &intered alumina !as developed by &iemens in 9ermany to counteract this"&intered alumina is a superior

material to mica or porcelain because it is a relatively good thermal conductor for a ceramic, it maintains good mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at higher temperatures, and this ability to run hot allo!s it to be run at %self cleaning% temperatures !ithout rapid degradation" )t also allo!s a simple single piece construction at lo! cost but high mechanical reliability"
Seals

Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber or the engine !hen installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion chamber" #he internal seals of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal po!der, but old style seals !ere typically made by the use of a multi-layer bra*e" #he e ternal seal is usually a crush !asher, but some manufacturers use the cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing"
Metal case

#he metal case (or the %Dacket% as many people call it) of the spark plug !ithstands the torque of tightening the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side electrode" &park plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue" Also, a marine spark plug$s shell is double-dipped, *inc-chromate coated metal"
Central electrode

Central an# lateral electro#es

#he central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal !ire and commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of 87 noise from the sparking" #he tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or noble metals" )n the late seventies, the development of engines reached a stage !here the Hheat rangeI of conventional spark plugs !ith solid nickel alloy centre electrodes !as unable to cope !ith their demands" A plug that !as HcoldI enough to cope !ith the demands of high speed driving !ould not be able to burn off the carbon deposits caused by stop-start urban conditions, and !ould foul in these conditions, making the engine misfire" &imilarly, a plug that !as HhotI enough to run smoothly in to!n, could melt !hen called upon to cope !ith e tended high speed running on motor!ays" #he ans!er to this problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, !as a centre electrode that carried the heat of combustion a!ay from the tip more effectively than !as possible !ith a solid nickel alloy" =opper !as the material chosen for the task and a method for manufacturing the copper-cored centre electrode !as created by 7loform" #he central electrode is usually the one designed to eDect the electrons (the cathode) because it is the hottest (normally) part of the plug' it is easier to emit electrons from a hot surface, because of the same physical la!s that increase emissions of vapor from hot surfaces (see thermionic emission)" )n addition, electrons are emitted !here the electrical field strength is greatest' this is from !herever the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest, from a sharp point or edge rather than a flat surface (see corona discharge)" )t !ould be easiest to pull electrons from a pointed electrode but a pointed electrode !ould erode after only a fe! seconds" )nstead, the electrons emit from the sharp edges of the end of the electrode' as these edges erode, the spark becomes !eaker and less reliable" At one time it !as common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either manually or !ith speciali*ed sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for t!o reasonsJ +" cleaning !ith tools such as a !ire brush leaves traces of metal on the insulator !hich can provide a !eak conduction path and thus !eaken the spark (increasing emissions) 5" plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement, particularly !ith modern long-life plugs" #he development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as yttrium, iridium, tungsten, or palladium, as !ell as the relatively high value platinum, silver or gold) allo!s the use of a smaller center !ire, !hich has sharper edges but !ill not melt or corrode

a!ay" #hese materials are used because of their high melting points and durability, not because of their electrical conductivity (!hich is irrelevant in series !ith the plug resistor or !ires)" #he smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark and initial flame energy" At one point, 7irestone marketed plugs !ith polonium in the tip, under the (questionable) theory that the radioactivity !ould ioni*e the air in the gap, easing spark formation"
Side (ground, earth) electrode

#he side electrode is made from high nickel steel and is !elded or hot forged to the side of the metal shell" #he side electrode also runs very hot, especially on proDected nose plugs" &ome designs have provided a copper core to this electrode, so as to increase heat conduction" Cultiple side electrodes may also be used, so that they don$t overlap the central electrode"
Spark plug gap

Gap gauge: * #isk &ith sloping e#ge+ the e#ge is thicker going counter'clock&ise, an# a spark plug &ill ,e hooke# along the e#ge to check the gap.

&park plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap !hich can be adDusted by the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the ground electrode slightly" #he same plug may be specified for several different engines, requiring a different gap for each" &park plugs in automobiles generally have a gap bet!een .".@6%B.".;.% (."4B+", mm)" #he gap may require adDustment from the out-of-the-bo gap" A spark plug gap gauge is a disc !ith a sloping edge, or !ith round !ires of precise diameters, and is used to measure the gap" 2se of a feeler gauge !ith flat blades instead of

round !ires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, !ill give erroneous results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes #he simplest gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses !hich match the desired gaps and the gap is adDusted until the key fits snugly" Gith current engine technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems and computeri*ed fuel inDection, the gaps used are much larger than in the era of carburetors and breaker point distributors, to the e tent that spark plug gauges from that era are much too small for measuring the gaps of current cars" #he gap adDustment can be crucial to proper engine operation" A narro! gap may give too small and !eak a spark to effectively ignite the fuel-air mi ture, but the plug !ill almost al!ays fire on each cycle" A gap that is too !ide might prevent a spark from firing at all or may misfire at high speeds, but !ill usually have a spark that is strong for a clean burn" A spark !hich intermittently fails to ignite the fuel-air mi ture may not be noticeable directly, but !ill sho! up as a reduction in the engine$s po!er and fuel efficiency"

Variations on the basic design

-park plug &ith t&o si#e (groun#) electro#es

>ver the years variations on the basic spark plug design have attempted to provide either better ignition, longer life, or both" &uch variations include the use of t!o, three, or four equally spaced ground electrodes surrounding the central electrode" >ther variations include using a recessed central electrode surrounded by the spark plug thread, !hich effectively becomes the ground electrode (see %surface-discharge spark plug%, belo!)" Also there is the use of a K-shaped notch in the tip of the ground electrode" Cultiple ground electrodes generally provide longer life, as !hen the spark gap !idens due to electric discharge !ear, the spark moves to another closer ground electrode" #he disadvantage of multiple ground

electrodes is that a shielding effect can occur in the engine combustion chamber inhibiting the flame face as the fuel air mi ture burns" #his can result in a less efficient burn and increased fuel consumption"
Surface-discharge spark plug

A piston engine has a part of the combustion chamber that is al!ays out of reach of the piston' and this *one is !here the conventional spark plug is located" A Gankel engine has a permanently varying combustion area' and the spark plug is inevitably s!ept by the tip seals" =learly, if a spark plug !ere to protrude into the Gankel$s combustion chamber it !ould foul the rotating tip' and if the plug !ere recessed to avoid this, the sunken spark might lead to poor combustion" &o a ne! type of %surface discharge% plug !as developed for the Gankel" &uch a plug presents an almost flat face to the combustion chamber" A stubby centre electrode proDects only very slightly' and the entire earthed body of the plug acts as the side electrode" #he advantage is that the plug sits Dust beneath the tip-seal that s!eeps over it, keeping the spark accessible to the fuel/air mi ture" #he %plug gap% remains constant throughout its life' and the spark path !ill continually vary (instead of darting from the centre to the side electrode as in a conventional plug)" Ghereas a conventional side electrode !ill (admittedly, rarely) come adrift in use and potentially cause engine damage, this is impossible !ith a surface discharge plug, as there is nothing to break off" &urface-discharge spark plugs have been produced by inter alia, (enso, 19?, =hampion and Bosch"
Sealing to the cylinder head

Ol# spark plug remo e# from a car, ne& one rea#y to install.

Cost spark plugs seal to the cylinder head !ith a single-use hollo! or folded metal !asher !hich is crushed slightly bet!een the flat surface of the head and that of the plug, Dust above

the threads" &ome spark plugs have a tapered seat that uses no !asher" #he torque for installing these plugs is supposed to be lo!er than a !asher-sealed plug"
Tip protrusion

Different spark plug si)es. (he left an# right plug are i#entical in threa#ing, electro#es, tip protrusion, an# heat range. (he centre plug is a compact ariant, &ith smaller hex an# porcelain portions outsi#e the hea#, to ,e use# &here space is limite#. (he rightmost plug has a longer threa#e# portion, to ,e use# in a thicker cylin#er hea#.

#he length of the threaded portion of the plug should be closely matched to the thickness of the head" )f a plug e tends too far into the combustion chamber, it may be struck by the piston, damaging the engine internally" 0ess dramatically, if the threads of the plug e tend into the combustion chamber, the sharp edges of the threads act as point sources of heat !hich may cause preignition' in addition, deposits !hich form bet!een the e posed threads may make it difficult to remove the plugs, even damaging the threads on aluminium heads in the process of removal" #he protrusion of the tip into the chamber also affects plug performance, ho!ever' the more centrally located the spark gap is, generally the better the ignition of the air-fuel mi ture !ill be, although e perts believe the process is more comple and dependent on combustion chamber shape" >n the other hand, if an engine is %burning oil%, the e cess oil leaking into the combustion chamber tends to foul the plug tip and inhibit the spark' in such cases, a plug !ith less protrusion than the engine !ould normally call for often collects less fouling and performs better, for a longer period" )n fact, special %antifouling% adapters are sold !hich fit bet!een the plug and the head to reduce the protrusion of the plug for Dust this reason, on older engines !ith severe oil burning problems' this !ill cause the ignition of the fuel-air mi ture to be less effective, but in such cases, this is of lesser significance"

Heat range

Construction of hot an# col# spark plugs ' a longer insulator tip makes the plug hotter

#he operating temperature of a spark plug is the actual physical temperature at the tip of the spark plug !ithin the running engine" #his is important because it determines the efficiency of plug self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual temperature !ithin the combustion chamber" #here is no direct relationship bet!een the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage" <o!ever, the level of torque currently being produced by the engine !ill strongly influence spark plug operating temperature because the ma imum temperature and pressure occurs !hen the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and 83C directly determine the po!er output)" #he temperature of the insulator responds to the thermal conditions it is e posed to in the combustion chamber but not vice versa" )f the tip of the spark plug is too hot it can cause preignition or sometimes detonation/knocking and damage may occur" )f it is too cold, electrically conductive deposits may form on the insulator causing a loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark current" A spark plug is said to be %hot% if it is a better heat insulator, keeping more heat in the tip of the spark plug" A spark plug is said to be %cold% if it can conduct more heat out of the spark plug tip and lo!er the tip$s temperature" Ghether a spark plug is %hot% or %cold% is kno!n as the heat range of the spark plug" #he heat range of a spark plug is typically specified as a number, !ith some manufacturers using ascending numbers for hotter plugs and others doing the opposite, using ascending numbers for colder plugs" #he heat range of a spark plug is affected by the construction of the spark plugJ the types of materials used, the length of insulator and the surface area of the plug e posed !ithin the

combustion chamber" 7or normal use, the selection of a spark plug heat range is a balance bet!een keeping the tip hot enough at idle to prevent fouling and cold enough at ma imum po!er to prevent pre-ignition or engine knocking" By e amining %hotter% and %cooler% spark plugs of the same manufacturer side by side, the principle involved can be very clearly seen' the cooler plugs have a more substantial ceramic insulator filling the gap bet!een the center electrode and the shell, effectively allo!ing more heat to be carried off by the shell, !hile the hotter plugs have less ceramic material, so that the tip is more isolated from the body of the plug and retains heat better" <eat from the combustion chamber escapes through the e haust gases, the side !alls of the cylinder and the spark plug itself" #he heat range of a spark plug has only a minute effect on combustion chamber and overall engine temperature" A cold plug !ill not materially cool do!n an engine$s running temperature" (#oo hot of a plug may, ho!ever, indirectly lead to a runa!ay pre-ignition condition that can increase engine temperature") 8ather, the main effect of a %hot% or %cold% plug is to affect the temperature of the tip of the spark plug" )t !as common before the modern era of computeri*ed fuel inDection to specify at least a couple of different heat ranges for plugs for an automobile engine' a hotter plug for cars !hich !ere mostly driven slo!ly around the city, and a colder plug for sustained high speed high!ay use" #his practice has, ho!ever, largely become obsolete no! that cars$ fuel/air mi tures and cylinder temperatures are maintained !ithin a narro! range, for purposes of limiting emissions" 8acing engines, ho!ever, still benefit from picking a proper plug heat range" Kery old racing engines !ill sometimes have t!o sets of plugs, one Dust for starting and another to be installed for driving once the engine is !armed up" &park plug manufacturers use different numbers to denote heat range of their spark plugs"

Reading spark plugs

#he spark plug$s firing end !ill be affected by the internal environment of the combustion chamber" As the spark plug can be removed for inspection, the effects of combustion on the plug can be e amined" An e amination, or %reading% of the characteristic markings on the firing end of the spark plug can indicate conditions !ithin the running engine" #he spark plug tip !ill bear the marks as evidence of !hat is happening inside the engine" 2sually there is no other !ay to kno! !hat is going on inside an engine running at peak po!er" Engine and

spark plug manufacturers !ill publish information about the characteristic markings in spark plug reading charts" &uch charts are useful for general use but are of almost no use in reading racing engine spark plugs, !hich is an entirely different matter" A light bro!nish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation' other conditions may indicate malfunction" 7or e ample, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light detonation is occurring, often unheard" #he damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder" <eavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard" As another e ample, if the plug is too cold, there !ill be deposits on the nose of the plug" =onversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain !ill be porous looking, almost like sugar" #he material !hich seals the central electrode to the insulator !ill boil out" &ometimes the end of the plug !ill appear gla*ed, as the deposits have melted" An idling engine !ill have a different impact on the spark plugs than one running at full throttle" &park plug readings are only valid for the most recent engine operating conditions and running the engine under different conditions may erase or obscure characteristic marks previously left on the spark plugs" #hus, the most valuable information is gathered by running the engine at high speed and full load, immediately cutting the ignition off and stopping !ithout idling or lo! speed operation and removing the plugs for reading" &park plug reading vie!ers, !hich are simply combined flashlight/magnifiers, are available to improve the reading of the spark plugs"

(&o spark plug ie&ers

Indexing spark plugs

A matter of some debate is the %inde ing% of plugs upon installation, usually only for high performance or racing applications' this involves installing them so that the open area of the spark gap, not shrouded by the ground electrode, faces the center of the combustion chamber, to!ards the intake valve, rather than the !all" &ome engine tuners believe that this !ill ma imi*e the e posure of the fuel-air mi ture to the spark, also ensuring that every combustion chamber is even in layout and therefore resulting in better ignition' ho!ever, others believe this is useful only to keep the ground electrode out of the !ay of the piston in ultra-high-compression engines if clearance is insufficient" )n any event, this is accomplished by marking the location of the gap on the outside of the plug, installing it, and noting the direction in !hich the mark faces' then the plug is removed and additional !ashers are added to change the orientation of the tightened plug" #his must be done individually for each plug, as the orientation of the gap !ith respect to the threads of the shell is random" &ome plugs are made !ith a non-random orientation of the gap and are usually marked as such by a suffi to the model number' typically these are specified by manufacturers of very small engines !here the spark plug tip and electrodes form a significantly large part of the shape of the combustion chamber" #he <onda )nsight has inde ed spark plugs from factory, !ith four different part numbers available corresponding to the different degrees of inde ing to achieve most efficient combustion and ma imum fuel efficiency"

See also

.ran/ois Isaac #e "i a) circa 0123 he in ente# a hy#rogen an# oxygen po&ere# internal com,ustion engine &ith electric ignition. 4tienne 5enoir In 0116, he patente#, among internal com,ustion engine impro ements, the first mo#ernly recogni)a,le spark plug789 sho&n as figure :6 here;.
7029

Ignition system $aste# spark Ignitor <lo&plug <lo& plug (mo#el engine)

=in%a rocks

References
0. Jump up ^ (he >osch ,ook of the ?otor Car, Its e olution an# engineering #e elopment, -t. ?artin@s !ress, copyright 083A, 5i,rary of Congress : 3A'B8A06, pp C26'C23. C. Jump up ^ D*.-.E.C.C.Es History of -park !lugsD. *secc.com. 08C3'02'C3. "etrie e# C200'28'03. B. 28'03. F. A. Jump up ^ http;GG&&&cf.fh&a.#ot.go G&itGauto.htm Jump up ^ DDenso@s D>asic Hno&le#geD pageD. <lo,al#enso.com. "etrie e# C200'28'03. 6. Jump up ^ (he >osch *utomoti e Han#,ook, 1th E#ition, >entley !u,lishers, copyright ?ay C200, I->= 831'2'1B36'0616'A, pp A10'A1A. 3. Jump up ^ *ir Commo#ore .. ". >anks (0831). I Kept No Diary. *irlife. p. 00B. I->= 2'8A2FAFB'8'3. 1. Jump up ^ D?arine -park !lug -a yD. ?arineEngineDigest.com. C8 *pril C20C. "etrie e# 0 Decem,er C20C. 8. Jump up ^ D?a#eho&.com@s DHo& a spark plug is ma#eD pageD. ma#eho&.com. 02. Jump up ^ D0116 <as Engine patent :BFA,A86 for Ettienne Iean Ioseph 5enoirD. Jump up ^ D5o#ge !lugsD. <racesgui#e.co.uk. C200'21'B2. "etrie e# C200'