RESEARCH HYPOTHESES AND QUESTIONS

A research hypothesis is a prediction of the outco e of a study! The prediction ay "e "ased on an educated #uess or a for a$ theory! E%a p$e & is a hypothesis for a non'e%peri enta$ study!

E%a p$e & It is hypothesi(ed that first #rade #ir$s )i$$ sho) "etter readin# co prehension than first #rade "oys!

In E%a p$e &* the author is predictin# that he or she )i$$ find hi#her co prehension a on# #ir$s than "oys! To test it* a non'e%peri enta$ study )ou$d "e appropriate "ecause nothin# in the hypothesis su##ests that treat ents )i$$ "e #i+en!

A si p$e research hypothesis predicts a re$ationship "et)een t)o +aria"$es! ,ro your study of +aria"$es* it shou$d "e c$ear that the t)o +aria"$es in E%a p$e & are -&. #ender and -/. readin# co prehension! The hypothesis states that readin# co prehension is re$ated to #ender!

E%a p$e / is a hypothesis for an e%peri enta$ study!

E%a p$e / It is hypothesi(ed that chi$dren )ho arc sho)n a +ideo )ith i$d +io$ence )i$$ "e

ore a##ressi+e on the p$ay#round than those )ho are sho)n a si i$ar +ideo )ithout the +io$ence!

In E%a p$e /* the independent variable is +io$ence - i$d +s! none.* and the dependent variable is a##ressi+eness on the p$ay#round!

The hypotheses in E%a p$es & and / are e%a p$es of directiona$ hypotheses! In a directiona$ hypothesis* )e predict )hich #roup )i$$ "e hi#her or ha+e so ethin#! ore of

So eti es )e ha+e a nondirectiona$ hypothesis! Consider E%a p$e 0!

E%a p$e 0 It is hypothesi(ed that the chi$d'rearin# practices of Tri"e A are different fro those of Tri"e 1!

The author of E%a p$e 0 is sayin# that there )i$$ "e a difference "ut does not predict the direction of the difference! This is perfect$y accepta"$e )hen there is no "asis for a2in# an educated #uess!

Instead of a nondirectiona$ hypothesis* )e

i#ht state a research purpose! E%a p$e

3 sho)s a research purpose that corresponds to the nondirectiona$ hypothesis in E%a p$e 0!

E%a p$e 4 The purpose is to e%p$ore the differences in chi$drearin# practices "et)een Tri"e A and Tri"e 1!

A research 4uestion

ay a$so "e su"stituted for a nondirectiona$ hypothesis!

E%a p$e 5 sho)s a research 4uestion that corresponds to the nondirectiona$ hypothesis in E%a p$e 0!

E%a p$e 5 The research 4uestion is 6Ho) do the chi$drearin# practices in Tri"e A and Tri"e 1 differ78

9hen usin# a research 4uestion as the "asis for research* )e usua$$y shou$d "e carefu$ not to state it as a 4uestion that can "e ans)ered )ith a si p$e 6yes8 or 6no*8 as is done in E%a p$e :!

E%a p$e : The 4uestion is* 6Do the chi$d'rearin# practices in Tri"e A and Tri"e 1 differ78

E%a p$e :

ere$y as2s 6do they differ78 This is not a +ery interestin# research

4uestion! E%a p$e 5 is superior "ecause it as2s how do they differ78

The choice "et)een a nondirectiona$ hypothesis* a research purpose* and a research 4uestion* is pure$y a co atter of persona$ taste; a$$ are accepta"$e in the scientific

unity! Of course* )hen )e are )i$$in# to predict the outco e of a study* )e

shou$d state a directiona$ hypothesis!

If you<+e read research reports* you

ay ha+e encountered references to another

type of hypothesis;the nu$$ hypothesis! This is a statistical hypothesis, )hich )i$$ "e e%p$ored ne%t!

E=ERCISE

&! 9hich type of state ent -hypothesis* purpose* or 4uestion. predicts the outco e of a study7

/! 6It is hypothesi(ed that co$$e#e students )ho ha+e fir hi#her >PAs than those )ho do not ha+e fir or nondirectiona$ hypothesis7

career #oa$s achie+e

career #oa$s!8 Is this a directiona$

0! 9ou$d an e%peri enta$ or none%peri enta$ study "e "etter for testin# the hypothesis in 4uestion /7

3! 6It is hypothesi(ed that chi$dren of i

i#rants and chi$dren of nati+e "orn

citi(ens )i$$ differ in their attitudes to)ard schoo$!8 Is this a directiona$ or nondirectiona$ hypothesis7

5! 6The #oa$ of this study is to e%a ine co$$e#e students< attitudes to)ard re$i#ion!8 Is this state ent a hypothesis or purpose7

:! 6Are chi$dren of a$coho$ics different in their socia$ ad?ust ent than chi$dren of non'a$coho$ics78 Is this research 4uestion stated appropriate$y7 9hy7 9hy not7

@! 9hen )e are )i$$in# to predict the outco e of a study* shou$d )e state a directiona$ or nondirectiona$ hypothesis7

Questions for Discussion

A! Restate this hypothesis as a research purposeB 6It is hypothesi(ed that there is a difference in ?o" satisfaction "et)een those )ho recei+e re#u$ar feed"ac2 on their ?o" perfor ance and those )ho recei+e irre#u$ar feed"ac2!8

C! Is the hypothesis in 4uestion C directiona$ or nondirectiona$7 E%p$ain!

&D! Cou$d an e%peri ent "e conducted to test the hypothesis in 4uestion A7 E%p$ain!

&&! Restate this hypothesis as a research 4uestionB 6It is hypothesi(ed that those )ho e%ercise re#u$ar$y and those )ho do not e%ercise re#u$ar$y )i$$ differ in other "eha+iors that affect hea$th!8

ANS9ERS

&! hypothesis /! directiona$ 0! none%peri enta$ 3! nondirectiona$ 5! purpose :! no* "ecause it is stated in a )ay that can "e ans)ered yes or no @! directiona$ A! Sa p$e ans)erB The purpose is to e%p$ore differences in ?o" satisfaction

"et)een those )ho recei+e re#u$ar feed"ac2 on their ?o" perfor ance and those )ho recei+e irre#u$ar feed"ac2!
C! nondirectiona$ "ecause it does not predict )hich #roup )i$$ ha+e #reater ?o"

satisfaction
&D! Sa p$e ans)erB yes* "ecause )e cou$d physica$$y

anipu$ate the re#u$arity

of feed"ac2

&&! Sa p$e ans)erB Ho) do those )ho e%ercise re#u$ar$y and those )ho do not

differ in other "eha+iors that affect hea$th7

INTRODUCTION TO THE NUEE HYPOTHESIS

Suppose )e dre) rando ad inistered a se$f' report ost co

sa p$es of en#ineers and psycho$o#ists* easure of socia"i$ity* and co puted the ean -the ean for

on$y used a+era#e. for each #roup! ,urther ore* suppose the

en#ineers is :5!DD and the

ean for psycho$o#ists is @D!DD! 9here did the fi+e

point difference co e fro 7 There are three possi"$e e%p$anationsB

&! Perhaps the popu$ation of psycho$o#ists is tru$y

ore socia"$e than the

popu$ation of en#ineers* and our sa p$es correct$y identified the difference! -In fact* our research hypothesis ay ha+e "een that psycho$o#ists are ore

socia"$e than en#ineers ; )hich no) appears to "e supported "y the daTA.

/! Perhaps there )as a "ias in procedures! 1y usin# rando ru$ed out sa p$in# "ias* "ut other procedures such as "iased! ,or e%a p$e* Dece "er* )hen

sa p$in#* )e ha+e easure ent ay "e

ay"e the psycho$o#ists )ere contacted durin#

any socia$ e+ents ta2e p$ace and the en#ineers )ere

contacted durin# a #$oo y ,e"ruary! The on$y )ay to ru$e out "ias as an e%p$anation is to ta2e physical steps to pre+ent it! In this case* )e )ou$d )ant to a2e sure that the socia"i$ity of "oth #roups )as easured in the sa e )ay

at the sa e ti e!

0! Perhaps the popu$ations of psycho$o#ists and en#ineers are the sa e "ut the sa p$es are unrepresentati+e of their popu$ations "ecause of rando errors! ,or instance* the rando psycho$o#ists )ho are dra) ay ha+e #i+en us a sa p$e of sa p$in#

ore socia"$e* on the a+era#e* than their popu$ation!

The third e%p$anation has a na e ; it is the nu$$ hypothesis! The #enera$ for )hich it is stated +aries fro

in

researcher to researcher! Here are three +ersions* a$$

of )hich are consistent )ith each otherB

Fersion A of the nu$$ hypothesisB The observed difference was created by sampling error. -Note that the ter sampling error refers on$y to random errorsnot errors created "y a "ias!.

Fersion 1 of the nu$$ hypothesisB There is no true difference between the two groups. -The ter true difference

refers to the difference )e )ou$d find in a census of the popu$ations* that is* the difference )e )ou$d find if there )ere no sa p$in# errors!.

Fersion C of the nu$$ hypothesisB The true difference between the two groups is zero.

Significance tests deter ine the pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true! -9e )i$$ "e considerin# the use of specific si#nificance tests in future )ee2s!. Suppose for our e%a p$e* )e use a si#nificance test and find that the pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true is $ess than 5 in &DDG this )ou$d "e stated as p H!D5* )here p o"+ious$y stands for probability. Of course* if the chances that so ethin# is true are $ess than 5 in &DD* It<s a #ood "et that it<s not true! If it<s pro"a"$y not true* )e re ect the null hypothesis, $ea+in# us )ith on$y the first t)o e%p$anations that )e started )ith as +ia"$e e%p$anations for the difference!

There is no ru$e of nature that dictates at )hat pro"a"i$ity $e+e$ the nu$$ hypothesis shou$d "e re?ected! Ho)e+er* con+entiona$ )isdo su##ests that !D5 or $ess -such

as !D& or !DD&. is reasona"$e! Of course* researchers shou$d state in their reports the pro"a"i$ity $e+e$ they used to deter ine )hether to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis!

Note that )hen )e fai$ to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis "ecause the pro"a"i$ity is #reater than .!5, )e do ?ust thatB )e 6fai$ to re?ect8 the nu$$ hypothesis and it stays on our $ist of possi"$e e%p$anationsG )e never 6accept8 the nu$$ hypothesis as the on$y e%p$anation ; re e "er* there are three possi"$e e%p$anations and fai$in# to re?ect one of the does not ean that you are acceptin# it as the on$y e%p$anation!

An a$ternati+e )ay to say that )e ha+e re?ected the nu$$ hypothesis is to state that the difference is statistically significant. Thus* if )e state that a difference is statistica$$y si#nificant at the !D5 $e+e$ - eanin# !D5 or $ess.* it is e4ui+a$ent to statin# that the nu$$ hypothesis has "een re?ected at that $e+e$!

9hen you read research reported in acade ic ?ourna$s* you )i$$ find that the nu$$ hypothesis is se$do stated "y researchers* )ho assu e that you 2no) that the so$e

purpose of a si#nificance test is to test a nu$$ hypothesis! Instead* researchers te$$ you )hich differences )ere tested for si#nificance* )hich si#nificance test they used* and )hich differences )ere found to "e statistica$$y si#nificant! It is co on to find nu$$ hypotheses stated in theses and dissertations since co ay )ish to ore ittee

e "ers

a2e sure that the students they are super+isin# understand

the reason they ha+e conducted a si#nificance test! As )e consider specific si#nificance tests in other chapters of the te%t* )e<$$ e%a ine the nu$$ hypothesis in ore detai$!

E=ERCISE

&! Ho)

any e%p$anations )ere there for the difference in socia"i$ity "et)een

psycho$o#ists and en#ineers in the e%a p$e in this topic7

/! 9hat does the nu$$ hypothesis say a"out sa p$in# error7

0! Does the ter

sampling error refer to random errors or to bias"

3! The nu$$ hypothesis says that the true difference e4ua$s )hat +a$ue7

5! 9hat is used to deter ine the pro"a"i$ities that nu$$ hypotheses are true7

:! ,or )hat does p H!D5 stand7

@! Do )e re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis )hen the pro"a"i$ity of its truth is hi#h or )hen it is $o)7

A! 9hat do )e do if the pro"a"i$ity is #reater than !D57

C! 9hat is an a$ternati+e )ay of sayin# that )e ha+e re?ected the nu$$ hypothesis7

&D! Are you thesis7

ore $i2e$y to find a nu$$ hypothesis stated in a ?ourna$ artic$e or in a

ANS9ERS

&! three /! the o"ser+ed difference )as created "y sa p$in# error 0! rando 3! (ero 5! si#nificance tests :! pro"a"i$ity that the nu$$ hypothesis is true $ess than 5 in &DD @! )hen it is $o) A! fai$ to re?ect the nu$$ hypothesis C! a difference is statistica$$y si#nificant &D! thesis

errors