Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Cha ter !
Ways o# knowing
$ensory e% erience &incom lete'unde enda(le) *greement with others &common knowledge wrong) E% erts+ o inion &they can (e mistaken) ,ogic'reasoning things out &can (e (ased on #alse remises)
$cienti#ic research &using scienti#ic method) is more trustworthy than e% ert'colleague o inionintuition- etc.
0ut guesses &hy otheses) to tests and see how they hold u *ll as ects o# investigations are u(lic and descri(ed in detail so anyone who 1uestions results can re eat study #or themselves Re lication is a key com onent o# scienti#ic method
$cienti#ic /ethod &re1uires #reedom o# thought and u(lic rocedures that can (e re licated)
2denti#y the ro(lem or 1uestion Clari#y the ro(lem Determine in#ormation needed and how to o(tain it 3rgani4e the in#ormation o(tained 2nter ret the results
*ll conclusions are tentative and su(5ect to change as new evidence is uncovered &don+t 0R36E things)
"y es o# Research
variable)
2n sim le e% eriments com are 7 methods and try to control all extraneous variables that
e1uivalent)
$ometimes use single su(5ect research &intensive study o# single individual or grou over
time)
Correlational Research
,ooks at e%isting relationshi s (etween 7 or more varia(les to make (etter redictions
smoking and cancer) 9sed #or identi#ying ossi(le causes: similar to correlation
$urvey Research
Determine'descri(e characteristics o# a grou Descri tive survey in writing or (y interview 0rovides lots o# in#ormation #rom large sam les "hree main ro(lems; clarity o# 1uestions- honesty o# res ondents- return rates
Historical Research
$tudy ast- o#ten using e%isting documents- to reconstruct what ha Esta(lishing truth o# documents is essential
ened
methods)
>uantitative &numbers)
Facts'#eelings se arate World is single reality Researcher removed Esta(lished research design E% eriment rototy e =enerali4ation em hasi4ed
/eta.*nalysis
,ocate all the studies on a to ic and synthesi4e results using statistical techni1ues &average the results) >uestion o# reality &are only individual erce tions o# it) >uestion o# communication &words are su(5ective) >uestion o# values &no o(5ectivity only social constructs) >uestion o# unstated assum tions &researchers don+t clari#y assum tions that guide them) >uestion o# societal conse1uences &research serves olitical ur oses that are conservative or o ressive: reserve status 1uo)
to validity
?. Data analysis &how data will (e analy4ed to answer research 1uestions or test hy othesis)
Cha ter 7
R> should (e #easi(le &can (e investigated with availa(le resources) R> should (e clear &s eci#ically de#ine terms used8o erational needed- (ut give (oth)
Constitutive de#initions &dictionary meaning) 3 erational de#initions &s eci#ic actions'ste s to measure term: 2>Dtime to solve u44lewhere E7F sec. is high: 7F.?F is med.: ?FG is low)
R> should (e signi#icant &worth investigating: how does it contri(ute to #ield and who can use in#o) R>s o#ten investigate relationshi s &two characteristics'1ualities tied together)
Cha ter H
6aria(les &anything that can vary in measure: o osite o# constant) 6aria(les must (e clearly de#ined 3#ten investigate relationshi (etween varia(les
>uantitative &varia(les measured as a matter o# degree- using real num(ers: i.e. age- num(er kids) Categorical &no variation8either in a category or not: i.e. gender- hair color) 2nde endent; the cause &aka the mani ulated- treatment or e% erimental varia(le) De endent; the e##ect &aka outcome varia(le) E%traneous; uncontrolled 26s &see Fig. H.7- . ?I)
Hy otheses J redictions a(out ossi(le outcome o# a study: sometimes several hy otheses #rom one R> &Fig H.H)
R>; Will athletes have a higher =0* that nonathletesK H; *thletes will have higher =0*s that nonathletes Clari#ies'#ocuses research to make rediction (ased on revious research'theory /ulti le su orting tests to con#irm hy othesis strengthens it Can lead to (ias in methods &conscious or un) to try to su ort hy othesis $ometimes miss other im ortant in#o due to #ocus on hy othesis & eer review're lication is a check on this)
Disadvantages
Cha ter ?
Re1uiring artici ation #rom owerless &students) 9sing minors without arental ermission Deleting data that don+t agree w' hy othesis 2nvading rivacy o# su(5ects 0hysically or sychologically harming su(5ects
$u(5ects must know the ur ose o# the study- ossi(le (ene#its'harm: artici ation is voluntary and they can w'draw without enalty any time &Fig. ?.H- . LC)
Researchers should ask; Could su(5ects (e harmedK 2s there another way to get the in#oK 2s the in#o valua(le enough to 5usti#y studyK Researchers must ensure con#identiality o# data &limit access: no names i# ossi(le: tell su(5ects con#idential or anonymous) Deceiving su(5ects is sometimes necessary &/ilgram study)- ask i# results 5usti#y ethical la se
When dece tion used su(5ects they should (e okay with it a#ter &and they can re#use use o# their data)
0arental consent re1uired &signed ermission #rom arents *0* Ethics in Research Form addresses this also
Cha ter L
=lean ideas #rom others interested in to ic $ee results o# related studies &must (e a(le to evaluated those o(5ectively)
"y es o# sources
=eneral Re#erences J inde%es &o# rimary sources and a(stracts &ER2C- 0sych *(stracts) 0rimary $ources J u(lications where researchers re ort their results & eer reviewed're#ereed 5ournals) $econdary $ources J u(lications where authors descri(e works o# others &encyclo ediastrade(ooks- te%t(ooks)
De#ine ro(lem recisely as ossi(le Review some secondary sourcesN Review some general re#erence worksN Formulate search terms &keywords'descri tors) $earch general re#erences #or rimary sources 3(tain and read rimary sources &make notes'summari4e)
/aking notes
2nclude ro(lem' ur ose: hy otheses'R>: rocedures w' su(5ects'methods: #indings'conclusions: citationO $earching www8(e care#ul o# relia(ility 2ntroduction . descri(es ro(lem and 5usti#ication #or study: Body J discuss related studies together &P7- .@@) $ummary J ties literature together'give conclusions arising #rom literature Re#erence list
Don+t re lace a review o# rimary sources with meta.analysis &a com(ined review o# all availa(le research on a to ic w' results averaged)
End 0art !
Cha ter I
$am ling
$am le J any grou on which in#o is o(tained 0o ulation J grou that researcher is trying to re resent
0o ulation must (e de#ined #irst: more closely de#ined- easier to do- (ut less generali4a(le $tudy a su(set o# the o ulation (ecause it is chea er- #aster- easier- and i# done right- get same results as a census &study o# whole o ) *ccessi(le o ulation J the grou you are a(le to realistically generali4e to8 may di##er #rom target o ulation
$am ling
&Random v. Nonrandom $am ling) Random J every o ulation element has an e1ual and inde endent chance to artici ate
9ses names in a hat or ta(le or random num(ers Elimination o# (ias in selecting the sam le is most im ortant &meaning the researcher does not in#luence who gets selected) Ensuring su##icient sam le si4e is second most im ortant
$am ling
&Random $am ling /ethods)
Names in a hat or ta(le o# random num(ers.. .CC ,arger sam les more likely to re resent o .
*ny di##erence (etween o ulation and sam le is random and small &called random sam ling error) Ensures small su(grou s &strata) are re resented Normally ro ortional to their art o# o . Break o into strata- then randomly select w'in strata /ultistage sam ling &see . C?)
$am ling
$am ling
&Non.Random $am ling /ethods)
9sing grou that is handy'availa(le &or volunteers) *void- i# ossi(le- since tend not to (e re resentative due to homogeneity o# grou s Re ort large num(er o# demogra hic #actors to see likeliness o# re resentativeness
$am ling
,arger sam le means less chance o# error /inimum is HF: u er limit is !-FFF &see ta(le) Re resentative sam le is re1uired ¬ the same thing as variety in a sam le) High artici ation rate is needed /ulti le re lications enhance generali4ation when nonrandom sam ling is used Ecological generali4ation &gen to other settings'conditions- such as using a method tested in math #or English class)
6ideo !M
Cha ter M
2nstrumentation
&/easurement)
Demogra hic data are characteristics o# su(5ects such as age- gender- education level- etc. *ssessment data are scores on tests- o(servations- etc. &the device used to measure these is called the measurement instrument) Where and when will data (e collected How o#ten will data (e collected Who will collect the data
2nstrumentation
6alidity J measures what it is su osed to &accurate) Relia(ility J a measure that consistently gives same readings &re eata(le) 3(5ectivity J a(sence o# su(5ective 5udgments &need to eliminate su(5ectivity in measuring) 9sa(ility o# instruments
Consider ease o# administration: time to administer: clarity o# directions: ease o# scoring: cost: relia(ility'validity data availa(ility
2nstrumentation
By the grou
Researcher instruments &researchers o(serves student er#ormance and records) $u(5ect instruments &su(5ects record data a(out themselves- such as taking test) 3thers'2n#ormants &Hrd arty re orts a(out su(5ects such as teacher rates students) 0re#erence is #or e%isting ones &www.ericae.net- //< Can develo your own &re1uires time- e##ort- skill- testing: see . !7L) Written res onse J re#erred J o(5ective tests- rating checklist 0er#ormance instruments J measure rocedure- roduct
By res onse ty e
2nstrumentation
&E%am les o# Data Collection 2nstruments)
Rating scales &mark a lace on a continuum #or e%am le numeric rating !D oor to LD e%cellent) 2nterview schedules &com lete scales as interview takes lace: use recoding: (eware o# dishonesty) "ally sheets &#or counting'recording #re1uency o# (ehavior- remarks- activities- etc.) Flow charts &to record interactions in a room) *necdotal records &need to (e s eci#ic and #actual) "ime'/otion logs &record what took lace and when)
2nstrumentation
&E%am les o# Data Collection 2nstruments)
>uestionnaires &1uestion clarity to reader essential) $el# checklists *ttitude scales &,ikert is one ty e- how much su(5ect agrees'disagrees with descri tive statements a(out a to ic indicates a ositive'negative attitude toward to ic) $emantic di##erential &good'(ad: oor'e%cellent ratings) 0ersonality ro#iles *chievement'* titude tests 0er#ormance tests 0ro5ective devices &Rorschach 2nk Blot "est) $ociometric devises & eer ratings)
2nstrumentation
2tem Formats
$election items or closed res onse &"'F: <es'No: Right'Wrong: /ulti le choice) $u ly items or o en ended &short answer: essay) 9no(trusive measures &no intrusion into event8 usually direct o(servation and recording) Raw scores &initial score or count o(tained8w'out conte%t) Derived scores &raw scores translated to meaning#ul usage with standardi4ed rocess)
*ge'=rade e1uivalence: 0ercentile ranks: $tandard scores &how #ar a score is #rom a given re#erence ointi.e. 4 and " scores): Which to use de ends on the ur ose: usually standard scores used
"y es o# $cores
2nstrumentation
cannot do
or do or do not know
2nstrumentation
&/easurement $cales)
Num(ers are only name tags- they have no mathematical value &gender; !Dmale and 7D #emale 3R race; !D Blk7DWht- HDother) Num(ers show relative osition- (ut not 1uantity &grade level- #inishing lace in a race) Num(ers show 1uantity in e1ual intervals- (ut an ar(itrary 4ero &can have negative num(ers: degrees C or F) Num(ers show 1uantity with (ase o# 4ero where 4ero means the construct is a(sent
Ratio &in name- w' order- e1. distance *ND a(solute 4ero)
Higher levels more recise8collect data at highest level ossi(le: some statistics only work with higher level data
2nstrumentation
&0re aring #or Data *nalysis) $coring data J use e%act same #ormat #or each test and descri(e scoring method in te%t "a(ulating and Coding J care#ully trans#er data #rom source documents to com uter
=ive each test an 2D num(er *ny words must (e coded with numerical values Re ort codes in te%t o# research re ort
6ideo !@
Cha ter @
&"hree ways to esta(lish validity) Content validity J is entire content o# construct covered (y test- are im ortant arts em hasi4edK
Criterion validity J is there consistency (etween the instrument and some redicted or concurrent criterionK
Esta(lished (y em irical evidence using validity coe##icient &.! to G! scores) Correlate scores o# the test with the criterion &$*" and =0* in college)
Construct validity J Does the measure correctly identi#y those with di##erent levels o# the construct
Esta(lished with em irical evidence Correlate scores on test with known indicator o# the construct & risoners score low on test o# ethics)
6alidity ro(lems come #rom systematic error &also known as (ias8 something the research did wrong)
Relia(ility means that scores are consistent #rom one time measuring to the ne%t Can have a relia(le measure that may not (e valid /ust (e relia(le to (e valid
$ee . !II- target shooting
"est'Retest J give the same test &o# enduring trait) to the same eo le at two times and correlate the scores E1uivalent #orms J give two arallel #orms o# a test to the same eo le and correlate scores 2nternal consistency J several methods
$ lit halves &score two halves o# test and correlate scores) QR.7! and Cron(ach *l ha J Correlate each item to overall score
$tandard Error o# /easurement J variations in measurement result in some error which is re orted $coring *greement J #or su(5ective tests or direct o(servations &check o# internal relia(ility) 6alidity and Relia(ility should (e addressed in all research &including 1ualitative) Cha ter C
2nternal 6alidity
&"he 26 really caused a change in the D6)
"hreats
$u(5ect characteristics'selection (ias J when su(5ects in study or in trmt'cont grou s di##er #rom each other &on age- gender- a(ility- etc) ,oss o# su(5'/ortality J must address 1uestion o# whether those dro ing out are di##erent than those not ,ocation'E% eriment varia(les J characteristics o# the school- classroom- etc. may (e inter#ere with the cause'e##ect relationshi &kee constant #or (oth grou s)
2nternal 6alidity
&"he 26 really caused a change in the D6)
"hreats &continued)
2nstrumentation J need constant a
2nstrument decay J when scoring varies due to #ati1ue Data collector characteristics &age- gender- etc.) in#luence results) 8 use same collector or
randomly assn Data collector (ias J unconscious or conscious distortion o# data &use single or dou(le (lind techni1ue)
L. "esting J retest sensiti4ation can occur or su(5ects can #igure out acce ta(le answers
2nternal 6alidity
&"he 26 really caused a change in the D6)
"hreats &continued)
History J an e%ternal occurrence that inter#eres with relationshi (etween 26 and D6 /aturation J changes in relationshi (etween 26 and D6 due to assage o#
time'growth o# su(5 *ttitudes o# $u(5ects J Hawthorne or guinea ig e##ects- novelty e##ects and demorali4ation may occur Regression &toward the mean) J ,ow scorers do (etter in su(se1uent tests: high scorers do worse 2m lementation J e% eriment di##ers #or grou s
2nternal 6alidity
&"he 26 really caused a change in the D6)
$tandardi4ed conditions Collect and re ort demogr characteristics o# su(5 2denti#y're ort details o# study $elect a design to minimi4e e##ects &true randomi4ed e% erimental designs are (est)
End 0art 7
Cha ter !H
E% erimental Research
/ost ower#ul design 9sed to esta(lish cause and e##ect (y mani ulating &in#luencing) an 26 &inde endent varia(le- aka treatment or e% erimental varia(le) to see its e##ect on a D6 &de endent varia(le &aka criterion or outcome varia(le) =oes (eyond descri tion and rediction Cha ter !H . Continued
E% erimental Research
&Characteristics o# E% erimental Research) Com arison o# grou s &at least two grou s o# su(5ects- called treatment and control grou s) /ani ulation o# the 26 &e% erimenter changes something #or the treatment grou that+s di##erent than the control grou ) Randomi4ation &true e% eriments re1uire random assignment into treatment'control conditions8 a#ter random selection o# su(5ects to artici ate in study)
*ssignment takes lace at start o# e% eriment Do not use already #ormed grou s =rou s should (e e1uivalent &any di##erences due to chance) Randomi4ation eliminates threats #rom extraneous variables =rou s must (e su##iciently large to (e e1uivalent
E% erimental Research
&Control o# E%traneous 6aria(les)
E% erimental Research
&=rou Designs)
Weak Designs
3ne grou e% osed to treatment then D6 is measured No controls E%am le; "ry new teaching method then see how students do on ost test
&3 R 3)
*dds a retest (ut no control grou Need control #or di## su(5 characteristics
E% erimental Research
&=rou Designs)
Randomi4ed $olomon ?.=rou Design com(ines the a(ove two &eliminates testing threat: ro(lem is num(er o# su(5ects needed) Random *ssignment w' /atching
/atch airs on #actors that in#luence D6 then randomly assign to treatment or control &su(5ects limited (y no match elimination) $tatistical matching can (e done using redicted scores
E% erimental Research
&=rou Designs)
/atching only J di##erent #rom random assignment w' matching &uses e%isting grou s)
/atch su(5ects in trmt and cntrl grou s on known e%traneous varia(les 2# ossi(le- use multi le grou s- and randomly assign them
Counter(alanced J Each grou e% osed to all the same treatments (ut in di##erent order "ime series J Re eated treatments and o(servations over a eriod o# time &(oth (e#ore and a#ter treatment) Factoral designs J /ulti le 26s or D6s investigated simultaneously &i.e. look #or interactions (etween 7 26s)
E% erimental Research
&Controlling "hreats to 2nternal 6alidity)
$ee "a(le !H.!- . 7@? #or advantage'disadv. o# each design "o evaluate the likelihood o# a threat to internal validity in e% eriments ask;
What are the known e%traneous #actorsK Do the grou s di##er on themK How were they controlledK $ee . 7@@.7@C 1uestions to evaluate u(lished article $ee evaluation o# selected article on . 7CF.7CC
Cha ter !L
Correlation Research
&0redicting 3utcomes "hrough *ssociation)
Descri tive in nature 3#ten a recursor to e% erimental research 0ositive correlation is Hi'Hi and ,o',o &coe##. Gr) Negative correlation is Hi',o and ,o'Hi &.r)
.Correlation
Research
&0redicting 3utcomes "hrough *ssociation) E% lanatory studies e%amine relationshi to identi#y ossi(le cause'e##ect
Relationshi might or /2=H" N3" mean causation For causation; !) * (e#ore B: 7) * and B related: H) Rule out other causes o# B &need e% eriment) $catter lots with regression line'e1uation redicts scores numerically "he stronger the correlation the (etter the rediction
0rediction studies identi#y redictors o# criterions &i.e. H$ =0* and College =0*)
Correlation Research
&0redicting 3utcomes "hrough *ssociation) Com le% Correlation "echni1ues- such as multi le regression allow use o# several redictors #or one criterion
Coe##icient o# multi le correlation &R) gives strength o# correlation (etween redictors and criterion Coe##icient o# determination &r7) is amount % and y vary together Descriminant #unction analysis is #or non.1uantitative criterion & redict which grou someone will (e in) 3ther techni1ues also used &#actor analysis- ath analysis- structural modeling)
Correlation Research
&$te s in the rocess) 0ro(lem selection J usually it+s are % and y related or how well does redict c $am le J random selection o# at least HF /easurement J need 1uantitative data Design'0rocedures J need two measures on each su(5ect Data collection J usually (oth measures close in time Data analysis J correlation coe##icient- r- and lot &r is .! to G!- and the closer to lus or minus !- the stronger the relationshi )
Correlation Research
&2nter reting Correlation Coe##icients)
=eneral guideslines;
G.ML to G!.F 6ery strong relationshi G.LF to G.ML /oderate strong relationshi G.7L to G.LF Weak relationshi G.FF to G.7L ,ow to no relationshi
Need .L or (etter #or rediction o# any use- and .IL #or accurate redictions Relia(ility coe##icients should (e .M u 6alidity coe##icients should (e .L u Cha ter !L . continued
Correlation Research
&"hreats to 2nternal 6alidity in Correlation Research) Remem(er correlation is not causation &lurking varia(les) $u(5ect characteristics J may get di##erent correl w' di##erent a(ility levels- gender- etc. &can control with artial correlation) ,ocation J testing conditions can im act results 2nstrumentation ro(lems J hel s to standardi4e instrument and data collection #or (oth grou s
"esting J retest inter#erence and sensiti4ation ossi(le /ortality J (e care#ul i# have large loss #rom one grou (eing tested
Correlation Research
&>uestions to ask to avoid threats to internal validity)
What #actors could a##ect the varia(les (eing studiedK Does any #actor a##ect B3"H varia(lesK &this is where threats occur) Figure a way to control any lurking varia(les
Cha ter !I
Determines cause &or e##ect) that has occurred and looks #or e##ect &or cause) #rom it
$tart w' di##erences in grou s and e%amine them E%am les; Di##erence in math a(ilities o# male'#emale stu
No random assignment to treatment &it already occurred) *ssociational like correlation (ut rimarily interested in cause'e##ect 26 either cannot ðnicity) or should not &smoking) (e mani ulated
3#ten an alternative to e% erimental &#aster and chea er) $erious limitation is lack o# control over threats to internal validity Need to remem(er the cause may (e the e##ect: they may only (e related and there is some other varia(le that is the cause &lurker)
Remem(er three canons o# causation
Both are associational &looking #or relationshi ) Both are o#ten relude to e% eriments Neither involves mani ulation o# varia(les CC works with di##erent grou s: correl e%amines one grou on di##erent varia(les Correlation is measured w' coe##icient while CC com ares means'medians' ercents o# grou mem(ers Cha ter !I . continued
Both com are grou scores o# some ty e 2n e% erimental the 26 is mani ulated- (ut not in CC &already took lace) CC does not rovide as strong evidence as e% erimental #or cause and e##ect Cha ter !I . continued
&$te s in CC Research) 0ro(lem #ormation J identi#y henomena and look #or causes or conse1uences o# it
$am le J de#ine &o erationally) characteristics o# study care#ully- then select individuals who ossess
=rou s should (e homogeneous in regard to several im ortant varia(les &to control #or them as causes) then match control'e% grou s on one or more varia(les &smoking study matched on !C varia(les)
2nstruments J use any ty e to com are the grou s Design J (asic CC involves 7 or more gr s that di##er on varia(le o# interest &(asic design is one grou ossesses trait &athlete) other doesn+t com are D6 &=0*)
$u(5ect characteristics J since don+t select su(5ects and #orm grou s- there may (e unidenti#ied lurking varia(les
Can use matching to control #or any identi#ied di##erences- (ut limits sam les si4e Can #ind or create homogeneous grou s &#or e%am le com are only high =0* students to other high =0* students) on attitudes toward % $tatistical matching J ad5usts osttest scores (ased on some initial di##erence
3ther threats J location- instrument- history- maturation- loss o# su(5ects can (e concerns
>uestions to ask
What #actors are known to a##ect the varia(le (eing studiedK What is the likelihood the com arison grou s di##er on these #actorsK How well did the design identi#y and control #or theseK
For e%am le consider su(5ect characteristics such as socioeconomic status- gender- ethnicity- 5o( skills: mortality rates in grou s: location &schools di##er): instrument &di##errent data collectors and' or (iases)
Data *nalysis in CC J o#ten com are means o# grou s: with 7 categorical use crossta(s &cross(reak ta(les) to com are ercents (y grou s "e%t gives e%am le study
Cha ter !M
$urvey Research
&9sed to descri(e what eo le think'do'(elieve)
"y es
Cross sectional rovide a sna shot in time ,ongitudinal collect data at di##erent oints in time to study changes over time
"rend study . random sam le each year on same to ic Cohort study . sam le #rom same cohort mem(ers year a#ter year 0anel study . same individuals surveyed year a#ter year &mortality a ro(lem over long time
eriods)
3#ten surveys are the data collection instrument in correlation &or cc'e% +l) studies Cha ter !M . Continued
$urvey Research
&$te s to conduct survey research)
$urvey Research
&$te s to conduct survey research)
$urvey Research
&$te s to conduct survey research)
$elect the sam le &randomly- (ut check to see res ondents are 1uali#ied to answer)
0ilot test can indicate likely res onse rate and ro(lems with data collection or sam le
$urvey Research
&$te s to conduct survey research)
3 en ended . easy to write- hard to analy4e and hard on res ondents $ee e%am les . ?FH
Cha ter !F
Descri tive statistics descri(e many scores with 5ust one or two indices &such as mean or median)
$am le o# a o is descri(ed w' indices called statistics Entire o is descri(ed w' indices called arameters >uantitative data J scales measure how much &test scores- amount o# money s ent- etc.
Fre1uency distri(utions or ta(les show the layout o# the data &see te%t e%am le . 7F!)
Fre1uency olygons J shows where most scores are and how s read out data are
0ay attention to sha e & ositive- negative skews) Normal curves J smoothed olygons J most scores in the center- #ewer in the tails J many
varia(les #ollow a normal sha e &height- weight- age- etc.) Normal curves are the #oundation #or in#erential statistics
/ode J most #re1uent score /edian J middle score &LFth ercent) /ean J takes into account all scores $ee e%am le . 7FL'7FI
Range &highest J lowest): a crude indicator o# s read $tandard deviation &average distance o# each oint #rom the mean)
$maller $D means less s read out- larger one means more s read out
standard deviation
*ll scores in normal distri(ution are e1ual to !FFT * 4.ta(le gives ercent o# scores #rom any score to the mean &* endi%- . *.?'L) "he ro(a(ility #or getting higher or lower than any given score can then (e calculated
".scores are o#ten used (ecause negative 4 scores awkward &all ".scores are ositive)
/ulti ly 4 times !F- then add LF & . 7!7 "a(le !F.!L) $tandard test scores o#ten given with ".scores and ercents a(ove'(elow the given score
9se it to look #or strength &scatteredness) 0ay attention to outliers & . 7!L'7!I e%am les)
0earson+s m &r) is #or linear data &.! to G!) Eta is #or curved data
Fre1uency ta(les
=ive ercents #or ease in inter reting
Cross(reak or crossta(ulations #or relationshi s &26 goes on the sidethen give row ercents) Bar charts and ie charts used
Bars #or ordered categories 0ies #or unordered categories
Cha ter !!
2n#erential $tatistics
2n#erences a(out a o ulation (ased on data #rom a sam le *nswers 1uestions a(out how likely a sam le is to re resent some arameter a(out a o ulation 2n#erential test used de ends on the level o# data &1uantitative or categorical) Cha ter !! . Continued
2n#erential $tatistics
&"he logic o# in#erential statistics)
$am les di##er #rom their arent o ulations &no two sam les are the same) Di##erence is called sam ling error ,arge collections o# random sam les o# at least HF #ollow a normal curve attern 2ts mean &mean o# means) is the mean o# the o ulation 2ts $D &$D o# means) is the standard error o# the mean &$E/)
2n#erential $tatistics
&"he logic o# in#erential statistics)
2t+s the $D o# the sam ling distri(ution $ince distri(ution is normal- then G!$E/ has I@T o# cases: G7$E/ has CLT: GH$E/ has CC.MT
3nce we can estimate the mean and $D o# the sam ling distri(ution can determine how likely it is that a articular sam le mean came #rom that o ulation i.e. /ean o# o D!FF- $DD!F and draw a sam le with a mean o# !!F- yes could (e #rom that o 8(ut i# draw a sam le with a mean o# !?F- most likely N3" #rom that o 8since is G?$E/ #rom the mean &almost 4ero ro(a(ility)
E% ress means as 4 scores: a 4 score move that 7$E/ is going to occur less than LT o# the time &7.LT each side)
2n#erential $tatistics
&"he logic o# in#erential statistics)
2t is estimated #rom the $D o# the sam le- ad5usted #or sam le si4e; $E/D$D'Un.!
2n#erential $tatistics
&"he logic o# in#erential statistics)
2n revious e%am le- the ro(a(ility o# the o ulation mean (eing outside the CLT C2 &o# @!.F@ to @@.C7) is LT
2n#erential $tatistics
&Hy othesis "esting)
"he null hy othesis is stated and tested THE NULL ALWAYS SAYS THE E !S NO ELAT!"NSH!# " $!%%E EN&E''' Cha ter !! . Continued
2n#erential $tatistics
&Hy othesis "esting)
2n#erential $tatistics
&Hy othesis "esting 0rocess) $tate the research hy othesis &Ha or Hr) $tate the null &HF) &Remem(er N3) 3(tain the sam le statistics &means- ro ortions- correlations) Determine the ro(a(ility o# getting the sam le results 5ust (y chance i# the null is true $mall ro(a(ility & E.FL) means re5ect null: there is a signi#icant di##erence &or correlation) in o . ,arge ro(a(ility & W.FL) means do not re5ect: there is no signi#icant di##erence &or correl) in o . Note; Just (ecause #inding is statistically signi#icant does not mean it is a ractical di##erence &given a large enough sam le most are signi#icant)
2n#erential $tatistics
&Hy othesis "esting)
2n#erential $tatistics
&2n#erence "echni1ues) 0arametric tests &#or 1uantitative 2'R data #rom normal distri(utions o# sam le si4e HFG)
t.tests com are means o# two grou s &can (e inde endent or correlated' aired sam les) *N36* tests com are means o# two or more grou s &use ost hoc) Correlations t.test &with com uters 5ust use signi#icance o# r) /ann Whitney 9 com ares ranks o# two grou s Qruskal Wallis 3neway *N36* com ares ranks o# two lus grou s Chi.s1uare test &com ares ro ortions)
Non arametric tests &#or categorical data and 2'R #rom non.normal o s or small sam les)
Cha ter !7
roaches to research
Either 7 or more grou s com ared 3R varia(les in ! grou studied *ND data are either categorical or 1uantitative
$catter lot and correl coe## J e%amine lot care#ully Beyond signi#icance ay attn to si4e o# r and es ecially to r.s1uared E%amine how sam le data collected 9se #re1 and ercent in cross(reak ta(les ,ook at summary stats care#ully and ay attn to sam le si4e
Relating varia(les within a grou with categorical data J use one sam le chi. s1uare
Reca
9se gra hics and num(ers 0ay attention to outliers 0ay attention to magnitude o# di##erences 9se in#erence tests #or generali4ing ur oses and e%amine sam ling 9se multi le techni1ues and C2s