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1(b) Weighted Average : A window of circular shape with the radius of dmax is drawn at a point to be interpolated, so as to involve six to eight surrounding observed points.
1(d) Kriging Similar to Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), Kriging uses the minimum variance method to calculate the weights rather than applying an arbitrary or less precise weighting scheme.
2. Interpolation by curve fitting: the principle of curve fitting respectively to interpolate the value at an unsampled point using surrounding sampled points.
2.1 Exact interpolation: a fitted curve passes through all given points. 2. 1(a). Nearest neighbor: the same value as that of the observation is given within the proximal distance
2. 1.(b) Linear interpolation: a piecewise linear function is applied between two adjacent points.
2.2 Approximate interpolation :a fitted curve does not always pass through all given points
2.2(a) Moving Average: a window with a range of -d to +d is set to average the observation within the region.
2.2 (b)Curve Fitting by Least Square Method: Least square method (sometimes called regression model) is a statistical approach to estimate an expected value or function with the highest probability from the observations with random errors. The highest probability is replaced by minimizing the sum of square of residuals in the least square method.
3. Interpolation by surface fitting: the principle of surface fitting respectively to interpolate the value at an unsampled point using surrounding sampled points.
Management assumes that customers patronize one store over another based on how far they have to travel. In this example, it is natural to assume that any single customer will always choose the closest store. The farther away from the closest store, the farther the customer will need to travel to that store. But shoppers farther away may also shop at other stores. Management wants to study the distribution of where the customers live. From the sales figures and the spatial distribution of the stores, management wants to create a surface of customers by intelligently spreading the customers out across the landscape. To accomplish this task, the Density tool considers where each store is in relation to other stores, the quantity of customers shopping at each store, and how many cells need to share a portion of the measured quantity (the shoppers). The cells nearer the measured points, the stores, receive higher proportions of the measured quantity than those farther away.
Overlay analysis is a group of methodologies applied in optimal site selection or suitability modeling. It is a technique for applying a common scale of values to diverse and dissimilar inputs to create an integrated analysis. Suitability models identify the best or most preferred locations for a specific phenomenon. Types of problems addressed by suitability analysis include:
Where to site a new housing development Which sites are better for deer habitat Where economic growth is most likely to occur Where the locations are that are most susceptible to mud slides
Overlay analysis often requires the analysis of many different factors. For instance, choosing the site for a new housing development means assessing such things as land cost, proximity to existing services, slope, and flood frequency. This information exists in different rasters with different value scales: dollars, distances, degrees, and so on. You cannot add a raster of land cost (dollars) to a raster of distance to utilities (meters) and obtain a meaningful result. Additionally, the factors in your analysis may not be equally important. It may be that the cost of land is more important in choosing a site than the distance to utility lines. How much more important is for you to decide.
Even within a single raster, you must prioritize values. Some values in a particular raster may be ideal for your purposes (for example, slopes of 0 to 5 degrees), while others may be good, others bad, and still others unacceptable. The following lists the general steps to perform overlay analysis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Define the problem. Break the problem into submodels. Determine significant layers. Reclassify or transform the data within a layer. Weight the input layers. Add or combine the layers. Analyze.
Steps 13 are common steps for nearly all spatial problem solving and are particularly important in overlay analysis.
4. Weight
Certain factors may be more important to the overall goal than others. If this is the case, before the factors are combined, the factors can be weighted based on their importance. For example, in the building submodel for siting the ski resort, the slope criteria may be twice as important to the cost of construction as the distance from a road. Therefore, before combining the two layers, the slope criteria should be multiplied twice as much as distance to roads.
6. Add/Combine
In overlay analysis, it is desirable to establish the relationship of all the input factors together to identify the desirable locations that meet the goals of the model. For example, the input layers, once weighted appropriately, can be added together in an additive weighted overlay model. In this combination approach, it is assumed that the more favorable the factors, the more desirable the location will be. Thus, the higher the value on the resulting output raster, the more desirable the location will be. Other combining approaches can be applied. For example, in a fuzzy logic overlay analysis, the combination approaches explore the possibility of membership of a location to multiple sets.
7. Analyze
The final step in the modeling process is for you to analyze the results. Do the potential ideal locations sensibly meet the criteria? It may be beneficial not only to explore the best locations identified by the model but to also investigate the second and third most favorable sites. The identified locations should be visited. You need to validate what you think is there is actually there. Things could have changed since the data for the model was created. For example, views may be one of the input criteria to the model; the better the view, the more preferred the location will be. From the input elevation data, the model identified the locations with the best views; however, when one of the favorable sites is visited, it is discovered that a building has been constructed in front of the location, obstructing the view. Taking the input from all of the steps above, a location is selected.
As with all overlay analysis, in weighted overlay analysis, you must define the problem, break the model into submodels, and identify the input layers. Since the input criteria layers will be in different numbering systems with different ranges, to combine them in a single analysis, each cell for each criterion must be reclassified into a common preference scale such as 1 to 10, with 10 being the most favorable. An assigned preference on the common scale implies the phenomenon's preference for the criterion. The preference values are on a relative scale. That is, a preference of 10 is twice as preferred as a preference of 5.
Each surface tool provides insight into a surface that can be used as an end in itself or as input into additional analysis. Tool Description Derives aspect from a raster surface. The aspect identifies the downslope Aspect direction of the maximum rate of change in value from each cell to its neighbors. Contour Creates a line feature class of contours (isolines) from a raster surface. Contour List Creates a feature class of selected contour values from a raster surface. Contour with Creates contours from a raster surface. The inclusion of barrier features will Barriers allow one to independently generate contours on either side of a barrier. Calculates the curvature of a raster surface, optionally including profile and plan Curvature curvature. Calculates the volume change between two surfaces. This is typically used for Cut Fill cut and fill operations. Creates a shaded relief from a surface raster by considering the illumination Hillshade source angle and shadows. Observer Identifies which observer points are visible from each raster surface location. Points Identifies the slope (gradient, or rate of maximum change in z-value) from each Slope cell of a raster surface. Viewshed Determines the raster surface locations visible to a set of observer features.
1.
Network Elements Links - Conduits for movement Intersections - Link joins Stops - Sources/sinks where resources can enter or exit the Centers - node locations which may receive or provide resources. Attributes for total amount of resource supplied to or taken from a center, e.g., total water capacity for a reservoir Barriers - nodes which prevent flow through links, or links with Impedance - a resistance to flow through a link. Impedance infinite impedance may be directionally network
Impedanc e = 5 min/mile
Impedanc e = 10 min/mile
Preparing a Network
Step 1: Prepare a network coverage, Step 2: edit the coverage to represent network elements and update its topology Step 3: attribute with link impedances Step 4: generate attribute based on input attributes Step 5: display results
Network Applications
1. Shortest / Critical Path Analysis Paths, flow, tours 2. Allocation Supply, impedance 3. Location-Allocation supply and demand, objective function
At each step the algorithm chooses the shortest path from a list of candidate paths and places the node of the shortest path in the solution list
Route
Network Analyst can find the best way to get from one location to another or to visit several locations. The locations can be specified interactively by placing points on the screen, entering an address, or using points in an existing feature class or feature layer. If you have more than two stops to visit, the best route can be determined for the order of locations as specified by the user. Alternatively, ArcGIS Network Analyst can determine the best sequence to visit the locations.
In the next case, distance is chosen as the impedance. Consequently, the length of the shortest path is 4.4 miles, which takes 9 minutes to traverse.
Along with the best route, Network Analyst provides directions with turn-by-turn maps that can be printed.
Closest facility
Finding the closest hospital to an accident, the closest police cars to a crime scene, and the closest store to a customer's address are all examples of closest facility problems. When finding closest facilities, you can specify how many to find and whether the direction of travel is toward or away from them. Once you've found the closest facilities, you can display the best route to or from them, return the travel cost for each route, and display directions to each facility. Additionally, you can specify an impedance cutoff beyond which Network Analyst should not search for a facility. For instance, you can set up a closest facility problem to search for hospitals within 15 minutes' drive time of the site of an accident. Any hospitals that take longer than 15 minutes to reach will not be included in the results.
The hospitals are referred to as facilities, and the accident is referred to as an incident. Network Analyst allows you to perform multiple closest facility analyses simultaneously. This means you can have multiple incidents and find the closest facility or facilities to each incident.
Service areas
With Network Analyst, you can find service areas around any location on a network. A network service area is a region that encompasses all accessible streets, that is, streets that lie within a
specified impedance. For instance, the 10-minute service area for a facility includes all the streets that can be reached within 10 minutes from that facility.
What is accessibility?
Accessibility refers to how easy it is to go to a site. In ArcGIS Network Analyst, accessibility can be measured in terms of travel time, distance, or any other impedance on the network. Evaluating accessibility helps answer basic questions, such as, How many people live within a 10-minute drive from a movie theater? or How many customers live within a half-kilometer walking distance from a convenience store? Examining accessibility can help you determine how suitable a site is for a new business. It can also help you identify what is near an existing business to help you make other marketing decisions.
Evaluating accessibility
One simple way to evaluate accessibility is by a buffer distance around a point. For example, find out how many customers live within a 5-kilometer radius of a site using a simple circle. However, considering people travel by road, this method won't reflect the actual accessibility to the site. Service networks computed by ArcGIS Network Analyst can overcome this limitation by identifying the accessible streets within five kilometers of a site via the road network. Once created, you can use service networks to see what is alongside the accessible streets, for example, find competing businesses within a 5-minute drive.
Multiple concentric service areas show how accessibility changes with an increase in impedance. It can be used, for example, to show how many hospitals are within 5-, 10-, and 15-minute drive times of schools.
V.
Location-allocation
Location-allocation helps you choose which facilities from a set of facilities to operate based on their potential interaction with demand points. It can help you answer questions like the following:
Given a set of existing fire stations, which site for a new fire station would provide the
If a retail company has to downsize, which stores should it close to maintain the most
overall demand?
In these examples, facilities would represent the fire stations, retail stores, and factories; demand points would represent buildings, customers, and distribution centers. The objective may be to minimize the overall distance between demand points and facilities, maximize the number of demand points covered within a certain distance of facilities, maximize an apportioned amount of demand that decays with increasing distance from a facility, or maximize the amount of demand captured in an environment of friendly and competing facilities. The map below shows the results of a location-allocation analysis meant to determine which fire stations are redundant. The following information was provided to the solver: an array of fire stations (facilities), street midpoints (demand points), and a maximum allowable response time. The response time is the time it takes firefighters to reach a given location. The locationallocation solver determined that the fire department can close several fire stations and still maintain a three-minute response time.
How close is this well to a landfill? Do any roads pass within 1,000 meters of a stream? What is the distance between two locations? What is the nearest or farthest feature from something? What is the distance between each feature in a layer and the features in another layer? What is the shortest street network route from some location to another?
The Proximity toolset contains tools that are used to determine the proximity of features within one or more feature classes or between two feature classes. These tools can identify features that are closest to one another or calculate the distances between or around them.
This operation Creates buffer polygons around input features to a specified distance. An optional dissolve can be performed to combine overlapping buffers.
BUFFER OPERATIONS
Tools Buffer
Description Creates buffer polygons around input features to a specified distance. An optional dissolve can be performed to combine overlapping buffers.
Create Thiessen
Creates Thiessen polygons from point input features. Each Thiessen polygon contains only a single point input feature. Any location within
Polygons
a Thiessen polygon is closer to its associated point than to any other point input feature.
Multiple Buffer
Ring Creates multiple buffers at specified distances around the input features. These buffers can optionally be merged and dissolved using the buffer distance values to create non-overlapping buffers.
Determines the distances from each feature in the input features to one or more nearby features in the near features, within the search radius. The results are recorded in the output table.
Near
Determines the distance from each feature in the input features to the nearest feature in the near features, within the search radius.
Point Distance Determines the distances from input point features to all points in the near features within a specified search radius.
Buffers can be used to select features in another feature class, or they can be combined with other features using an overlay tool, to find parts of features that fall in the buffer areas. Below is an example of buffered points overlaid with polygon features:
The Near tool calculates the distance from each point in one feature class to the nearest point or line feature in another feature class. You might use Near to find the closest stream for a set of wildlife observations or the closest bus stops to a set of tourist destinations. The Near tool will also add the Feature Identifier and, optionally, coordinates of and the angle toward the nearest feature. Below is an example showing points near river features. The points are symbolized using graduated colors based on distance to a river, and they're labeled with the distance.
Point Distance calculates the distance from each point in one feature class to all the points within a given search radius in another feature class. This table can be used for statistical analyses, or it can be joined to one of the feature classes to show the distance to points in the other feature class. You can use the Point Distance tool to look at proximity relationships between two sets of things. For example, you might compare the distances between one set of points representing several types of businesses (such as theaters, fast food restaurants, engineering firms, and hardware stores) and another set of points representing the locations of community problems (litter, broken windows, spray-paint graffiti), limiting the search to one mile to look for local relationships. You could join the resulting table to the business and problem attribute tables and calculate summary statistics for the distances between types of business and problems. You
might find a stronger correlation for some pairs than for others and use your results to target the placement of public trash cans or police patrols. You might also use Point Distance to find the distance and direction to all the water wells within a given distance of a test well where you identified a contaminant. Below is an example of point distance analysis. Each point in one feature class is given the ID, distance, and direction to the nearest point in another feature class.
Below is the Point Distance table, joined to one set of points and used to select the points that are closest to point 55.
Both Near and Point Distance return the distance information as numeric attributes in the input point feature attribute table for Near and in a stand-alone table that contains the Feature IDs of the Input and Near features for Point Distance. Create Thiessen Polygons creates polygon features that divide the available space and allocate it to the nearest point feature. The result is similar to the Euclidean Allocation tool for rasters. Thiessen polygons are sometimes used instead of interpolation to generalize a set of sample measurements to the areas closest to them. Thiessen polygons are sometimes also known as
Proximal polygons. They can be thought of as modeling the catchment area for the points, as the area inside any given polygon is closer to that polygon's point than any other. Below is an example of Thiessen polygons for a set of points.
You might use Thiessen polygons to generalize measurements from a set of climate instruments to the areas around them or to quickly model the service areas for a set of stores.
Cost distance
In contrast with the Euclidean distance tools, cost distance tools take into account that distance can also be measured in cost (for example, energy expenditure, difficulty, or hazard) and that travel cost can vary with terrain, ground cover, or other factors. Given a set of points, you could divide the area between them with the Euclidean allocation tools so that each zone of the output would contain all the areas closest to a given point. However, if the cost to travel between the points varied according to some characteristic of the area between them, then a given location might be closer, in terms of travel cost, to a different point.
Below is an example of using the Cost Allocation tool, where travel cost increases with landcover type. The dark areas could represent difficult-to-traverse swamps, and the light areas could represent more easily traversed grassland.
This is in some respects a more complicated way of dealing with distance than using straight lines, but it is very useful for modeling movement across a surface that is not uniform. Below is an example that contrasts the surface length of a line feature in rough terrain with its planimetric length.
Proximity tools
Summary
Converts a raster to a triangulated irregular network (TIN) dataset.